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SYMBOLIC INTERACTION
 The contact hypothesis suggests that contact between people from divergent
groups should lead to favorable attitudes and behavior when a specific set of
criteria is met.
 members of the groups must have equal status
 members must be pursuing the same goals
 members must cooperate to achieve these goals
 members must receive positive feedback for nondiscriminatory interaction
 When people encounter someone who does not fit existing stereotypes, that
person may be seen as an exception or they may be ignored.
 When people encounter someone who does fit the stereotype, they may not be
treated as individuals.
FUNCTIONALIST
 Assimilation is a process by which members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups become absorbed into
the dominant culture. Assimiliation is functional because it contributes to the stability of society by minimizing
group differences that might otherwise result in hostility and violence
 Cultural assimilation occurs when members of an ethnic group adopt dominant group traits, such as
language, dress, values, religion, and food preferences.
 This is sometimes termed acculturation
 In the US, assimilation initially followed the "Anglo conformity" model forced assimiliation, Native
American boarding schools
 Structural assimilation, or integration, occurs when subordinate group members gain acceptance in
interaction with dominant group members.
 Biological assimilation, or amalgamation, occurs via intermarriage.
 Psychological assimilation involves a change in racial or ethnic self-identification on the part of an
individual.
 Ethnic pluralism is the coexistence of a variety of distinct racial and ethnic groups within one society.
 Equalitarian pluralism, or accommodation, involves coexistence in equality.
 Inequalitarian pluralism, or segregation, exists when ethnic groups are set apart from the dominant group
and have unequal access to power and privilege.
 Segregation is the spatial and social separation of categories of people by race, ethnicity, class, gender,
and/or religion.
 De jure segregation exists by law. Jim Crow laws in the south (illegal today)
 De facto segregation exists by custom more difficult to document and thus combat. In some areas of
the US owners, landlords, real estate agents and apartment managers often use informal mechanisms
to keep their properties white only.
CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE
 The caste perspective views racial and ethnic inequality as a permanent feature of U.S. society.
 This system was strengthened by antimiscegenation laws, which prohibited intercourse or
marriage between persons of different races.
 These laws, found in most states, were not declared unconstitutional until 1967.
 Class perspectives emphasize the role of the capitalist class in racial exploitation.
 Sociologists have debated the relative importance of class and race in explaining exploitation
 Internal colonialism occurs when members of a racial or ethnic group are conquered or colonized,
and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group.
 Examples of this in the US include Native Americans now living on reservations and the poverty of
Mexican Americans who lost their lands
 Split labor market refers to the division of the economy into two areas of employment: a primary
sector composed of higher paid (usually dominant group) workers in more secure jobs, and a
secondary sector comprised of lower paid (often subordinate group) workers in jobs with little security
and frequently hazardous working conditions.
 Gendered racism refers to the interactive effect of racism and sexism in the exploitation of women of
color.
 The theory of racial formation states that actions of the government substantially define racial and
ethnic relations in the United States.
NATIVE AMERICANS
 It is believed that Native
Americans migrated to North
America from Asia thousands of
years ago.
 Historically, Native Americans
experienced the following kinds
of treatment in the United
States:
 Genocide
 Forced migration
 Forced assimilation
DEFINITION OF AMERICAN INDIAN OR
ALASKA NATIVE USED IN THE 2010
CENSUS
According to OMB, “American Indian or
Alaska Native” refers to a person
having origins in any of the original
peoples of North and South America
(including Central America) and who
maintains tribal affiliation or
community attachment.
The American Indian and Alaska Native
population includes people who
marked the “American Indian or
Alaska Native” checkbox or reported
entries such as Navajo, Blackfeet,
Inupiat, Yup’ik, or Central American
Indian groups or South American
Indian groups.
WHITE ANGLO SAXON PROTESTANTS/BRITISH
AMERICANS
 Although many English settlers
initially were indentured
servants or sent here as
prisoners, they quickly emerged
as the dominant group, creating
a core culture to which all other
groups were expected to adapt.
 Like other racial and ethnic
groups, British Americans are
not all alike; social class and
gender affect their life chances
and opportunities.
DEFINITION OF WHITE USED IN THE
2010 CENSUS
According to OMB, “White” refers to a
person having origins in any of the
original peoples of Europe, the
Middle East, or North Africa.
The White racial category includes
people who marked the “White”
checkbox. It also includes
respondents who reported entries
such as Caucasian or White;
European entries, such as Irish,
German, and Polish; Middle
Eastern entries, such as Arab,
Lebanese, and Palestinian; and
North African entries, such as
Algerian, Moroccan, and Egyptian.
AFRICAN AMERICANS OR BLACK
 There is lack of consensus
regarding the appropriate term
to use to refer to the 38.9
million black residents of the
United States, with some people
preferring the term black while
others prefer the term African
American.
 African Americans likely first
arrived in North America with
Spanish conquerors in the
fifteenth century, but by 1660
full-fledged slavery and not
indentured servitude was the
norm.
DEFINITION OF BLACK OR AFRICAN AMERICAN
USED IN THE 2010 CENSUS
According to OMB, “Black or African American”
refers to a person having origins in any of the
Black racial groups of Africa.
The Black racial category includes people who
marked the “Black, African Am., or Negro”
checkbox. It also includes respondents who
reported entries such as African American; SubSaharan African entries, such as Kenyan and
Nigerian; and Afro-Caribbean entries, such as
Haitian and Jamaican.*
*Sub-Saharan African entries are classified as
Black or African American with the exception of
Sudanese and Cape Verdean because of their
complex, historical heritage. North African
entries are classified as White, as OMB defines
White as a person having origins in any of the
original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or
North Africa.
ASIAN AMERICANS
 Asian Americans
 The U.S. Census uses the term
Asian Americans to designate
many diverse groups from Asia,
including persons with origins in
China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam,
Cambodia, Pakistan, Indonesia,
and other nations.
 Asian Americans are the fastestgrowing ethnic minority in the
U.S.
DEFINITION OF ASIAN USED IN THE 2010
CENSUS
According to OMB, “Asian” refers to a person
having origins in any of the original peoples of
the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian
subcontinent, including, for example, Cambodia,
China, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan,
the Philippine Islands, Thailand, and Vietnam.
The Asian population includes people who
indicated their race(s) as “Asian” or reported
entries such as “Asian Indian,” “Chinese,”
“Filipino,” “Korean,” “Japanese,” and
“Vietnamese” or provided other detailed Asian
responses.
LATINO (A) OR HISPANIC AMERICANS
 Latino/as (Hispanic Americans)
 Latino (for males) or Latina (for
females) is used
interchangeably with the term
Hispanic to refer to people who
trace their origins to Spanishspeaking Latin America and the
Iberian peninsula. About 50.5
million people in the U.S.
population is Latino.
Definition of Hispanic or Latino
Origin Used in the 2010 Census
“Hispanic or Latino” refers to a
person of Cuban, Mexican,
Puerto Rican, South or Central
American, or other Spanish
culture or origin regardless of
race.