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Textile Fibers and Yarns
Objectives
• List the main characteristics of natural and
manufactured fabrics.
• Explain how fibers are manufactured.
• Summarize the role of leather and fur as
primary materials in fashion.
• Describe new fiber innovations.
• Explain how fibers are made into yarns.
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Raw Materials
• Creating fashion goods begins with attention
to their raw materials
– Fibers have unique properties that influence
appearance, strength, absorbency, warmth,
shrinkage, and price
• Fibers can be divided into two groups
– natural fibers
– manufactured fibers, also called synthetic fibers
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Natural Fibers
• Natural fibers come from natural sources,
such as plants and animals
• Cellulosic fibers come from plants
– Examples: cotton and linen
• Protein fibers come from animal sources
– Example: wool and silk
• The quality of natural fibers can vary
continued
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Natural Fibers
• Staple fibers are short (less than 8 inches)
– Longer lengths of staple fibers are considered to
be better quality than short lengths
• Long, continuous fibers are called filaments
(measured in yards or meters)
– Silk is the only natural filament fiber
• Most natural fibers are comfortable, easy to
dye, and prone to wrinkling and shrinking
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Cotton
• Cotton is
– a cellulosic fiber that comes from the “bolls”
(seed pods) of cotton plants
– the most popular fiber in the global market
– soft, durable, and very comfortable to wear
• New finishing treatments have reduced the
fiber’s tendency to shrink when washed and
wrinkle
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Fashion Insights
• “Environmentally friendly” cotton is
grown in a range of colors
– This eliminates the toxic waste and expense
of chemical processing and dyeing
– The cotton has a luxurious feel and does
not fade with washing and drying
– Its fibers are shorter and weaker than
fibers of conventional white cotton
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Wool
• Wool is a protein fiber from the hair (fleece)
of sheep or lambs
– Worsted yarns are yarns with long staple wool
fibers (more than 2 inches in length)
– Shorter wool fibers are used in less expensive
woolen fabrics
• Wool is a versatile fiber with many end uses
– Examples of apparel: sweaters, coats, suits
– Other examples: blankets, rugs, upholstery
continued
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Wool
• The terms pure wool, virgin wool, and 100%
wool are interchangeable
– They indicate new fibers that have never been
used
– New wool is softer, stronger, and more resilient
than recycled wool
• Recycled wool fibers are recovered from
previously made wool fabrics
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Silk
• Silk is a protein fiber from cocoons spun by
silkworms
– Workers soak them in warm water and unwind
the long, natural filament fibers
• Silk is
– known for its beauty, strength, and luster as well
as it high cost of production, limited durability,
and special-care needs
– imported mainly from China, Japan, and Thailand
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Flax (Linen)
• Flax is
– the world’s oldest textile fiber
– a stiff, absorbent cellulosic fiber made from the
stem of the flax plant
– mainly imported from Europe
• Fabric made from flax fiber, called linen,
– is known for its beauty and strength
– has a tendency to crease and wrinkle
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Other Natural Fibers
• Ramie—a cellulosic fiber from the stalks of a
woody, leafed plant called China grass
• Jute, sisal, raffia, and hemp—other natural
cellulosic fibers from plants
• Camel hair, angora, mohair, cashmere, llama,
vicuña, and alpaca—protein “specialty hair
fibers”
• Down—a fluffy feather undercoating of geese
and ducks
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Industry Facts
• No marketing efforts were made for natural
fibers until manufactured fibers started to
compete with them in the mid-1900s
• This caused natural fiber producers to work
together to provide products with more
desirable characteristics
– The result is blends and finishes that give
natural fibers wrinkle resistance and easier care
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Marketing Natural Fibers
• Natural fiber trade associations promote the
favorable characteristics of their fibers
– Cotton Incorporated is a marketing and research
organization
– National Cotton Council of America is the central
organization of the cotton industry
• Almost all fiber trade associations provide
fabric libraries that contain sample fabrics
continued
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Marketing Natural Fibers
• Silk and linen do not currently have
marketing organizations in the United States
• Other marketing organizations include
– American Sheep Industry Association
– International Wool Textile Organization
– Mohair Council of America
– Alpaca United
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Leather and Fur
• Leather and fur are from the hides or pelts
(skins) of animals
– Though worn since before recorded history, their
use is controversial today
– Artificial substitutes have been developed to copy
their look and feel
• Real leather and fur are quite expensive
since supply is limited and processing is
complicated
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Leather
• Leather is a tough, flexible material made by
preserving animal hides
– Tanning converts the hides into finished leather
– Tanned hides come in pieces of various sizes
– Hides are a by-product of the meat-packing
industry
• The supply of leather in this country depends
on the demand for meat rather than leather
continued
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Leather
• Cattlehide is the most dominant leather used
in apparel.
• Reptile skins are also used in fashion
products
• New leather finishes, textures, and colors
result from specialized machinery and
innovative tanning methods
• Top grain leather is the high quality “genuine
leather” used in most consumer products
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Marketing of Leather
• Because of long processing time, fashion
trends for leather must be decided 2 years or
more in advance
• Advertising is done by product designers and
manufacturers, not tanners and finishers
• The primary trade association for leather
tanners is the Leather Industries of America
continued
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Marketing of Leather
• Tanners introduce their leathers in several
different trade shows each year
– which attract garment manufacturers, equipment
suppliers, and retailers
• The Leather Association disseminates
consumers information including
– how to care for leather goods
– the latest leather fashion trends
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Fur
• Fur is the soft, hairy coat of an animal
– Processed fur pelts are used for “prestige” apparel
and accessories
• The fur industry includes animal pelt
producers, fur processors, and product
manufacturers
– Most are small companies with highly skilled
workers
continued
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Fur
• Fur processors “dress” the pelts to make
them soft, flexible, and more suitable for use
in consumer products
• Product manufacturers make them into
finished coats, jackets, garment trimmings,
and accessories
• The U.S. is known for producing top quality
furs, many of which go to foreign markets
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Marketing of Fur
• Pelt producers, fur processors, and product
manufacturers work together to promote fur
products through trade associations
• Fur Age is the main trade journal for fur
industry businesses
• furs.com, its sister company, is an online
consumer magazine
continued
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Marketing of Fur
• Fur garment sales occur through showrooms
of furriers or leased departments within stores
– With consignment selling, the retailer accepts
merchandise to sell, but does not own it
– Concerned consumers prefer “faux” (artificial) furs
• The Fur Information Council of America was
formed to combat anti-fur activity and project
a positive image of the fur industry
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Manufactured Fibers
• Manufactured fibers are created in
laboratories
• Cellulosic manufactured fibers are made from
plant sources such as wood pulp plus
chemicals that “regenerate” the cellulose
• Noncellulosic manufactured fibers
(“synthetic” fibers) are made from
petrochemical mixtures of crude oil, natural
gas, air, and water
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Steps to Manufacture Fibers
• Solid raw materials are melted with heat or
dissolved by chemicals to form a thick liquid
• The liquid is forced through a spinneret,
which is a nozzle with many tiny holes
• Each hole forms a filament fiber
• The filaments are stretched and hardened to
become usable fibers
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Categories of Manufactured
Fibers
• Manufactured fibers are categorized by
generic groups
– A generic name identifies each family of
manufactured fiber with similar chemical
composition
• Most generic groups contain variants
– Each variant is a manufactured fiber modified
slightly during production
– Variants are given trade (or brand) names
continued
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Categories of Manufactured
Fibers
• The trade name or trademark and the fibermaking process are registered with the U.S.
Patent Office
– These cost more than commodity fibers
• Commodity fibers, sold by generic groups,
are not identified with a specific maker
– They have no quality assurance and are
imported from foreign countries
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Fashion Insights
• Manufactured fibers have some qualities
that are unique or superior to those of
natural fibers, such as strength or elasticity
• Some manufactured fibers feel clammy
when worn because they do not absorb
moisture
• Nonabsorbent fibers also build static
electricity that causes them to “spark”
and cling to the wearer
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Characteristics of Manufactured
Fibers
• It is important for people interested in
fashion merchandising to know the
advantages, disadvantages, and typical uses
of each group
– Polyester is the largest selling manufactured fiber
– Olefin has excellent wicking ability
• Wicking is the dispersing or spreading of
moisture, such as pulling body moisture to
the fabric’s surface where it can evaporate
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Industry Facts
• The United States is the world’s leading
innovator and producer of manufactured
fibers
– Innovation is the creative, forward-thinking
introduction of new ideas
• Fiber chemists link molecules of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen into long
chains of compounds called polymers
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Fiber Innovation
• The polymers are engineered in the lab to
meet specific needs, such as flame resistance
• Limited quantities of a new or modified
manufactured fiber are usually first produced
in a pilot plant on an experimental basis
– This small-scale trial production uses commercial
methods to make enough fiber to check its
behavior in fabrics and end uses
continued
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Fiber Innovation
• Strong competition to create new variants
exists among manufactured fiber producers
– New trademarks appear continually, replacing old
ones that are discontinued
• Manufactured fiber producers help fabric
companies with new yarn ideas and with
evaluating consumer reaction to the fabrics
made from their new fibers
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
The Latest Fiber Trends
• Lyocell is a fairly new generic group
– It is a cellulosic manufactured fiber that is
environmentally friendly
• Other new fibers are being developed from
annually renewable resources, such as corn
and soybeans
• Rayon is being made from bamboo, which
grows fast
continued
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
The Latest Fiber Trends
• A recycling process can turn plastic soft drink
bottles into “earth friendly” fibers for apparel
• Microfibers (microdenier fibers) are popular
– Denier is the term used to describe fiber
thickness or diameter
– Microdeniers are ultra-fine, being less than one
denier per filament (about half the thickness of
fine silk)
continued
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Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
The Latest Fiber Trends
• The addition of spandex fiber to make
stretchable fabrics is another trend
• Nanotechnology is the altering of materials
atom by atom at the molecular level
– This control of tiny measurements is playing a
greater role in developing new fiber properties
• People must be educated about how to use
and care for each new fiber innovation
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Marketing Manufactured Fibers
• For popularity in the market, manufactured
fibers compete with each other as well as
with natural fibers
• Producers sell new fibers to fabric
manufacturers as unbranded commodities or
as brand-name fibers
– Trademarked variants assure consumers that the
quality of the fiber has been controlled
continued
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Marketing Manufactured Fibers
• Chemical companies that produce fibers
maintain a steady flow of advertising and
publicity to trade and consumer markets
– Often cooperative advertising is done to
share costs, such as by a manufacturer and a
retailer
• The American Fiber Manufacturers
Association, Inc. promotes the use of
manufactured fibers
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Spinning Fibers into Yarns
• Yarn production follows fiber production
• The process of spinning draws, twists, and
winds fibers into long, cohesive strands
– Monofilament yarns are simply single filaments,
usually of a high denier
– Multifilament yarns are made by twisting together
many single filaments to make a thicker strand
continued
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Spinning Fibers into Yarns
• Staple fibers go through a mechanical
spinning process that forms a continuous
strand
• Ply yarns are formed by twisting together
two or more single yarns
– Each yarn strand is called a ply
• Staple fibers are sometimes left unspun for
filling pillows or comforters
– This is called fiberfill
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Yarn Blends and Textures
• Yarn characteristics can be changed by
varying the fiber content
– A blend is made when two or more fibers are put
together before being spun into yarn
– Different percentages of fibers in blends produce
specific results
• Combination yarns contain two or more yarn
plys, each of different fibers
continued
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Yarn Blends and Textures
• Another form of combination yarn might mix
yarns of various fiber compositions or twist
levels
• Yarns of manufactured fibers are usually
textured by processing with chemicals,
heat, or special machinery
– Texturing gives bulk, stretch, softness, and
wrinkle-resistance to yarns
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Marketing Yarn
• The National Council of Textile Organizations
has four separate councils representing the
fiber, fabric, supplier, and yarn industries
• This organization
– deals with trade laws, customs regulations,
packaging, labeling, and product standards
– collects economic data to anticipate trends
– holds seminars and workshops for members
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
Fashion Insights
• Raw materials play a vital role in the
design, uses, and care qualities of
finished fabrics
• The two types of natural fibers are
– cellulosic fibers from plants
– protein fibers from animals sources
• Leather and fur are also raw materials
used in fashion products
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.
In Summary
• Manufactured fibers are either cellulosic
or noncellulosic
• Fiber innovation is achieved by
engineering the long chains of chemical
compounds called polymers
• The spinning process twists fibers into
monofilament, multifilament, or spun
yarns
© Goodheart-Willcox Co., Inc.
Permission granted to reproduce for educational use only.