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Infants, Children, and Adolescents Eighth Edition Chapter 1 History, Theory, and Research Strategies Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (1 of 3) • • • • • 1. What is the field of child development, and what factors stimulated its expansion? 2. How is child development typically divided into domains and periods? 3. What theories influenced child development research in the mid-twentieth century? 4. Describe recent theoretical perspectives on child development. 5. Identify the stand taken by each major theory on the basic issues of child development. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Domains of Development Domain Changes in Physical • • • • Cognition Emotional and Social Body size & proportions, appearance Functioning of body systems, health Perceptual & motor capacities Intellectual abilities • Emotional communication • Self-understanding, knowledge about others • Interpersonal skills & relationships • Moral reasoning & behavior Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Periods of Development Prenatal Infancy and Toddlerhood Early Childhood Middle Childhood Adolescence Emerging Adulthood Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Conception to birth Birth to 2 years 2 to 6 years 6 to 11 years 11 to 18 years 18 to mid- to late 20s Theory An orderly, integrated set of statements that • describes behavior. • explains behavior. • predicts behavior. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Basic Issues in Development 1. Continuous or discontinuous? 2. One course of development or many possible courses? 3. Relative influence of nature and nurture? Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Continuous or Discontinuous Development Figure 1.2 Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Nature and Nurture Nature • Inborn, biological • Based on genetic inheritance Nurture • Physical and social world • Influences biological and psychological development Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Stability vs. Plasticity? Stability • Individuals high or low in a characteristic remain so at later ages. • Early experience may have a lifelong impact. Plasticity • Change is possible, based on experiences. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Resilient Children • Personal characteristics • A warm parental relationship • Social support outside the immediate family • Community resources and opportunities Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Historical Views of Childhood Medieval Era 16th Century 17th Century 18th Century Childhood (to age 7 or 8) regarded as separate phase with special needs, protections Puritan “child depravity” views John Locke “tabula rasa” view; continuous development Jean-Jacques Rousseau “noble savages” view; natural maturation Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Early Scientific Study of Development Evolutionary Darwin’s ideas of natural selection Theory and survival of the fittest are still influential. Normative Hall & Gesell: Age-related Approach averages based on measurements of large numbers of children Mental Binet & Simon: Early developers of Testing intelligence tests Movement Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality Id Ego • • • • • • Superego • • • Largest portion of the mind Unconscious, present at birth Source of biological needs & desires Conscious, rational part of personality Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses acceptably The conscience Develops from ages 3 to 6, from interactions with caregivers Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Basic trust v. mistrust Birth–1 year Autonomy v. shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt Industry v. inferiority Identity v. role confusion 1–3 years 3–6 years 6–11 years Adolescence Intimacy v. isolation Generativity v. stagnation Integrity v. despair Emerging adulthood Adulthood Old age Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Behaviorism & Social Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Social-Cognitive Approach Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Stimulus–Response Reinforcers and punishments Modeling Self-efficacy Social Learning Theory Modeling or Observational Learning Cognition Personal Standards A baby claps her hands after her mother does; a teenager dresses like her friends. Stressed today; socialcognitive approach Children begin to believe their own abilities will help them succeed. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Limitations of Behaviorism and Social Social Learning Theory • Too narrow a view of important environmental influences • Underestimates children’s contributions • Bandura’s work is unique in that it grants children an active role in their own learning. Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Stage Sensorimotor Period of Development Birth–2 years Preoperational 2–7 years Concrete operational 7–11 years Formal operational 11 years on Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Description • Infants “think” by acting on the world. • As a result, they invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems. • Preschoolers use symbols, develop language and make-believe play. • Thinking still lacks the logic of later stages. • Reasoning becomes logical and betterorganized. • Thinking is not yet abstract. • Abstract thinking enables use of hypotheses, inferences. • Adolescents no longer rely on realworld circumstances for logic problems. Information Processing • Human mind as symbol-manipulating system • Researchers often design flowcharts to map problem-solving steps Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Information Processing Figure 1.3 (Based on Thornton, 1999) Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Psychology Medicine Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience Neuroscience Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Biology Developmental Neuroscience Uses: • Identify links between cognitive and social domains of development • Develop interventions for learning and behavioral problems Limitations: • Too dependent on brain properties; neglects environmental influences • Excessive emphasis on biological processes Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Ecological Systems Theory Figure 1.4 Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Dynamic Systems Perspective Figure 1.5 (Based on Fischer & Bidell, 2006) Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Comparing Child Development Theories Continuous or Discontinuous? Discontinuous Theory Psychoanalytic perspective Behaviorism and Continuous social learning theory Piaget’s cognitive- Discontinuous developmental theory Information Continuous processing Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved One Course of Development or Many? One course Many possible courses Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? Both nature and nurture Emphasis on nurture One course Both nature and nurture One course Both nature and nurture Comparing Child Development Theories Theory Ethology and evolutionary development psychology Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory Ecological systems theory Dynamic systems perspective Continuous or Discontinuous? Both continuous and discontinuous One Course of Development or Many? One course Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? Both nature and nurture Both continuous Many possible and discontinuous courses Both nature and nurture Not specified Both nature and nurture Both nature and nurture Many possible courses Both continuous Many possible and discontinuous courses Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Correlation Coefficients • Magnitude: Strength as indicated by a number between 0 and 1 – Closer to 1 (positive or negative) is a stronger relationship • Direction: Indicated by the sign (+ or –) – Positive: As one variable increases, so does the other – Negative: As one variable increases, the other decreases Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved Correlation Coefficients Figure 1.6 Copyright © 2016 Laura E. Berk. All Rights Reserved