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Communication Planning
Why communication is critical to projects
• The majority of projects fail to deliver what was
required within the constraints that were set.
• Most of the various causes of project failure can be
attributed to communication difficulties.
• Project Managers should spend between 75 and
90% of their time in communication activities
(PMBOK 2000).
• By being aware of and mastering the techniques in
the following slides, project managers and team
members will be able to be more effective
communicators.
A Communications Model
Communication is a complex process. To better understand this it is helpful to
break this down into components. A communications model derived from the
telecommunications industry provides a useful representation of communications.
Receiver
Source
Encoder
Message
Channel
Decoder
The Six Components of the
Communications Model
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Source: the originator of the message.
Encoder: the translator of the source’s thoughts into a format
that can be transferred to the receiver.
Message: the product of the encoder, what is transferred to
the receiver.
Channel: the medium used to transfer the message from
source to receiver.
Receiver: the recipient of the message.
Decoder: the translator of the received
message into meaningful content.
Example of the Communications Model
Consider the scenario:Mary wants to meet Jane for lunch on Tuesday,
and sends an email…
• Source: Mary
• Encoder: The processing that takes Mary’s thought and converts that to
words and then into the pressing of keys on the computer keyboard
• Message: The text of the email sent “Jane, can you meet me for lunch on
Tuesday? Regards, Mary.”
• Channel: The email system
• Receiver: Jane
• Decoder: Jane’s conversion of symbols seen on her
computer screen into an understanding that Mary
wants to know if Jane can meet her for lunch on
Tuesday
The main channels of communication
• Written: reports, notes, memos, letters, emails, faxes.
Written communication allows the recipient to reply in
their own time.
• Verbal: face to face, phone. Verbal communication
provides the opportunity to immediately deliver the
message and obtain a response.
• Non-verbal: it has been estimated that over 60% of our
face to face communication is non-verbal. Factors include
our appearance, posture,
gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice,
eye contact end physical contact.
Examples of communication types
•One-on-one meetings
• Personal letters
•Workshops
• Memos
•Small group meetings
• Posters
•Presentations
• Newsletters
•Ceremonies
• Articles in the press
•Surveys
•Voicemail
•Electronic mail
•Teleconferences
•Videotapes
•Audiotapes
•“Corridor” or “kitchen”
conversations
• Annual reports
• Announcements
• Brochures
• Bulletin boards
• Suggestion cards
• The “rumour mill”
What is filtering?
Filtering is altering the interpretation of the message by applying
certain influences or biases.
The receiver will filter the message according to their experience
and as a result the interpretation of the message can be very
different from what was intended.
The consequence of filtering is that there can be misunderstanding
which can lead to an unexpected response.
For example, the project manager may ask a team member if the
document has been completed. The team member may interpret
this as asking whether it has been written, and not whether it has
also been reviewed and signed off.
Causes of Filtering
Some of the common areas that cause filtering are:
• Language: the receiver interprets the message based on their translation
of the language to thoughts and ideas.
• Culture: of the recipient and their understanding of the culture of the
environment they are in (the workplace, the organisation, the industry, the
local area and country).
• Semantics: the receiver interprets the message based on their
understanding of the meaning of the words used.
• Knowledge base: the receiver utilises a different knowledge base on
which to interpret the message.
• Implication: the interpretation of the message may be based on
assumptions. An extreme example of implication is sarcasm, where the
opposite of what is meant to be interpreted is said
Causes of Filtering
• Ethics: the ethical values of the receiver and the sender can
influence the interpretation of the message. For example the
sender may consider honesty less important than upsetting people
when reporting what happened.
• Reputation: The reputation of the sender may set a predisposition
on the receiver on interpretation. For example the sender may be
reputed to exaggerate.
• Organisational status: the role and position that the sender and
receiver have in the organisation may influence interpretation of the
message.
• Emotional factors: the emotional loading of the words used may
differ significantly. For example the interpretation of a comment
such as “it’s a mess”.
• Situational factors: the current mindset of the receiver.
For example they may be distracted by some personal
issue.
Addressing filtering
Project managers and business analysts need to be aware of how
filtering can affect communication and appreciate that just because
a message has been sent does not mean it has been received and
interpreted as expected.
To avoid problems caused by filtering it is recommended that the
sender of the message check that the message was understood
correctly by asking questions, or asking the receiver to verify their
understanding of the message.
Barriers to Communication
Barriers to communication are obstacles that restrict communication.
Some common types of barriers are:
• Playing power games: where communication is politically
motivated.
• Withholding information: for example a cover-up of an error or
omission.
• Management by memo: instructions via memo rather than face to
face.
• Absence of communication channels: some recipients may not
have access to the channel of communication that was assumed
by the sender. For example email may be unavailable when out of
the workplace.
• Spatial separation: geographical separation can
influence the extent and quality of communication
Barriers to communication
• Emotional sensitivity: for example the receiver may be particularly
sensitive to criticism.
• Hidden agendas: where the person may be influencing for an
undisclosed reason.
• Background noise: the level of background noise can impede effective
communication. The large number of emails now being sent is one type
of background noise that impedes its use as an effective communication
tool.
• Prejudices: personal prejudices and beliefs about types of people can
impact the effectiveness of communication.
Dealing with the barriers
Project managers and business analysts need to break down the
barriers so that effective communication can occur.
One of the simplest methods of achieving this is to ask the person if
the barrier exists? For example, ask: Is there something affecting this
that I am not aware of? Is location a problem in communication on
this project? Is this the best method for us to communicate on this?
By asking questions the barrier can be recognised, and in many cases
removed or made less restrictive.
At the project level a communications plan can be developed and the
strategies put in place to avoid or address anticipated barriers.
Approach to Communications
Considering the potential for filtering and barriers to communication a project
manager should consider the following in each communication they make:
Message
Method
Timing
Communicator
What information does this individual/group need
to receive?
What is the best mechanism for communicating
with this individual/group?
When and how often should the communication
occur?
Who will be responsible for creating and delivering
this communication?
Conveying messages effectively
• Be clear and concise
• Avoid using jargon
• Don’t brain dump - summarise
• Explain first and finish with instructions of what
you want the receiver to do and by when
• Don’t waffle - stick to the point
• Don’t confuse several messages in one - keep it
simple
• If stating what to do and not to do finish with the
do statement
Listening
Listening is a key component of communicating.
A distinction is made between hearing and listening.
True listening involves understanding.
Good listening skills are of major importance in managing projects.
The project manager needs to hear and understand the needs of the
sponsor, team and stakeholders to be able to produce the best results for
the project in the most effective way.
Business analysts need to listen very carefully
when gathering requirements to ensure they
are captured correctly.
Listening is not waiting to speak
Listening techniques
Some techniques to improve listening skills are:
• Develop an appreciation of why we need to listen
better.
• Do less talking and stop internally preparing the
next thing to say while the other person is talking.
• Show you are listening – pay attention to the
speaker, make supportive sounds and gestures.
• Ask yourself if you have really understood what
has been said.
• Paraphrase back what they have said or take notes
(depending on the context).
Listening techniques (cont.)…
Additional ways of improving listening:
• Openness: be open in your communication style, show interest and
curiosity.
• Focus: ignore distractions.
• Empathy: show an understanding of their situation, thoughts and
feelings.
• Positive intentions: maintain a positive mindset to what you hear, avoid
reacting negatively or criticising.
• Problem solving orientation: keep the focus on how to resolve or help the
situation rather than on blame. Manage your emotional response and avoid
confrontation.
Communications planning
The project manager needs to develop a communications plan for the project to
ensure effective communication during the life of the project.
The communications plan identifies all regular communications and key one-off
communications such as the kick-off meeting and post implementation review.
The plan needs to include all types of communications, including:
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face to face: such as meetings and workshops
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written: such as status reports and newsletters
How it starts
• Here is a typical communication scenario of a day
in the life of a project:
1. A stakeholder requests an unexpected report.
2. A team member who is familiar with the data or
has the skills to run a particular tool generates
the report.
3. If the person who requested the report wants to
receive it every week, the team member who
created it will update it weekly and continue to
send it indefinitely.
What happened?
• There was no planning
• You just added a reporting requirement to the
project
• What seems trivial can snowball
• Expectations are not properly set
What should have been asked
• What information does the report provide?
• What are you trying to achieve with this
information?
• Who needs this report and how will they use it?
• How often is the information needed?
• How quickly do you need the report developed?
• Do you have the budget to develop this report?
• Is there an existing report that includes similar
information?
Up Front
• Usually the PM provides project status to
stakeholders
• Most of the time, though, status is status quo
• What do the stakeholders really want to
know?
• Just ask them
Communicating is hard
• Getting everyone together to plan can be
difficult
• Many people assume that ‘communicating’ is
a natural trait
• Time isn’t allocated for communication
• Not everyone is a good communicator
How can we avoid issues?
• Hold in-person, face-to-face meetings with
stakeholders on a regular basis
• Deliver reports with cadence so that everyone
knows what to expect
• No surprises at meetings – send out agendas
and topics a few days in advance
• Follow up the next day to make sure everyone
understands what is happening
How it starts to unravel
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Too many status reports
Too many emails
Too many meetings
Too much micromanagement
Not enough time
Multitasking
Communications plan
Guidelines
Sample meeting
Sample report
Title
Identify each communication
Kick-of meeting
Project status report
Type
Classify by type
Workshop
Written
Objective
State the purpose of the
communication.
Set the scene of the
project
Inform stakeholders of
progress, performance,
risk, issues and changes
Frequency
State how often the
communication occurs
One-off
Monthly
Who is responsible for
ensuring this communication
happens
Project sponsor
Project manager
List each recipient or
participant
All stakeholders…
Mary Jones, Bill
Smith….
Steering committee, major
stakeholders… Dave Lee,
Janet Smith…
Owner
Recipient or
participant
Meetings
• Much of the communicating we do is done
in meetings
• Sometimes it seems that all we do is sit in
meetings
• Most organizations don’t hold effective
meetings
• There are a few simple things that you can
do to help focus participants
Conducting meetings
There are three stages to conducting meetings:
• planning the meeting
• running the meeting
• after the meeting
Planning the meeting
Guidelines to planning effective meetings:
• determine the outcomes that are wanted from the meeting
• identify who needs to attend
• prepare an agenda to satisfy the outcomes
• ensure all the agenda items can be realistically covered in the
allotted time for the meeting
• book the meeting room
• notify the participants of the meeting
(why, where, when, how long, agenda)
Running the meeting
Guidelines to running effective meetings:
• arrive early and make sure the meeting room is set up
• start on time, do not wait for late arrivals as it encourages lateness
• identify a chairperson to coordinate the meeting
• identify someone to take minutes
• state the purpose of the meeting at the start
• Review the agenda, get agreement and then stick to the agenda
• allocate time on each agenda item and do not run over time for each
item
• avoid getting bogged down in too much detail or in side issues.
• If more information or a solution needs to be worked
through make this an action item to be addressed
prior to the next meeting.
Running the meeting (cont.)…
Guidelines to running effective meetings:
• chairperson must control the meeting and not let individuals
dominate
• record minutes
• identify action items, assign to one owner and specify when to
be actioned by
• finish on time
• if some agenda items are not covered agree to reconvene
• If it is a regular meeting, or a follow up meeting is required,
state when the next meeting will be
After the meeting
• tidy the meeting room so it is left as you found it (clean
whiteboards, remove papers, cups etc)
• file a record of the meeting (minutes and action items) in
the project folder and add actions to the project action
items log
• distribute minutes and action items to all participants of
the meeting.
• follow up with people assigned action
items near to the “action by” date.
Effective meetings
• Know ahead of time what the likely outcome
of any decisions will be
• Be brutal about time
• Consider not holding status meetings
• Many small meetings are usually more
effective than one big one
• Remove all chairs from the meeting room
• Avoid booking ‘standard’ meeting lengths
RAP sessions
• RAP is an abbreviation for Rapid Planning.
• RAP is collaborative planning for a project.
• the common principle of RAP is to engage the stakeholders of
the project in the activities of the planning phase to gain their
contribution and commitment to the project plan.
Source: Rob Thomsett, Radical Project Management, Yourdon Press, 2002.
Why hold a RAP session?
A RAP session:
• increases the involvement of stakeholders in the project plan.
• gains input to the plan from a greater audience than traditional project
planning.
• may reduce the time taken to develop the project plan.
• may increase the overall effort taken to produce the project plan (because
of the number of people involved)
• improves communication
• facilitates team building
• develops team commitment to the project plan
• ensures the key players in the project are
on the same page
Main principles of RAP
A RAP session is:
• Participative: all attendees are encouraged to contribute to
the session
• Facilitative: format is interactive rather than formal and
prescriptive
• Proactive: style is creative (similar to brainstorming)
• Open and trusting: information is shared, individual views
are respected
When to hold RAP sessions
Type of meetings where a RAP session is useful:
• project kick-off meetings
• determining requirements
• determining costs and benefits
• work breakdown sessions
• estimating sessions
• resourcing and scheduling sessions
Guidelines for holding a RAP session
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A RAP session is a meeting, and as such should follow the basic
guidelines for meetings
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RAP sessions are normally longer sessions (2-4 hours) than meetings (1
hour)
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In identifying the agenda for the RAP session ensure this can be
achieved within the time allowed for the session
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RAP sessions involve more discussion and development of ideas rather
than meetings where action items are used to reduce the discussion
time
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Can be held over a series of days if
necessary
Early stage communication
• Several documents are created prior to the
formal project plan, such as
• Project proposal
• Options that were considered
• Benefits that are hoped to be realized
• High-level risks
• High-level costs & schedule
• Cost/benefit analysis
Feasibility Study
• A general estimate used to determine
whether a particular project should be
pursued.
• This often includes prototyping
• In RUP this is part of the inception phase
• This can be run as a mini project
Business Goals & Objectives
• Need to understand:
– Goals (the need for the project and the
measurable benefits)
– Scope
– Time to complete
– Estimates of timeline, resource requirements and
costs
SMART goals
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S – Specific
M – Measurable
A – Assignable
R – Realistic
T – Time related
Statement of Work (SOW)
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Purpose statement
Scope statement
Project deliverables
Goals & objectives
Deliverables and NON deliverables
Cost and schedule estimates
Stakeholders
Chain of command
Benefits and risks
Assumptions and constraints
Communication plan
Risk analysis
• Identifies sources of risk
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Funding
Time
Staffing
Customer relations
Project size and/or complexity
Overall structure
Organizational resistance
External factors
Risk Analysis
• Probability
• Impact
• Overall exposure = probability X impact
Risk Plan
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Accept
Avoid
Mitigation
Contingency with trigger
Transfer
Risk Track and Control
• Risk log
– Review and update regularly
– Assign ownership to risk
Constraints
• Real-world limits
• Typical constraints:
– Budget
– Schedule
– People
– Real world
– Facilities and equipment
PMI Process Groups
Initiating
Planning
Executing
Controlling
Closing
PMI Framework Document
Purpose of Initiation Process
• To commit the organization to a project or phase
• To set the overall solution direction
• To define top-level project objectives
• To secure the necessary approvals and resources
• To validate alignment with overall business objectives
• To assign a project manager
PMI Framework Document
Initiating Core Process—Initiation
Input
1. Project description
2. Strategic plan
3. Project selection criteria
4. Historical information
Process
“Initiation is the process of
formally recognizing that a new
project exists or that an existing
project should continue into its
next phase.”
Output
1. Project proposal
2. Project manager identified/
assigned
Tools and Techniques
1. Project selection methods
2. Expert judgment
PMI Framework Document
Managing Expectations
• Projects are:
– Limited in scope, resources, time, and money
– Intended to end
– Focused on a limited set of goals
• Manage Expectations towards what you
can truly commit to;not what everyone
thinks is great
• Solving the business problem; not
creating a great piece of software
How to manage expectations
• Communication
• Involvement of all parties
• Focus on strategic goals of the organization
• Understanding limitations & truly prioritizing
• And by the way … communication
Project Proposal
Creating communication among project
stakeholders to achieve consensus
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Project Proposal Content
Scope definition
Project objectives and benefits
Project deliverables
Acceptance criteria for project
Assumptions
Constraints
Role definition and key staff
High level schedule, budget
Acceptance
Benefits of the Project Proposal
• Trade-offs between objectives and scope can be
negotiated.
• Level of involvement of the key stakeholders can be
negotiated.
• Availability of key personnel can be negotiated.
• Risks inherent in the schedule can be reviewed.
• The relationship between risk management and
contingency management can be discussed.
More Proposal Benefits
• Acceptance criteria for the project can be agreed to
by key stakeholders.
• Establishes a basic Project Plan
• Confirm how the project links to the business need
• Identify management responsibilities
• Make strategic procurement decisions, e.g., make,
buy, or identify qualified vendors
Results of Initiation Process
• Acceptance of Project proposal
• Project manager identified
• The real communication begins!
Sources
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PMBOK
Thiery, Program Management
Thommsett, Radical Project Management
Dow & Taylor, Project Communications Bible