Download Making a "New" World, to 1588

CHAPTER 1
Making a “New” World, to 1588
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you read and analyze this chapter, you should be able to:
1.
Describe the evolution and achievements of Native American cultures from their beginnings to the
eve of Columbus’s discovery of America.
2.
Explain why Europeans turned to overseas expansion and how they dealt with the many obstacles
that stood in their way.
3.
Describe how the meeting of American Indians, Europeans, and Africans in the aftermath of
Christopher Columbus’s discovery of the Western hemisphere affected and changed each.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I.
A World of Change
A. American Origins
1. While upheaval was shaping the western portion of the Western Hemisphere, erosion
was the sculptor in the East.
2. Human evolution has proceeded against a backdrop of the great Ice Ages.
a) Recent archaeological finds and isolated discoveries, such as the Kenniwick Man,
suggest that many different groups of migrating people may have arrived and
either coexisted or succeeded each other over this 60,000-year period.
b) The majority of North America’s original residents are descended from three
separate migrating groups: Paleo-Indians, the Na-Dene people, and the Eskimos.
c) A warming trend 9,000 years ago led American Indians to shift from game
hunting to other forms of existence.
3. Maize (corn), along with other engineered plants like beans, squash, and chilies,
formed the basis for an agricultural revolution in North America, allowing many
people to settle in villages for longer periods.
a) Successful adaptation and population growth led some North American Indians
to build large, ornate cities.
B. Change and Restlessness in the Atlantic World
1. During the few centuries following Mohammed’s death in 632, Muslim Arabs, Turks,
and Moors made major inroads into western Asia and northern Africa, eventually
encroaching on Europe’s southern and eastern frontiers.
2. The Vikings explored Europe’s eastern and western regions and sailed westward, first
sighting North America in 986.
3. The arrival of the Vikings in the Western Hemisphere may have influenced the balance
of power among Native American groups.
4. European interest in global exploration and trade developed long before Columbus’s
voyage in 1492.
a) The Crusades gave Europeans knowledge of international conditions and greater
commercial skills.
b) The emergence of unified nation-states contributed to European expansion.
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
c)
II.
In Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella achieved national unification by marrying in
1469 and by continuing the struggle against the Moslem presence until their
complete expulsion in 1492.
d) France achieved unification under Louis XI around 1480.
e) England achieved unification under Henry Tudor in 1485 after a century of civil
war.
C. The Complex World of Indian America
1. Native American societies were every bit as progressive, adaptable, and historically
dynamic as those that would invade their homes.
a) Mississippian urban development, pyramid building, and political organization
were most directly influenced by contacts with traders from Mexico.
b) In the Eastern Woodlands, people lived in smaller villages and combined
agriculture with hunting and gathering.
c) Living in substantial insulated houses, Indians from the Great Plains divided their
time between hunting, raising crops, and trading.
d) American Indians in the Southwest constructed cliff dwellings and irrigation
systems for their maize cultivation.
e) The Aztecs established a tributary empire that would rival the great empires of
Europe.
2. Variations in daily life and social and political arrangements in native North America
reflected variations in climate, social conditions, food supplies, and cultural heritages.
3. Despite the enormous size of the continent and variety of cultures spread across it,
economic and social connections within and between ecological regions tied the people
together in complex ways.
D. A World of Change in Africa
1. Like North America, Africa was home to an array of societies but had maintained more
regular contact with Europe and Asia.
a) Trade between the Mediterranean area and sub-Saharan Africa can be traced back
to ancient Egypt.
b) The creation of the Sahara Desert, resulting from a 1,500-year-long drought, cut
most of Africa off from the fertile areas of the Mediterranean coast.
c) As a result, African peoples followed an adaptive strategy in both their means of
survival and social organization.
2. Much of the technology in place in sub-Saharan Africa can be traced to common roots
predating the formation of the desert.
a) Large cities developed near sources of iron and other ores.
b) These trading centers became particularly important when Islamic expansion
brought new, outside sources for trade.
Exploiting Atlantic Opportunities
A. The Portuguese, Africa, and Plantation Slavery
1. Portugal was the first unified European nation to undertake exploration in search of
new commercial opportunities.
a) Prince Henry the Navigator encouraged exploration by establishing a school for
navigation.
2. Exploration southward brought the Portuguese into contact with the Songhai Empire of
sub-Saharan Africa.
a) From there, the Portuguese shipped African goods to Europe.
b) The Songhai introduced the Portuguese to the commercial possibilities of slavery.
B. The Continued Quest for Asian Trade
1. Portuguese contact with Africa gradually reached around the Cape of Good Hope and
across the Indian Ocean to Asia.
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
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Spain, England, and France sought to duplicate Portugal’s commerce with Asia by
finding their own routes to India and China.
a) Spanish and English seamen adopted the use of the compass from China and the
astrolabe from the Arabs, and they improved ship construction.
3. Christopher Columbus proposed to reach the markets of Asia by sailing west from
Europe.
4. Other European governments sent out new expeditions to the West in order to reach
Asia, but these instead resulted in further discoveries in the New World.
a) Sailing for England, John Cabot reached the coast of present-day Canada in 1497.
b) Amerigo Vespucci, sailing for Spain, traveled along the northeastern coast of
South America and into the Caribbean.
c) Giovanni de Verrazano, on behalf of France, explored the eastern coast of North
America.
C. A New Transatlantic World
1. Although European monarchs were disappointed that the new world was not Asia and
tried to find ways around it, they gradually learned that the new land had attractions of
its own.
a) Fishermen from England, France, Spain, and Portugal began exploring the fertile
fishing grounds off the northern shores of North America.
2. Warfare increased among the Northeastern Indians as various groups scrambled to
expand.
3. Groups grew more inclined to form formal alliances, such as the Iroquois Confederacy.
4. Indians found it beneficial to welcome Europeans as trading partners and as allies.
III. The Challenges of Mutual Discovery
A. A Meeting of Minds in America
1. Columbus’s discovery of the Western Hemisphere and the people there challenged
Europeans to find a place for them in their conception of the world.
a) To some, the American Indians were simple, pure, and free of civilization’s
corruptions.
b) To others, they were barbaric, savage, and immoral.
c) Most that Europeans found objectionable about Native American people was the
result of their trying to understand different cultures in their own terms.
2. American Indians had little difficulty in fitting Europeans into their view of the world.
a) American Indian religion taught that everyone (Europeans included) and
everything belonged to a universal spiritual force.
b) European trading goods duplicated or closely matched the ones American Indians
traded among themselves.
c) Misunderstandings accompanied this trade and became a source of great tension.
B. The Columbian Exchange
1. The interactions among American Indians, Europeans, and Africans in the aftermath of
Columbus’s discovery are referred to as the Columbian Exchange.
a) Each continent introduced new diseases and new plants to the other; the
Europeans introduced new domesticated animals to the Western Hemisphere.
2. The result of these exchanges was profound change in all three continents.
a) Diseases wiped out a huge proportion of the American Indian population.
b) New cash crops stimulated economic development.
c) New foods from the Western Hemisphere contributed to population increases in
Africa and Europe, which in turn led to further emigration to the New World.
d) New plants and animals in the Western Hemisphere altered the environment.
C. New Worlds in Africa and America
2.
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
1.
D.
The Columbian Exchange proved highly disruptive to American Indian life and
society.
a) Disease reduced the labor force and many of the traditional teachers of cultural
and practical knowledge.
b) To address these problems, formerly isolated groups formed villages and
confederations.
2. The Columbian Exchange also severely disrupted life in Africa.
a) Europeans organized an even larger business in slaves than had Moslem traders.
b) New centralized states appeared along the Slave Coast.
c) African peoples captured millions in the interior for sale as slaves to European
traders on the coasts.
A New World in Europe
1. The Columbian Exchange affected life and society in Europe.
a) New food crops from the Western Hemisphere contributed to a marked increase
in population.
2. At the same time the Western Hemisphere was being discovered, Europe underwent a
century of religious crisis.
a) Martin Luther began the assault on the Catholic Church; other theological
reformers, like John Calvin, joined the attack on Catholicism.
b) Many members of the middle and ruling classes broke away from Catholicism.
c) In England, King Henry VIII broke with Catholicism for dynastic and economic
reasons; trouble between Catholics and Protestants continued through the reigns
of his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth.
IDENTIFICATIONS
Identify the following items and explain the significance of each. While you should include any
relevant historical terms, using your own words to write these definitions will help you better remember
these items for your next exam.
1.
Hienwatha
2.
Western Hemisphere
3.
Crusades
4.
Holy Land
5.
Muslims
6.
Vikings
7.
Ice Age
8.
Beringia
9.
Eastern Hemisphere
10. Kenniwick Man
11. Paleo-Indians
12. nomadic
13. adze
14. maize
15. Adena culture
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
16. Hopewell culture
17. Mississippian tradition
18. mound builder
19. Mohammed
20. Moors
21. Reconquista
22. Ferdinand and Isabella
23. anthropologist
24. longhouse
25. Aztecs
26. tributary empire
27. Great Basin
28. Anasazi
29. sub-Saharan Africa
30. millet
31. Bantu
32. fictive ancestor
33. Henry the Navigator
34. Songhai Empire
35. Cape of Good Hope
36. astrolabe
37. Christopher Columbus
38. Bahamas
39. John Cabot
40. Amerigo Vespucci
41. New World
42. Basques
43. Jacques Cartier
44. shaman
45. idolater
46. reciprocal trade
47. Columbian Exchange
48. acquired immunity
49. syphillis
50. cash crop
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
51. Slave Coast
52. absolute monarch
53. Nine-Five Theses
54. Reformation
55. the Elect
56. Protestantism
57. divine right
58. Holy Roman Empire
59. Henry VIII
60. Elizabeth I
61. dissenters
62. Dekanahwideh
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Select the correct answer.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The factor that best explains why American Indians originally migrated from Asia to the Western
Hemisphere is
a.
growing population pressure in the Eastern Hemisphere.
b. the lure of gold and other precious metals.
c.
alternating periods of cooling and warming in the earth’s climate.
d. a religious visionary who led them on an exodus to a new land.
Among the most important factors contributing to the evolution of the culture of early American
Indians was the transition from
a.
metal to stone tools.
b. democracy to dictatorship.
c.
a shaman-led society to a warrior-led society.
d. hunting to agriculture.
Ferdinand and Isabella were significant as monarchs because they
a.
launched a crusade against the Muslims in the Holy Land.
b. backed the idea that one could reach Asia by sailing west.
c.
opposed Viking migration to the Western Hemisphere.
d. gave financial support to the Portuguese for their voyages of exploration.
In establishing themselves in the Americas, Europeans were assisted by
a.
African slaves whom they armed and led into battle.
b. Muslim traders who supplied them with guns and ammunition.
c.
a long drought in the 1500s that wiped out the food supplies of most American Indians.
d. epidemics that ravaged American Indians.
Cahokia is associated with
a.
Columbus’s landfall in the New World.
b. a major African city in the era of contact with the Portuguese.
c.
the Hopewell culture that flourished in the interior of North America.
d. the discovery of maize by the Plains Indians.
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
People who did NOT participate in the enslavement of Africans were
a.
the ancient Egyptians.
b. Muslims in North Africa.
c.
the Vikings.
d. African tribes like the Ashanti.
Before Columbus arrived in the Americas, the Native American populations
a.
established wide, elaborate trading networks.
b. always consigned women to positions of inferiority in the social structure.
c.
never developed a knowledge of agriculture.
d. adhered to ideas of land ownership identical to European concepts.
The Crusades by European Christians against Muslim strongholds in the Middle East had the
effect of
a.
creating demand for new products in Europe.
b. introducing the Islamic religion in many regions in Europe.
c.
creating the Protestant movement.
d. strengthening the hold of Henry VIII in England.
Henry VII of England and Louis XI of France
a.
personally led crusades to the Holy Land.
b. were monarchs who took decisive steps to unify their nations.
c.
were Protestant monarchs who led movements against the Catholic Church.
d. claimed part of the Americas after Columbus’s discovery.
Like the Crusades, the Reconquista was directed against
a.
the Songhai Empire.
b. Muslim rule in an area contested by Europeans.
c.
the Vikings.
d. the monarchy of Ferdinand and Isabella.
Anonymous European fishermen proved important soon after Columbus’s discovery by
a.
starting trade with Native Americans in North America.
b. developing the whaling industry off the coast of California.
c.
discovering great pearl beds in the Caribbean.
d. None of these
The climate change known as the Little Ice Age
a.
led to more peaceful relationships among Native American peoples.
b. raised the demand in Europe for American furs.
c.
had a negligible effect on the peoples of North America.
d. probably caused the Vikings to abandon North America.
In contemplating the Indian peoples of the Americas, Europeans
a.
all agreed that they were cruel and vicious savages.
b. concluded that they probably descended from the ancient Egyptians.
c.
had different opinions as to their nature and customs.
d. resolved to exterminate them.
Protestants, such as Martin Luther and John Calvin,
a.
advocated breaking away from the Catholic Church.
b. disagreed about various theological principles.
c.
attracted many followers from the middle classes.
d. All of these
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
15. American Indian spiritual ideas shared
a.
a belief in the divinity of the buffalo.
b. rituals that revolved around the worship of idols.
c.
the view that everything in the universe belongs to a single, interconnected whole.
d. beliefs in salvation similar to those of Martin Luther.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1.
Following Columbus’s discovery of the Western Hemisphere, Europeans pondered the nature of
the American Indians. While some described them as simple, pure, and free of the corruptions of
civilization, others depicted them as barbaric and savage. Which side of this debate do you believe
is the strongest, and why?
DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: The question requires that you express your own opinion and
that you provide reasons for it. Along with the allegations made by Amerigo Vespucci, you should
discuss the very different cultural beliefs of the Indians that inevitably made it possible for many
Europeans to regard Native Americans with scorn.
On the other hand, the development of agriculture, the construction of elaborate mound sites, the
maintenance of trading networks over great distances, and the creation of political alliances run
counter to the view that Indian cultures were backward.
Perhaps, though, you would prefer to argue that it is unwise to make sweeping generalizations that
claim to be universally true. After all, there were great differences between Indian cultures, such
as the Iroquois and the Indians of the Southwest.
2.
When Indians, Africans, and Europeans encountered each other in the process called the
Columbian Exchange, none emerged unaltered. Describe the changes that each experienced, and
provide an assessment of who, in your opinion, lost the most as a result of the Columbian
Exchange.
DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: New plants, crops, and domestic animals; new epidemic
diseases; and the institution of slavery were all products of the Columbian Exchange. Each should
be described in detail, along with an analysis of how each affected the groups involved in the
Columbian Exchange.
As for who lost the most, the question requires that you express your opinion—which must be
backed by reasons and evidence to explain why you advocate it. When formulating your opinion,
be sure to assess the impact of epidemic diseases on American Indians and the impact of slavery
on Africans.
3.
When Christopher Columbus proposed the novel idea of finding a route to Asia by sailing west,
the monarchs of Spain were ready to take a chance on it. Analyze why Ferdinand and Isabella
were receptive to Columbus’s idea.
DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: To provide the general background, first examine why
Europeans desired to trade with Asia by discussing the interest in Asian products stimulated by
the Vikings and by the Crusades.
Portugal, Spain’s neighbor, was already engaged in developing a route to Asia by exploring the
coasts of Africa. To compete with the Portuguese, the Spanish were interested in an alternative
route. The monarchs were therefore receptive to Columbus’s proposal.
Finally, in 1492, Spain had just completed its unification. No longer preoccupied by war with
Spain’s Muslims, Ferdinand and Isabella were able to turn their attention to exploration for a new
route to the wealth of Asia.
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
9
MAP EXERCISES
1.
Examine the opening map in Chapter 1 to determine where the Spanish, French, and English
concentrated their efforts as they explored the Western Hemisphere. Are you able to account for
the fact that the Spanish and the English concentrated in widely separated areas? In any future
struggle to control North America, would England be more likely to clash with France or with
Spain?
2.
What might explain why there are many more known prehistoric American Indian sites in the
western and southwestern United States than in the northeastern section of the country? Consult
Map 1.1 in your textbook.
3.
Look closely at Map 1.4. Compare the interior of Africa with the coastal regions. Then, compare
and contrast the numbers of people exported from each region. What do you think accounts for the
differences between regions?
INDIVIDUAL CHOICES
Hienwatha
To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Choices section at the beginning of the
chapter.
1.
What does Hienwatha mean? Does this forecast the work he will do later in his life? Why or why
not?
2.
Why are there conflicting accounts about his early life? What does this tell us about studying the
history of this time period?
3.
Who was Dekanahwideh? Tadadaho?
4.
Identify the five Iroquois nations.
5.
What is a confederation government?
6.
Why is it significant that the Huron people formed their own alliance system?
7.
After you read this chapter, put Hienwatha’s role as a peacemaker in the larger context of early
American history.
INDIVIDUAL VOICES
Examining a Primary Source: The Five Nations Adopt the Great Law
(c. 1450; recorded 1900)
To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Voices section at the end of the chapter.
1.
Why was this document not recorded in 1450?
2.
Clearly, Dekanahwideh chose the image of the “great tree” for a reason. What do you see as the
meaning behind this image? What do you think the four “great, long, white roots” symbolize?
3.
What is Dekanahwideh advocating in this passage? How do you suppose this advice steered Five
Nations policy during the three centuries after the adoption of the Great Law?
4.
What does the Great Law suggest about the responsibility of each of the Five Nations to the
confederacy as a whole? How would the scheme advocated here help the Iroquois deal with
changing historical conditions?
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
RUBRIC: Research each of the Five Nations in order to complete the following rubric. As you
research this information, think about the similarities that might have drawn these groups together
and the differences they had to overcome in order to try to work together.
FIVE
NATIONS
POLITICAL
CUSTOMS
SOCIAL
CUSTOMS
RELIGIOUS
CUSTOMS
ECONOMIC
CUSTOMS
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.
c.
The Ice Age exposed the land bridge of Beringia, making it possible to cross overland
between Asia and North America. See pages 6-9.
b. There is no evidence that this was a factor that contributed to their movement from one
continent to the other. See pages 6-9.
a.
There is no evidence that this played a part in their migration. See pages 6-9.
d. There is no evidence religious leaders (or any other kind of leaders) led Native Americans to
a new homeland. See pages 6-9.
2.
d.
As the climate warmed and the Ice Age ended, the large game population became extinct,
and many groups gradually became agriculturalists. See pages 9-10.
a.
The earliest Native Americans relied on stone tools. See page 9.
b. There is no evidence for this. See page 9 for the development of early Native American
cultures.
c.
There is no evidence for this. See page 9 for the development of early Native American
cultures.
3.
b.
They did so in 1492. See page 20.
a.
Their struggle against Moslems was in Spain in the late 1400s. See page 11.
c.
Viking activity predated them by several centuries. See page 11.
d.
They were in competition with Portugal. See pages 18-19.
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
4.
11
d.
Diseases introduced by Europeans to the Western Hemisphere killed millions of Native
Americans because they lacked immunity to European diseases. See pages 23-24.
a.
European colonists did not arm their slaves; they forced them to work in the New World.
See page 25.
b. Moslem traders in Asia and Africa did not play a part in the settlement of the Western
Hemisphere.
c.
5.
c.
There is no evidence that this was a problem that afflicted Native Americans in the 1500s.
See page 10.
a.
It was located in mainland North America; Columbus landed on an island in the Caribbean.
See page 20.
b.
It was a Native American city complex in North America. See page 10.
d. Maize cultivation was discovered and developed by Native Americans in Mexico and the
American Southwest. See page 10.
6.
7.
c.
Although they traveled widely, the Vikings did not engage in the African slave trade.
a.
They did. See pages 25-26.
b.
They reached deeply into central Africa in their slave trading. See pages 25-26.
d.
The Ashanti supplied slaves to the Europeans. See pages 25-26.
a.
Archaeological remains prove that North American Indians were bound together in trading
networks. See page 23.
b.
Among the Iroquois, for example, women had high status. See page 14.
c.
The Native Americans of Mexico cultivated maize and from there it spread northward. See
page 10.
d. They did not believe land could be bought or sold, which is central to European concepts of
landholding. See Page 23.
8.
a.
b.
The new products included, among others, silks and spices.
This was not a result of the Crusades. See pages 10-12.
c.
This occurred several centuries after the Crusades, and there was no connection. See pages
27-28.
d.
9.
b.
He lived several centuries later. See page 28.
See page 20.
a.
They stayed at home (in any event long after the Crusades) and centralized their nations. See
page 20.
c.
They predated the Protestant movement. See page 20.
d.
They did no such thing.
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Chapter 1: Making a "New" World, to 1588
10. b.
In Spain and Portugal. See page 11.
a.
This was an African empire, far from the Reconquista in the southwestern part of Europe.
See page 19.
c.
It was directed against Moslem rule in Spain and Portugal. See page 11.
d.
They, in fact, achieved the final triumph of the Reconquista in 1492. See page 11.
11. a.
See page 21.
b.
They operated on the east coast of North America. See page 21.
c.
They introduced the Indians to European goods, including metal. See page 21.
d.
The Vikings were long gone.
12. d.
It made their colonies economically less sound, and it led to conflict with Native
Americans who resided in the far north. See page 21.
a.
The climate change brought them into greater contact, provoking conflict and warfare. See
page 21.
b.
There is no evidence for this. See page 21.
c.
It led to greater conflict, alliances, and trade with the Europeans. See page 21.
13. c.
Some regarded them as noble and free of corruption, while others characterized them as
backward savages. See pages 21-23.
a.
While some had this view, others regarded them as less corrupt than Europeans and as noble
savages. See pages 21-23.
b.
See pages 21-23.
d.
See pages 21-23.
14. d.
Because all of the above are true, this is the correct choice.
a.
Because this statement is true, it is not the correct choice. See page 27.
b.
Because this statement is true, it is not the correct choice. See page 27.
c.
Because this statement is true, it is not the correct choice. See page 27.
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pages 21-23.
a.
c.
For the basic elements of American spiritual ideas, see
There is no evidence to this effect. See pages 21-23.
b. American Indian spiritual rituals revolved primarily around the exchange of ceremonial
objects. See pages 21-23.
d. Indians believed that everything in the universe was spiritually connected. Luther’s ideas
were firmly rooted in Christianity. See pages 21-23 for their respective beliefs.
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