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Chapter 38 Challenges to the Postwar Order 1973–1980 Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. • FOCUS QUESTIONS • 1. What were the causes of economic stagnation during the 1970s? • 2. How did Nixon’s policy of détente develop under the administrations of Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter? Did détente help or hurt relations with China and the Soviet Union? • 3. How did the Vietnam conflict end? • 4. What was Watergate and how did the episode tarnish the office of the presidency? • 5. What were the major challenges faced by the Carter administration, both foreign and domestic? Learning Objectives (Part 1) • Analyze the scandals and challenges that undermined Nixon's presidency, and summarize their impact on national politics • Outline the drawing-down of American involvement in Vietnam Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Learning Objectives (Part 2) • Describe the major social issues animating the American domestic agenda in the 1970s • Considering both domestic and international events, summarize the legacy of the Carter administration Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. • CHAPTER THEMES • Theme: As the war in Vietnam finally came to a disastrous conclusion, the United States struggled to create a more stable international climate. Détente with the two communist powers temporarily reduced Cold War tensions, but trouble in the Middle East threatened America’s energy supplies and economic stability. • Theme: Weakened by political difficulties of their own and others’ making, the administrations of the 1970s had trouble coping with America’s growing economic problems. The public also had trouble facing up to a sharp sense of limits and a general disillusionment with society. With the notable exception of the successful feminist movement, the social reform efforts of the 1960s fractured and stalled, as the country settled into a frustrating and politically divisive stalemate. • CHAPTER SUMMARY • Nonelected Gerald Ford took over after Watergate forced Nixon to resign. The Communist Vietnamese finally overran the South Vietnamese government in 1975. The defeat in Vietnam added to a general sense of disillusionment with society and a new sense of limits on American power. The civil rights movement fractured, and divisive issues of busing and affirmative action enhanced racial tensions. The most successful social movement was feminism, which achieved widespread social breakthroughs though failing to pass the Equal Rights Amendment. • Campaigning against Washington and Watergate, outsider Jimmy Carter proved unable to master Congress or the economy once he took office. The Camp David agreement brought peace between Egypt and Israel, but the Iranian revolution led to new energy troubles. The invasion of Afghanistan and the holding of American hostages in Iran added to Carter’s woes. Over-arching Themes of CH-38 • America’s post-war economic prosperity began to take a sharp slide downward. • The economy began to slow. This was mostly due to increased oil prices and resulting inflation. Generally speaking, during the seventies, gas prices tripled and inflation reached double digits by 1980. • Nixon was brought down by the Watergate Scandal. The scandal involved a break-in and mic bugging at the Democratic headquarters. Nixon got into trouble for “obstructing justice” and telling people to keep quiet about it. Over-arching Themes of CH-38 • Jimmy Carter was elected as a Washington outsider. He struggled as president with (a) the economy which took a nose-dive and (b) foreign affairs as he was unable to deal with U.S. hostages taken in Iran. • Though times were certainly not bad, mixed with the Watergate scandal, it was a decade without tremendous progress. Chronology (Part 1) WHEN EVENT 1972 1973 1973–1974 Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Nixon defeats McGovern for presidency Equal Rights Amendment passes Congress (not ratified by states) Title IX of Education Amendments passed Treaty of Paris enacts ceasefire in Vietnam and U.S. withdrawal Agnew resigns; Ford appointed vice president Frontiero v. Richardson Roe v. Wade Watergate hearings and investigations Chronology (Part 2) WHEN 1974 1975 1976 1978 Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. EVENT Nixon resigns; Ford assumes presidency Milliken v. Bradley Helsinki accords South Vietnam falls to communists Carter defeats Ford for presidency Camp David accords between Egypt and Israel United States v. Wheeler Chronology (Part 3) WHEN 1979 1979–1981 1980 Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. EVENT Iranian revolution and oil crisis SALT II agreements signed (never ratified by Senate) Soviet Union invades Afghanistan Iranian hostage crisis United States boycotts Summer Olympics in Moscow Watergate and the Unmaking of a President (Part 1) Nixon’s electoral triumph in 1972 Undone by the Watergate scandal June 17, 1972: Five men arrested inside the Watergate office complex; men attempted to plant electronic “bugs” in the Democratic party’s headquarters They worked for the Republican Committee to Re-Elect the President—CREEP Incident was one in a series of Nixon administration “dirty tricks” Moral stench hung over the White House Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Watergate and the Unmaking of a President (Part 2) October 1973: Vice President Spiro Agnew forced to resign for taking bribes Nixon nominated Gerald (“Jerry”) Ford A Senate committee conducted hearings about the Watergate affair in 1973–1974 Aide revealed a secret taping system recorded Nixon’s Oval Office conversations Nixon would provide only “relevant” portions of the tapes July 24, 1974: Supreme Court ruled “executive privilege” gave no right to withhold evidence Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Watergate and the Unmaking of a President (Part 3) June 23, 1972: The “smoking gun” tape Nixon was an active party to the cover-up House Judiciary Committee drew up articles of impeachment Republican leaders informed Nixon that his impeachment was a foregone conclusion and best to resign August 8, 1974: Nixon resigned The principles that no person is above the law and that presidents must be held to strict accountability for their acts were strengthened Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Nixon, the “Law-and-Order-Man” On July 24, 1974, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that “executive privilege” gave him no right to withhold evidence relevant to possible criminal activity. Skating on thin ice over hot water, Nixon reluctantly complied. Sources of Stagnation (Part 1) Economic boom petering out Median income stagnated Much mystery attended the productivity slowdown Vietnam War drained tax dollars from needed improvements; touched off inflation Rising oil prices in the 1970s also fed inflation Deficit spending in the 1960s occurred without a tax increase Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Sources of Stagnation (Part 2) Prices increased throughout the 1970s Cost of living tripled American businesses had small incentive to modernize plants and seek more efficient methods of production Germans and Japanese built wholly new factories with the most up-to-date technology and management techniques Japanese-made Toyota a harbinger of global economic competition Japanese came to dominate industries like steel, automobiles, and consumer electronics Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Great Hopes for World Peace with the United Nations, 1947 The achievements of the new international regime were dramatic. International trade doubled in the 1950s and again in the 1960s. By century’s end, the volume of global commerce was ten times larger than in 1950. Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FeclXZWD5xo Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The First Unelected President (Part 1) Gerald Rudolph Ford He was the first man to be made president solely by a vote of Congress He was widely—and unfairly—suspected of being little more than a dim-witted former college football player Ford had been selected, not elected, vice president following Spiro Agnew’s disgrace Out of a clear sky, Ford granted a complete pardon to Nixon Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The First Unelected President (Part 2) Ford sought to enhance détente In July 1975, President Ford joined leaders from thirty-four nations in Helsinki, Finland The Helsinki accords Western Europeans cheered the conference a milestone of détente Critics in the U.S. charged that détente was a one-way street American grain and technology flowed to the USSR; little flowed back Fury over Moscow’s double-dealing steadily grew Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Defeat in Vietnam 1975: North Vietnamese drive southward South Vietnamese quickly collapsed Remaining Americans evacuated by helicopter, last of them on April 29, 1975 Also rescued were South Vietnamese dangerously identified with the Americans In a technical sense, the Americans had not lost the war; their client nation had Americans’ power as well as pride had been deeply wounded in Vietnam Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Preserving the Past A Vietnamese American boy learns classical calligraphy from his grandfather. Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Feminist Victories and Defeats (Part 1) American feminist movement showed vitality and momentum 1970: Women’s Stride for Equality 1972: Title IX of the Education Amendments Prohibited sex discrimination in any federally assisted educational program Helped professionalize women’s sports Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the Constitution Won congressional approval in 1972 Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Feminist Victories and Defeats (Part 2) Supreme Court challenged sex discrimination in legislation and employment In Roe v. Wade (1973), the Court struck down laws prohibiting abortion A woman’s decision to terminate a pregnancy protected by the constitutional right of privacy Court’s ruling soon faced a formidable backlash Powerful grassroots movement opposed the legalization of abortion Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Feminist Victories and Defeats (Part 3) Death of the ERA Antifeminists led by conservative activist Phyllis Schlafly She believed the amendment would threaten the basic family structure of American society Her STOP ERA movement was successful The ERA died in 1982, three states short Politics and policy only part of feminism The women’s movement an undeniably transformative force in the 1970s Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Marching for Women’s Rights, 1977 A multiethnic and multiracial group of women, accompanied by noted “second-wave” feminists Bella Abzug (in hat) and Betty Friedan (far right), helped to carry a torch from Seneca Falls, New York, to Houston, Texas, site of the National Women’s Conference. Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The Seventies in Black and White (Part 1) Civil rights movement had fractured Supreme Court in Milliken v. Bradley Ruled that desegregation plans could not require students to move across school-district lines Exempted suburban districts from desegregating inner-city schools Affirmative action programs controversial “Reverse discrimination”: Racial or ethnic background outweighed ability and achievement In 1978, the Supreme Court upheld the claim of one white Californian, Allan Bakke Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The Seventies in Black and White (Part 2) Native Americans in the 1970s Power through using the courts and wellplanned acts of civil disobedience Indians used tactics of the civil rights movement to assert their status as separate semi-sovereign peoples 1978: United States v. Wheeler Supreme Court declared that Indian tribes possessed a “unique and limited” sovereignty, subject to the will of Congress but not to individual states Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The Bicentennial Campaign (Part 1) Ford sought the Republican nomination Ford defeated challenger Ronald Reagan Reagan propelled by a conservative movement known as the “New Right” The New Right emphasized hot-button cultural issues as well as a nationalist foreign-policy Organization grew more powerful over the next four years Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TmSO9pMWQjA Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The Bicentennial Campaign (Part 2) James Earl (“Jimmy”) Carter, Jr. Carter was a dark-horse candidate with down-home sincerity Carter ran against the memory of Nixon and Watergate as much as he ran against Ford He squeezed out a narrow victory Carter’s honeymoon did not last long An inexperienced outsider; never quite made the transition to being an insider himself Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Carter’s Humanitarian Diplomacy (Part 1) Carter's concern for “human rights” the guiding principle of his foreign policy 1978: Carter persuaded Egypt and Israel to sign a preliminary accord Pledge to sign a peace treaty within three months 1979: Carter resumed full diplomatic relations with China President Carter concluded two treaties turning over the Panama Canal to the Panamanians Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Carter’s Humanitarian Diplomacy (Part 2) Trouble stalked Carter’s foreign policy Cold War with the Soviet Union reheated Détente fell into disrepute Cuba deployed thousands of troops Arms-control negotiations with Moscow stalled Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Economic and Energy Woes (Part 1) Failing health of the economy Inflation rate was above 13 percent by 1980 Imported oil plunged America’s balance of payments into the red Americans could never again consider a policy of economic isolation Some 27 percent of GNP depended on foreign trade in the globalizing economy Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Economic and Energy Woes (Part 2) Deficits in the budget aggravated inflation “Prime rate” was 20 percent in early 1980 High cost of borrowing money shoved small businesses to the wall and strangled the construction industry Carter believed nation’s economic problems due to dependence on foreign oil April 1977: Proposals for energy conservation Shah of Iran overthrown in January 1979 Iranian oil supplies stopped flowing Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Economic and Energy Woes (Part 3) Carter sensed popular discontent July 1979: Carter called in leaders from all walks of life to give him their views July 15, 1979: His malaise speech chided his fellow citizens for falling into a “moral and spiritual crisis” and for being too concerned with “material goods” Critics wondered if Carter lost touch with the popular mood of the country Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The Turn Toward the Market (Part 1) Powerful conservative challenge Emphasis shifted to the free market and the dangers of “big government” “Neoconservatives” spearheaded this conservative revival; they championed freemarket capitalism liberated from government restraints They called for traditional values at home and tough anti-Soviet positions in foreign policy Nobel Prize-winning economist Milton Friedman argued for the superiority of free markets Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. An Apostle for Capitalism Milton Friedman receives the cash award that accompanied his Nobel Prize in economics in 1976. Friedman won the Nobel at just the point in the 1970s that the free-market outlook he espoused began to gain new prominence in the broader political culture. Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The Turn Toward the Market (Part 2) Conservative action Political action committees mushroomed from 89 in 1974 to 1,024 in 1980 Companies with registered lobbyists up from 175 in 1971 to nearly 2,500 in 1982 Critics blamed stagflation on government regulation Contributed to deregulatory movement in transportation, communications, and banking Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. The Turn Toward the Market (Part 3) Carter also supported deregulation and the liberation of market forces The turn toward the market attracted bipartisan support Antigovernment politics centered on taxes A “tax revolt” in California and other states in 1978 snowballed into a tax-cutting agenda nationwide Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio (Part 1) Hopes for a less dangerous world June 1979: President Carter met with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to sign the SALT II (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks II) Summer 1979: Treaty came to Senate for debate November 4, 1979: Anti-American militants stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took all of its occupants hostage December 27, 1979: Soviet army blitzed into Afghanistan Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio (Part 2) President Carter slapped an embargo He called for a boycott of the upcoming Olympic Games in Moscow Carter requested a possible military draft U.S. would “use any means necessary, including force,” to protect the Persian Gulf SALT II treaty was dead in the Senate Soviet army met stiff resistance in Afghanistan Became “Russia’s Vietnam” Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio (Part 3) Iranian hostage crisis Carter applied economic sanctions and pressure of world opinion against the Iranians Carter ordered a rescue mission; the mission had to be scrapped Failed rescue underscored the nation’s helplessness and even incompetence The stalemate with Iran dragged on throughout the rest of Carter’s term Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. Foreign Affairs and the Iranian Imbroglio (Part 4) Much lasting change had taken place in a brief period Long postwar boom and broadly shared prosperity were gone More fitful and less equitable spurts of growth Economic inequality and political polarization grew Tolerance and inclusion broadened for racial and ethnic minorities, immigrants, gays and lesbians, and women Copyright © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.