Download potential and climate change vulnerability, impacts and

POTENTIAL AND CLIMATE CHANGE
VULNERABILITY, IMPACTS AND
ADAPTATION OPTIONS IN AFRICAN
MOUNTAINS
A paper presented at the International Conference of
Mountain Countries Climate Change in Kathmandu,
Nepal 5-6 April 2012
.
BY
FESTUS K. BAGOORA (PHD)
CONTACT:
National Environment Management
Authority (NEMA) – Uganda, P.O. Box 22255,
Kampala Uganda, tel. +256-414-251064/5/8,
E-mail: [email protected],
OR
Nature-RIDD Uganda, P.O. Box 26598,
Kampala Uganda. TEL. +256-312-514651/414286842,
E-mail: [email protected]
1.0. Background
1.1 Importance and distribution of on African
mountains
• Africa, the second largest continent is a huge
landmass, covering about 30 million km2 or
20% of the world's land surface.
• The continent has the third largest population,
approximately about 800 million people by the
year 2000.
About 50% of the countries in Africa contain
mountains or have steep land environments; while
about 10% (3 million km2) of Africa’s surface area is
highlands, mountains or steep sloping areas. This is
a very significant proportion of continent’s
landscape
(Figure
1)
The number of people affected by mountain
problems is about 20% of Africa’s population or
approximately over 160 million, while a further
30% or 240 million people depends on water
resources originating in mountain systems.
Where as in Africa, there are no mountain
ranges of magnitude comparable to the
Himalayas or the Andes, still there is
extensive occurrence of mountains
highlands all over the continent
(Table 1), which are of greatest importance
for
ecosystems
and
the
future
development of many African countries.
T able 1: The mountain countries of Africa by sub-region
Sub-region
Mountain countries
North Africa
Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco,
Tunisia
Eastern Africa
Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania,
Uganda, Madagascar, Rwanda, Burundi,
Central Africa
Democratic
Republic
Cameroon, Chad.
Southern Africa
Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi,
Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa,
Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Western Africa
of
Congo,
Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone
Many different types of mountains exist
throughout the African continent but, they can
generally be grouped into the following
categories.
• Mountain ranges or chains such as the Rift on the Atlas in
North Africa
• Mountain massifs with different summits, like the
Rwenzori or the Tibesti
• More uniform and mostly solitary volcanic cones, like
Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon or Mt. Cameroon
• Smaller mountains such as those found in West Africa
On the basis of altitude, African mountains can
be classified into:
Low (1,500-2,800m),
Medium (2,800-4,000m) and,
High (above 4,000m) mountains.
In the UNEP Assessment Report (UNEP, 2012), a
total of 93 mountain peaks have been
identified in Africa.
Table 2: The Mountains of Africa (above 4,000m).
Name of
Mountain
Nature of
Mountain
Height (m)
Location
Countries
Kilimanjaro
Solitary volcano
5.895
Tanzania
Kenya
Solitary volcano
5,119
Kenya
Rwenzori
block (horst)
5,109
Uganda/DR
Ras Dascian
Simen
volcanic 4,620
chain
of
Mountains
Solitary volcano
4,565
Ethiopia
Volcanic mountain 4,507
chain (Mitumba)
Rwanda
Meru
Karisimbi
Tanzania
Sante
Ye
Chaf/Batu
Terara Volcanic
mountain 4,400
chain
An
extinct
solitary 4,321
Tertiary volcano
Volcanic mountain chain 4,270
Ethiopia
Abune Yosef
Volcanic mountain chain 4,260
Ethiopia
Bada
Volcanic mountain chain 4,195
Ethiopia
Jebel Toubkal
Fold mountain
(Atlas)
,Morocco,
Tunisia
Muhavura/Mgahinga
/Sabinio
Guna Terara
Volcanic
mountain 4,127
cluster
Volcanic mountain chain 4,120
Ethiopia
Choke Terara
Volcanic mountain chain 4,100
Ethiopia
Ighil M’Goun
Volcanic mountain chain 4,071
Morocco
Cameroun
Vocanic mountain chain 4,070
(Adamoua)
Volcanic Ridge/Carter
4,001
Cameroun
Amba Farit
Oldoinyo Lesatima
chain 4,167
Uganda
Ethiopia
Algeria
Uganda/Rwanda/D.R
Kenya
1.2. The nature and origin of the
mountains
The mountains of Africa can generally be classified into
volcanic mountains fold mountains, and block or horst
mountains.
1.2.1
The Volcanic Mountains
• Most of these mountains occurred in association with the rifts that occurred
during the Tertiary tectonic movements that provided for fractured rock
structures through which magma migrated to the surface.
• Both volcanicity and mountain building occurred during later geological
periods in the Pleistocene. Hence these mountains are of different ages,
ranging from extinct, to dormant and still active volcanoes.
• Examples of volcanic mountains include: Mount Kilimanjaro (5,895m),
Mount Kenya (5,194m), both of which are the highest and second highest
mountains in Africa, respectively.
• Others include Mount Elgon (4,321m) an extinct Tertiary volcano that lies
astride the border with Kenya; Muhavura-Mgahinga-Sabinio (4,127m)
dormant composite volcanic mountain cones that lie astride the border of
Uganda Rwanda and DRC; Mount Meru (4,565m) that lie within the
vicinity of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and; Mount Cameroon (4,070m)
in Central Africa.
1.2.2
The Fold Mountains of Africa
• The most important period of folding was in the mid-Tertiary, the same time
the eastern Africa part of the continent was experiencing intense structural
instabilities and uplifting.
• The Atlas Mountains are the highest and most extensive fold mountains in
Africa, rising to more than 4,000m, and extend from Morocco through Algeria
to Tunisia, a distance of 2,250km.
• The Atlas Mountains portray complex scenery: they exist not as one and
continuous upland, but as a series of SW-NE trending chains which enclose
several intermontane plateaus and basins.
• The Cape Ranges located in the extreme south-west of the continent in the
Republic of South Africa represent one of the most complex structure and
spectacular scenery, rising between the great escarpment and the Atlantic
Ocean.
•
The Cape Ranges are a product folding of Palaeozoic rocks during the Triassic
times (180-220 million years ago) and subsequent severe erosion of the folded
structure, greatly reducing the height of these mountains, although they still
rise to over 2,000m.
1.2.3 Block Mountains or Mountain Horsts
• These mountains are geologically associated with compressional
earth movements which occurred over a long geological period of
time on the continent, but mainly during the Tertiary period (2-65
million years ago).
• Single most important is the Rwenzori Mountains astride
Uganda-DRC border, where the forces are thought to have been
so intense, leading to an up thrust of the central block to great
heights of over 5,000m.
• Others, of moderate heights include the Usambara Mountains in
north-eastern Tanzania that rises to only 2,219m; the Danakil Alps
in the Afar Triangle in Ethiopia and; Karas Mountains in Namibia.
• The African continent, therefore, is endowed with mountains
ecosystems which are widespread in all the sub-regions, although
the ecosystems are most spectacular and widespread in the
eastern part of the continent (Table 2).
1.3.
1.3.1.
Overview of the key mountain systems
The mountains of eastern Africa
• The sub-region Eastern Africa forms the most extensive mountains and
highland environments on the continent, with the Ethiopian mountains
and highlands forming the most extensive system in the sub-region.
•
Facilitated by diverse ecological conditions, Ethiopian mountains are an
important regional centre for biodiversity with the highlands considered
as one of the most important crop biodiversity centers (Vavilov centers)
in the world. However, this endowment of the genetic resources is now
threatened by unsustainable resource management practices and
degradation.
•
In Sudan, the Jabel Marra mountain region of volcanic origin is found,
specifically in northern Darfur, rising to 3,070 m a.s.l. Rainfall is
reported to have declined by 10-15% since the late 1960s. It is a valuable
ecosystem, especially for water resource in an otherwise very water
scarce environment;
• In the Kenya highlands, rises the giant Mount Kenya, a Tertiary volcanic
cone with a base diameter of 80-100km and the highest peak of 5,200m a.s.l.
It is an ecological island within a semi-arid environment. It provides natural
resources such as water and fertile soils for agriculture and forestry for a
large population.
• The rivers that flow from the mountain such as Ewaso Ng’iro and Tana, play
an important role in providing perennial flow of water in dry areas up to
hundred kilometers distant from the peaks of the mountain.
• Despite the forest conservation land use system in the upper catchments and
aggressive soil and water conservation practices on private land in the
middle and lower slopes, the mountain ecosystem is still threatened by the
rapidly growing population and increased demand for the mountain
resources particularly water, wood products and agricultural land
• In north-eastern Tanzania, Mount Kilimanjaro (5,895m) is a vast volcano
and highest mountain in Africa, rising 4,000m above the surrounding plains.
The complexity of the mountain ecosystem and its glacier caps make the
mountain a vantage tourist attraction and a destination for mountaineers; but
urgently require implementation of sustainable tourism systems.
• Recent assessments indicate that the glaciers of the mountain are receding,
although there is still a debate, as to whether or not the receding is due to
climate change.
• The middle and lower slopes of the mountain are occupied by the Chaga
indigenous people, whose basic livelihood is small scale traditional crop
farming. Population pressure on the land resources on the mountain is
tremendous and this calls for sustainable farming systems and alternative
sources of livelihood.
• The Usambara Mountains in the same region are part of the Eastern Arc
Mountains and coastal forests stretching across Tanzania into Kenya,
recognized as one of 32 globally important “hot spots” for biodiversity
(Messerli and Huni 1990, AEO-2, 2006).
• Located astride the border between DRC and Uganda are the Rwenzori
Mountain ranges, comprising of a huge block mountain of Precambrian
rocks (about 100km long and up to 45km wide) lying within the Western
Rift Valley system.
• It is the highest non-volcanic mountain in Africa. Mount Ngaliema (Stanley)
is the highest and has Margherita peak the highest point (5,019m).
• Despite their location at the equator crossing, all of its six mountain
peaks are glaciated above 4,200m. The Rwenzori Mountains are highly
rugged with extremely steep slopes, making it the most challenging and
exciting mountain terrain in Africa, especially for the mountaineers.
• The mountain ranges are so spectacular to always never miss capturing
landscape tourist eyes. It is for this special feature that the National
Geographic voted the Rwenzoris a place one must go before he/she
dies.
• The vegetation on these Mountains portrays varying altitudinal belts
from tropical forests, through alpine grasslands towards to snowline.
Like the rest of high mountains in Uganda and rest of Africa, the upper
slopes are gazetted conservation area - the Rwenzori National Park.
• The middle and lower slopes are occupied by the indigenous people
(Bakonjo and Bamba) practicing peasant small scale farming based on
local crops. Intensive cultivation of the largely shallow to skeletoral soils
on the highly fragile slopes using poor methods of farming has led to
disastrous accelerated soil erosion and landslides.
• Like in the rest of African mountains, intensive land resource use in
Uganda’s mountains has led to problems of land overuse, land shortage,
accelerated erosion including catastrophic landslides, and declining land
productivity in general which have, in turn, triggered encroachment
pressures on the forest reserves.
• A vivid example, in recent memories, is the landslides disaster which
occurred on Mount Elgon slopes in Bududa District in early March 2010.
• Triggered by unusually prolonged rainfall on the deforested, intensively
settled and cultivated steep slopes of the mountain, massive landslides
mixed with mudflows destroyed settlements and farms.
• The landslides disaster led to loss of over 390 people, most of whose
bodies were never recovered for descent burial; and hundreds of million
shillings worth of property damage.
• Yet another set of landslides disaster occurred on the night of 28-29th
August 2011 in the neighbouring district of Bulambuli on the same
mountain slopes; which resulted in a tragic loss of 43 people and
hundreds of million shillings worth of property damage.
• To give the Mountain Elgon ecosystem a high level of protection,
in 1992 the forest reserve was upgraded into a National Park,
which made the conservation system similar to that of the Kenyan
side.
• With this new status associated with increased protection, it was
hoped that encroachments would be reduced, but this objective
has hardly been realized; largely due to population pressure and
misguided political interventions against implementation of
existing efficient conservation policies and hence the ecosystem is
still highly vulnerable, particularly in view of climate change
impacts.
• For over 20 years, Governments of Uganda and Kenya have been
implementing conservation and development projects, focused
on provision of alternative source of livelihoods to the
communities surrounding the National Park to reduce
encroachment pressures and; involving the communities in the
management of the ecosystem through piloting collaborative
management approaches.
• Recently in 2002, the East African Community (EAC) started on
implementation of a cross border ecosystem project known as
Mount Elgon Regional Ecosystem Programme (MERECP).
Phase one of the programme has ended (in 2011), and
formulation of a second one is underway.
• Transboundary ecosystem management approaches are
thought to be more effective, particularly in addressing the
new and emerging challenges including climate change.
1.3.2.
The mountains of Central Africa
• In the Central African sub-region region, Cameroon is the most mountainous
country. The mountain ecosystems of Cameroon, a very humid equatorial
climate, constitute the water towers sine-quanon for agricultural production and
domestic supply.
• The mountain forests which cover 4,500sq.km (or 1% of the national territory)
are, however, an important source of foreign exchange, especially the
commercialized Pygeum and Stophnatus gratus species, which puts the
ecosystem at high risk of overexploitation and degradation of the forest
ecosystem.
• Tourist attractions are another important feature resource of the mountain,
especially the flora and fauna therein; while the mountain is also rich in
agricultural production.
• Conservation systems put in place by Government have remained largely
inadequate; and as a result, forest clearance, bush burning, excessive forest
exploitation, poaching, as well as mountain settlements all combine with
natural processes such as erosion on steep slopes to pose a serious threat to the
mountain ecosystems thereof.
• 1.3.3.
The Mountains of Northern Africa
• The mountainous region of North Africa is dominated entirely by the
Atlas Mountains, comprising of the first range, the Anti-Atlas; second
range, the high Atlas, and the Rift Mountains, all formed at different times
over a long geological timespan, beginning from the pre-Cambrian before
590 million years, to the Tertiary period (2-65 million years ago).
• The highest peak in Morocco is Jebel Toukal, rising to an altitude of
4,165m in the High Atlas.
• The Rif Mountains have a Mediterranean climate with relatively high
annual rainfall of over 1,000mm, while the Middle and High Atlas
mountains also have considerable rainfall of around 1,000mm a year.
• Along the south-eastern slopes of the mountain ranges, towards the
Sahara Desert, aridity becomes predominant and rainfall drops sharply to
less than 200mm per year and; although snowfall above 2,000m is regular
for about three months per year, there is no actual glaciation in the Atlas
mountain range.
• The mountain ecosystems are therefore, highly diverse,
from sub-humid to arid conditions and this makes the
mountain highly vulnerable to climate change impacts,
especially in terms of rainfall and moisture variations and
deficits.
• The livelihoods of mountain communities in this area
depend on mountain livestock rearing and crop
agriculture based on cereal, vegetable and fruit growing;
• This, in turn, is largely dependent on efficient use of land
and water resources, based on innovative blending of
indigenous knowledge with modern agricultural
technologies, especially mountain irrigation agriculture.
1.3.4.
The Mountains of Western Africa
• Western Africa is the least mountainous region, and those mountains that exist are
less spectacular or imposing, compared to those in other sub-regions;
• They are, nevertheless, vital ecosystems especially as they act as water
catchments for the number of rivers in the region such as Niger, Volta, Gambia
and the Senegal rivers.
• Mountains like the Fouta Djallon (1,500m) and Simandou (1,650m) in the
Republic of Guinea and Mount Nimba 1,752m) in Liberia form examples, while
the most prominent mountain ranges are the Loma Mountains with Bintumane
peak rising to 1,946m, as the highest peak in West Africa.
• Settlers around the mountains practice shifting cultivation and, presently there are
no adequate management plans and practices to fully utilize the endowment of
these ecosystems, other than regulation of hunting and; this increases
vulnerability of these ecosystems.
•
Development and implementation of sustainable management strategies in
including, integrated watershed management, among others, and, proper
extraction of non-biological resources such as minerals, will go along way in
contributing to climate change adaptation in these low but sensitive mountain
ecosystems.
• These mountain environments, apart from their significance in
water resources, are characterized by their biological diversity
and the high levels of endemic plants and animals.
• The extensive archeological heritage such as rock art presents a
unique cultural heritage and, the status of protection and the
accessibility of most mountains in South Africa create great
opportunities for tourism and outdoor recreation.
• In Malawi, the natural landscape has several low mountains and
mountain ranges that form important water catchments and
habitats for a wide range of flora and fauna.
• Mount Mulanje a massif feature in the south-eastern part of the
country is the largest in the country, and a major catchment
acting as a source of water for an estimated population of over
700,000 people; as well as, supplying water to Lake Chinwa that
supports fishery, hydro-power generation and irrigated farming.
• Because of this vital function, the mountain was gazzetted as a forest
reserve in 1927, leading to government regulating utilization of the
mountain forest resources, principally aimed at protection of water
source and fauna and flora.
•
The communities around the mountain area are dependant on the
mountain for the supply of fuel wood, poles, medicinal plants and other
forest products; hence government policy allows free access to nontimber products as an incentive for the people to participate in the
management of this vital natural resource;
•
This presents the challenge of delicate balance between conservation
and resource exploitation. The mountain area is also, a tourist attraction,
although this potential sector has not been developed yet due to lack of
access roads through the difficult terrain.
• The south-west of the mountain is considered to be rich in high quality
bauxite deposits and; plans are under way to exploit the resource, an
action that carries potential risks of degradation in such a highly fragile
ecosystem.
• The resources in the mountains are generally
experiencing threats from the high population pressure
evident in the surroundings, now estimated to be over
185 persons per sq. km.
• The exposure of the fragile escarpment part of the
mountains that led to landslides and floods in the
1990/1991 rainy season can be cited as one of the
examples of disaster occurrences triggered by mountain
ecosystem mismanagement in the area.
2.0. Potentials and vulnerability of mountains in Africa
2.1. Potentials
• The African mountain features and structures are of high
complexity and diversity; which leads to equally complex
and diverse ecosystems, and peoples.
• The diverse forms and process of nature in the mountains,
include climate, soils, flora and fauna, especially as
influenced by altitudinal variations on the high mountains
e.g., the vegetation communities existing in form of
vegetation belts according to altitudinal ranges.
• African mountains have more favourable environmental
conditions and greater resource potential than the
surrounding areas, in the tropical and sub-tropical regions.
1.3.5.
The Mountains of Southern Africa
• The mountains of southern Africa are found in all four provinces of the
Republic of South Africa, and in Lesotho, Namibia and Angola; but in
Namibia and Angola the resources provided by the mountains are less
dominant, although still significant.
• The mountains in South Africa are particularly significant for their high and
more reliable rainfall of over 1,000mm annually, with some areas receiving
3,000mm.
• This is in contrast to the rest of the areas which receive lower rainfall
amounts, with 65% of the country receiving a mean annual rainfall of less
than 500mm, an amount considered to be a minimum for successful rain
fed agriculture.
• Most of the mountain ecosystems in the country are protected either as
state forest areas, mountain catchment areas or nature reserves. There are,
however, mountainous regions in private or communal holdings, whose
protection status may be considered delicate but regulated by laws.
•
The complex and diverse relief, structure and processes have made the
mountains very resourceful in various ways including: rich and unique
forests, wildlife, biodiversity and minerals and; unique and spectacular
landscapes for tourism and recreation.
• The mountain climate influence to temperatures and rainfall promote fertile
and rich agricultural land, and make the mountains most potential water
sources, serving as important water towers for the continent.
• Mountains in Africa have, indeed, been described as “islands of high
productivity in a continent where dryness and aridity are increasing at
alarming rate. People, therefore, settle in mountain areas, partly because
the lowlands are difficult to manage due to poor soils and erratic rainfall
patterns.
• As a result, African mountains and highlands possess great potential for
dense populations, intensive land use and brisk socio-economic
development activities, thereby emphasizing the importance of these areas
for Africa’s development.
2.1.1. Water towers and central points of the hydrological cycle
• All the major streams and rivers in Africa have their headwaters in
mountains and highlands, for example: The mighty River Nile has its
head waters from the Eastern African Mountains in Ethiopia (the Blue
Nile and Atbara rivers).
• The distributaries of the White Nile tributary originate from Rwenzori
Mountains Semuliki river); Mount Elgon, the Kenya highlands and
Central African Mountains (Malaba and Trans-Nzoia and the Kagera
river systems, respectively), which empty into Lake Victoria, the giant
reservoir of the White Nile.
• The head waters of the mighty Congo River rise from Central African
highlands; while the Orange River system the heart of southern African
drainage system has its head waters in the Drakensberg Mountains;
• The headwaters of the mighty Zambezi River rise from the Central
African highlands; while the Niger and Volta, Gambia and Senegal
Rivers have their head waters from the West African Mountains of
Cameroon and the West Guinea Highlands (Figure 1).
• Mountains are critical moderators of climate, principally
through enhanced precipitation that they engender due to
the uplift and ascent of moist air over them, known as
orographic effect.
• Part of this enhanced precipitation falls as snow at higher
altitudes, at locations where conditions favour the process
of firnification, resulting in glaciers (e.g. Kilimanjaro,
Kenya and Rwenzori) and ice sheets (e.g. Ethiopia, Atlas
and Drakensburg).
• It is predicted that climate change will impair the forces of
weather making and; being key indicators of climate
change, mountains are central to predictions future trends
and management Africa’s water and other natural resources
for sustainable development.
2.1.2.
Water supply services
Mountains in Africa are the most vital sources of fresh water supplies for
domestic use, irrigated agriculture, industry and transport; both within and
beyond the mountain regions and national boundaries.
Water falls from the mountains
• The Lesotho Mountains, for example, form southern Africa’s most
important watershed and billions of dollars worth water projects
investment have been undertaken based on the water supply from
the mountains.
• A key example is the water project which diverts water from the
country’s Senqu/Orange River, via tunnels and dams to South
Africa’s industrial heartland (PANOS, 2002).
• Africa’s population grew from 469 million to 798 million between
1980 and 2000, representing 13% of the world population.
• By 2,020, Africa’s urban population is projected to be 646 million,
up from 302 million in 2,000, and by 2,030, the proportion of
Africa’s urbanized population is expected to reach 53.5% compared
to 39% in 2,005 (UNEP AEO-2, 2006),
• As Africa’s population pressure continues to increase dramatically,
so will be the demand on fresh water supplies: domestic water
supplies (especially urban areas), industry and irrigation agriculture already, hundreds of millions are facing chronic shortages in fresh
water supplies.
• At the same time, industrialization is being given emphasis to
accelerate development, and the sector rapidly expanding in many
African countries.
• Hence, there is general consensus and genuine concern that,
increasing water shortage is a real challenge and; that this is being
exacerbated by climate change impacts; which will seriously hamper
Africa’s development efforts.
• This may lead to stiff competition for water and development of
major conflicts over water. The African mountains’ central role
reliable water source and thus, helping to meet these impending
challenges must be acknowledged.
• 2.1.3.
Hydroelectric power (H.E.P) generation
• Water stored in mountain lakes, reservoirs and rivers is a potential source of
hydroelectric power for an increasingly urbanized and industrialized African
world.
• Hence in general, mountain supplied water is widely used to generate
hydroelectricity all over the continent, facilitates industrial processes, and is a
critical factor in irrigated agriculture.
• Presently, the countries of Africa use hydroelectric power generated from the
numerous rivers of different sizes all of whose headwater originate from
mountains and highlands.
• The major African rivers such as the Congo, the Nile, the Volta, the Niger, the
Zambezi and the Orange, have been harnessed for H.E.P, generated at various
sites located along the rivers.
• Estimates indicate that many rivers have huge potential for H.E.P generation,
exceedingly higher than the current exploitation levels, and numerous sites on
medium and smaller rivers, especially high in the mountains, remain untapped.
• The Inga Hydroelectric Facility on the Congo River, for example, could
play an important role in providing power to Central, Northern and
Southern Africa, and even, to Southern Europe.
• The current generation capacity of 1,115 MW is proposed for expansion
to 39,000 MW (AEO-2, 2006), which would be huge amounts of power
generated, enough to meet extensive export ambition mentioned.
• In some countries like Uganda the potential sites that remain untapped
have been surveyed for possible development to meet increasing power
deficits as development picks up; and yet, the present level of exploitation
of this potential is very low, probably standing at less than 10%.
• The increasing need for electricity to propel development through
powering industries and social services, coupled with the need for green
economies to control climate change, makes H.E.P crucial, as it is the
most potential and climate change compliant source of energy, compared
other alternatives available.
• 2.1.4.
Water for irrigated agriculture
• African mountain sourced rivers and lakes provide great opportunity for
expansion of irrigated agriculture, which still stands very low capacity
levels in most countries.
•
The Congo River alone covers a catchment area of 3.7 million km2 with a
total annual discharge of 1,269 km3, and with the irrigation potential of
countries covered by the river basin estimated at 8,685,000 ha.
• In the Western African sub-region, there are six major internationally
shared river basins, all with headwaters from mountains and highlands,
and of which the Niger, Volta and Senegal are the largest.
• The waters of these rivers provide great opportunity for expansion of
irrigated agriculture. The Niger River which is Africa’s second longest
river (4,100 km) with a large basin covering 1,471,000km2, has 1,036,000
ha estimated potential irrigable land and out of this, only 136,850 ha
(13.2%) is currently under irrigation.
2.1.5. Wildlife, ecosystems and biodiversity
(a)
Wildlife
• The different slopes, exposures, and vegetation belts of mountains
produce a variety of habitats for a diversity of fauna.
• Among the rare species are the mountain gorillas of the Virungas in the
Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, and Uganda. Moreover,
mountain forests are often the last wild refuge for a wide-range of
species, especially top carnivores.
• Wildlife is increasingly valued as a resource for viewing or for shooting
only with cameras, not guns. Wildlife tours in mountains of Africa offer a
way in which some monetary value can accrue to mountain people.
• For example, the National des Volcans earns about US $ 1 million in
entrance fees and US $ 2-3 million in other expenditures, making this
resource-based activity a major part of the country’s foreign exchange
earnings.
(b)
Ecosystems and Biodiversity
• Due to the altitudinal zonation, mountains contain wholesome, rich and
diverse ecosystems, ranging from savanna, forests to alpine; making
them very different to surrounding lowland ecosystems and key areas of
global biodiversity.
•
The vertical dimension of mountains and the rise in elevation produce
altitudinal zones of different climate, soil and terrain, sometimes over
very short distances, and different varieties of flora and fauna adapt to
each of these environments;
• Mountains are often referred to as ‘islands’ of biodiversity rising above
‘seas’ of lowland landscapes that have been transformed by centuries of
human use (PANOS 2002);
• Mountains often harbour many endemic and threatened species, genetic
resources, and are nature’s last stronghold for those species that have
been extirpated in adjacent lowlands (e.g. Virunga National Park in
DRC).
• The mountains of Central Africa in Rwanda and Uganda (VirungaMgahinga-Bwindi Impenetrable National Parks) are for instance, the only
home of the about 600 remaining world’s mountain gorillas.
• Because of this reason, the tropical and subtropical mountains of Africa have
been found to have the highest number of vascular plants per unit area,
making them globally unique with respect to biodiversity at the genetic,
species, community and ecosystem levels.
• Research shows that the mountains of East Africa and Cameroon in Central
Africa, for example, are among the world’s most important biodiversity
areas. The high biodiversity of these areas is due to extremely steep
geoecological gradients or belts, ranging from low elevation warm humid
conditions to high elevation cold environments.
• Many tropical mountains, particularly the volcanoes (e.g. mount Cameroon,
Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya) and table mountains (e.g. Ethiopia)
are isolated and; the upper vegetation belts, in particular, are sensitive centres
of endemism.
• The mountain regions of Africa, therefore, are genetic store houses,
containing many threatened wildlife species and a vast range of plant species,
including crops and medicinal plants.
• 2.1.6.
Agricultural potential of mountains
• Mountain agriculture is broadly defined as covering all land based
activities such as cropping, animal husbandry, horticulture and forestry
and; is perceived as an integrated system of natural resource use.
• Where as mountainous areas in Africa are generally perceived as areas
where the conditions of human life are difficult, they have been very
attractive for human land-use, particularly for agriculture and settlements.
• Mountains stand out as areas with favourable climate and ecological
conditions by contrast with surrounding lowlands, which are generally
much drier and; hence, their attractions for habitation.
• As a consequence of this attraction, the average population density in all
African mountains together, is more than double the density of the
lowlands; that is, above 33 persons per km2 as compared to less than 15
persons per km2.
• Mountains of volcanic origin such as Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount
Kenya, Mount Elgon, Ethiopian mountains and Mount
Cameroon are known to posses some of the most fertile and
productive soils, attracting heavy population densities and high
intensities of agricultural practices
• Even in the non-volcanic mountain areas such as Rwenzori
Mountains, where soils may possess low fertility limitations,
high and reliable rainfall make them agriculturally productive as
long as other limitations, of extreme gradients soil rooting depth
are not severe.
2.1.7.
Mountain peoples, culture and traditions
• Mountain regions often harbour a wealth of human tradition and
protected areas can provide a mechanism whereby the alliance
between conservation and local cultures can be strengthened
(e.g. Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda).
• Mountains act as focal points for those seeking aesthetic and recreational
benefits and many cultures have reverence for certain peaks considered
‘sacred’ (e.g. some Rwenzori Mountain peaks and Masaba Peak on Mount
Elgon in Uganda, respectively).
• Mountain ranges in many parts of the continent act to form the frontiers
between countries and there is often value in maintaining them as
transboundary protected areas or lightly inhabited buffer zones (e.g. Mont
Nimba Nature Resrves in Guinea and Cote d’Ivoire, Mout Elgon National
Park in Uganda and Kenya).
2.1.8. Mountain attractions and tourism development
• African mountains are among the major tourist destinations, mainly due
to the attractive and adventurous landscapes, that provide great
opportunities for leisure and recreation services sought by tourists, sacred
and spiritual sites for those seeking spiritual renewal, and rich cultures.
• In general terms, tourism is classified among the major industries
that are key Africa’s development. Indeed, pilgrimages and sacred
sites in mountains frequently draw tourists and trekkers seeking
colourful sights, and interesting and spiritual experiences.
• Mountains in general commonly awaken a sense of wonder and
awe that sets them apart as places imbued with evocative power and
significance. Many people and societies view the mountains and
their peak in this light, often going to them for aesthetic and
spiritual inspiration or regarding them as embodiments of important
cultural values;
• Climate change impacts threaten the sustainability of these longtime value services, especially vista and inspirational vantage
reduction, through physical landscape changes and destruction,
involving changes vegetation landscapes and landscape destruction
by extreme modes of accelerated erosion such as landslides.
2.1.9.
Minerals in mountain development
• The association between mining and mountains is generic; the same
natural forces which have raised mountains have also helped concentrate
assemblages of minerals useful to human society.
• Economic minerals such as copper cobalt limestone, gypsum and marble
have been discovered in the mountains which are a key to national
development, for example, copper and cobalt mining in the Rwenzori
Mountains in Uganda.
•
It is for this reason that, the world’s great metallogenic zones all related
to past mountain building, whether the mountains are still standing or
have long been reduced to lowlands by denudation processes to form the
African surface or a generic of this.
• Mining developments, however, have to be undertaken with extra care
due to the high sensitivity of mountain environments. Mineral extraction
brings with it the environmental challenges associated with the disposal
of large quantities of mine waste – overburden, tailings, and minewater.
• The direct impact of mining may be exaggerated in mountainous
environments by the greater fragility of montane ecosystems consequent
upon their more limited biotic composition and their longer recovery
times after disturbance.
• The inevitable attraction to economic mineral exploitation for the much
needed development in Africa and; the high magnitude of ecosystems
destabilization and erosion associated with mineral extraction, make the
mountains highly vulnerable to both environmental and climate change.
• Due to the vertical distribution of different environments and the seasonal
variation in conditions at each level, resources are stratified and require a
staggered schedule for their effective exploitation, a practice that will be
vital in balancing resources in a climate change environment.
• Nomadic pastoralism, transhumance, and mixed forms of grazing and
farming cultures that include different uses for various altitudes have been
prevailing human responses to these conditions in the African mountains,
particularly in sub-tropical Africa.
• Furthermore, migrations into the plains historically have been a
means of coping with the surplus population which could not be
sustained by these various forms of altitudinal conditioned
resources and indigenous knowledge aided adaptation.
•
Due to more conducive environment in form of reliable healthy
and pleasant climate, and rich natural resources such as fertile soils
the highlands in the humid tropics have tended to support denser
populations than many lowland areas;
• But, this has in the recent several decades led to enormous pressure
on the landscape and degradation of the natural resource base in
many places.
• This has occurred to such a degree that people from these originally
favoured highlands are now on the outward migrated either to the
urban areas, or to other more fertile rural areas, normally in the
lowlands, a situation pertaining in many mountains areas such as in
south-western Uganda and Rwanda.
1.2.10.
Highlands-lowlands interaction
• Highland-lowland interdependence is founded upon a more or less dense
network of routes along which both downhill and uphill movements
occur. Transhumance is by far the most important of these migrations
from the hills to the plains,
• Mountain dwellers may be hired in the lowlands at harvest time; landless
peasants, unemployed artisans, and casual agricultural workers may
decide to seek cash income in the lowlands, be it in the formal or informal
economy.
• Thus, in many areas of the continent the relationship between the
mountains and lowlands has been for long characterized by unequal terms
of development opportunities and priorities, and by enhanced dependence
of the mountains on the market in the lowland.
• The new concepts of sustainable development in the mountains, therefore,
must necessarily be evolved – with the interest of mountain communities
and their environment as the prime perspective.
• An extra level of exploitation in some cases may involve movement of
cheap human resources from the mountains to work in the lowlands
when the latter need them, which is quickly facilitated by the new and
improved transportation systems.
• Today, for example, the phenomenon of transhumance is even more
complex than in the past, and involves many factors, physical, human
and historical.
• Due to this apparently indispensable value of upland-lowland
interactions, in all the African countries especially mountain countries,
most people can be defined mountain people, whether resident in the
mountains or lowlands.
• All over Africa, growth and development of towns and cities have some
linkage to the products and interactions with the mountains, particularly
those located at or near the foothills of the mountains. Strengthening this
further may assist in adaptation to mountain climate change impacts.
2.2. Sensitivity and vulnerability
• The term vulnerability can be defined ‘the degree to which a natural
system is susceptible to or unable to cope with the effects of external
stimuli’ and is a function of: (i) the characteristics and magnitude of the
stimuli to which the system is exposed; (ii) the sensitivity of the system
and; (iii) the adaptive capacity of the system.
• In this definition the human-environment system is the vulnerable entity.
In other words, vulnerability underpins the susceptibility of populations,
resources, and places to harm associated with environmental change and
the inability to adapt to changes. Thus vulnerability can be viewed as:
Vulnerability = exposure to risk + inability to cope.
• Vulnerability then is the likelihood or probability of harm to the system,
in this case, climate change, resulting, for example, in declining quality of
life or loss of lives as a result of change. This likelihood is determined by
the likelihood of potential impacts and the system’s adaptive capacity.
• Despite mountains’ great resource potential for development, the nature of
terrain poses difficulties, particularly for land transport and communications, and
soil erosion and landslides disasters control on steep slopes; whenever there is
human occupation and slopes opened up for agriculture, settlements and
development infrastructure.
• African mountains are particularly sensitive indicators of climate change and are
ideal settings for research on the impact of global climate change on species,
ecosystems and hydrology (e.g. Rwenzori Mountains in Uganda and DRC).
• At the same time Africa faces the challenge of the increasingly less reliability and
predictability of water supplies from these mountains, as a result of changing
land-use patterns, diversion systems, dams and climate change.
• Mountains have immense downstream values in terms of soil erosion control and
watershed protection, which when tampered with can lead to disastrous
consequences. Nature reserves are a useful measure in establishing upland
resource use (e.g. Kasungu National Park in Malaawi). Climate change process
could change or impair these values.
• Mountains are fragile high energy environments where regulatory controls over
potentially disturbing human activities are often needed (e.g. Simien and Bale
Mountains National Park in Ethiopia).
3.0. Climate change Impacts and Adaptation in
African mountains
3.1. Climate change impacts
3.1.1.
High population densities and resources overuse
• One of the greatest challenges of managing climate change
impacts, include the apparently strong overlap between
environmental degradation and climate change, which are
already showing signs of mutual re-enforcement.
• The combination of increasing human and livestock population,
mismanagement of natural resources and centuries of human
occupation and intensive agriculture based on low-technology
have caused devastation to the once conducive productive
potential of the mountain environments.
• The mountains areas that are agriculturally rich contain some of the
world’s highest rural population densities: for example the Virunga
volcano region of Rwanda has a population density of 400 people per
km2, while in southern Ethiopian mountains and Mount Elgon slopes
population densities reach 1,300 people per km2.
• This presents a major challenge, of balancing resource use capacity and
population demands; because such densities have put tremendous pressure
on natural resources.
• Mountain resources overuse has put the resources under stress and made
them more vulnerable to climate change. Therefore, it is increasingly
becoming clear that the magnitudes of climate change impacts are being
greatly magnified by the poor healthy conditions of the ecosystems due to
population pressure, overuse and degradation.
• This factor is largely responsible for the increasing ecosystem
degradation, resource use conflicts and out-migration in the mountain
regions and vulnerability to climate change impacts - the ills hamper
resource productivity and sustainable development efforts.
Plate 1: A completely cultivated hillside in Kabale District, in the mountains of SouthWestern Uganda, using contour-bunding and terracing to control soil erosion (Source
: NEMA 2008).
• There is overwhelming evidence and general agreement that, the
world is faced with the climate change whose associated impacts
are likely to be widely varied and far reaching.
• Predicted impacts are likely to be far more challenging in
mountain regions than in the surrounding lowlands; but detailed
predictions of future mountain climates remain difficult due to
the complexity of mountain regions and insufficient long-term
data.
• Climate change will have significant implications for African
mountain environments, mountain societies, as well as
populations living downstream. Predicted higher temperatures
may increase agriculture and forestry production;
• On the negative side, weeds, pests and diseases may prosper and
fires may increase; while species already confined to the tops of
mountains or below impassible barriers could be exterminated as
they are ecologically squeezed out of their habitat.
• The recent incidence of unfamiliar crop diseases such as banana wilt in
Uganda, are causing stress and panic in food security and development
efforts in the region.
•
Recent temperature trends in some mountains African mountains indicate
an increase of over 30C, followed by malaria fever outbreaks which never
existed in these areas, leading outbreak of highly fatal malaria fever and
other diseases and; dramatic increase in mortality rates and medical costs.
• Mountain ecosystems can be especially vulnerable to disruption by
climate change. Although they contain very diverse species of plant and
wildlife, within a single zone biodiversity may be small, and the potential
to recover quite limited due to the harsh and marginal conditions.
• There are already indicators of disruption to species distribution, for
example, in the Rwenzori Mountains, where climate change is making
some species shift to higher altitudes than ever before, and some
indigenous non-invasive species evidently becoming invasive, which is a
worry for conservation managers.
• The most dramatic impacts of climate change predicted in
mountain regions will be an increase in the frequency of extreme
events such as floods, avalanches and landslides, and the
potential reduction in fresh water supplies.
• Mountains are very important as early warning systems of global
warming, with increased melting (and shrinking) of glaciers on
mountains like Rwenzori and Kilimanjaro, already flagging up
eminent global warming and climate change.
• Implications of this phenomenon are far reaching; for example,
while the melting glaciers might provide greater water flow in
the short term, in the long term it will have the opposite effect.
• As a result, fears are rife, that climate change in African
Mountains will reduce rainfall and hence reduced water yield
from mountains (rainfall and flow in streams) which, in turn,
will adversely affect water supply and sanitation.
• Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania is reported to have already lost more
than a third of its ice fields during the last two to three decades. Mount
Kilimanjaro is Africa’s tallest mountain. Also, it is Tanzania’s top
visitor attraction with some 20,000 tourists a year.
• The melting of the ice fields will not only affect the tourism industry
but also, the drinking water supply, agriculture and hydroelectric
power production.
• Over one million villagers live at the foothills of the mountain and
depend on the mountain springs and streams; for drinking water and
other domestic uses and, for irrigation of farms. Severe soil erosion
from extreme rainfall on deforested slopes and over-cultivated
farmland, will increasing cause heavy silting of the mountain streams
and rivers.
• This is already causing numerous problems including reduction in
water quality and increased water treatment costs, and increased
floods hazards due to siltation of river channels and reduction of
channel water storage capacity (Plates 2 and 3).
Plate 2: The brown colour of River Ngenge in Kapchorwa district is a sign of siltation
(Source: NEMA 2008).
• There are other threats of significance including deforestation and
farming activities, which are not only causing soil erosion but also
contribute to the build up of green house gases in the atmosphere.
Box 10.2: Costs of water pollution
Note: the heavily silted
river water due to severe
degradation on the Elgon
mountain slopes due
severe erosion following
extreme and prolonged
rainfall,
which
some
opinions attributed to
climate change.
Plate 3: Mount Elgon originating River Mnafwa - Site near the
National Water and Sewerage Corporation water treatment works
(Source: NEMA 2008).
• Bush fires are another problem, which have similar negative effects.
In the mountains, bush fires are used by farmers to clear land and,
by honey collectors and hunters. As a result estimated tens of
thousands of hectares of forest have been lost to these ill-fated
activities.
• Recent occurrence of catastrophic bush fires in the Rwenzori
Mountains was caused by unusually prolonged dry season in the
Mountains, considered to be the driest over nearly half century.
• The fires caused devastation to the ecosystems including direct
burning of sensitive, unique and endemic plant species, and smoke
suffocation of animal species (Plate 4)
Plate 4a: Affected sites in the burnt areas, Ground vegetation (Tussocks), and tress (Source:
Uganda Wildlife Authority 2012).
Plate 4b: Duiker suffocated with smoke (Source: Uganda Wildlife Authority 2012).
Fire fighting in the mountains (Source: Uganda Wildlife Authority 2012).
Other impacts in the high mountains include: shifting upwards of
vegetation zones, damaging of tourism infrastructure including
trails and camping sites, particularly by landslides and floods and;
the corresponding increase in maintenance costs.
3.2. Climate change Adaptation: options and practices
• Where as there is general lack of climate change risk
management plans in most mountain regions of Africa, there are
many options available for risk management and adaptation,
which require only modest refinement to adapt to local
conditions and increase efficiency.
• Many of these are traditional or cultural and have been evolving
over centuries, in the course of adapting to the natural
challenges of the mountain environments.
• The technologies and practices include, among others,
harnessing local energy and other local resources, land
management technologies and practices, diversification of
cropping systems and sources of livelihood and; predictions of
bad weather and other environmental hazards and disasters.
3.2.1 Harnessing rivers and streams for power production
• Use of flowing water to generate power for local use in mountain
areas is as old as mankind. Water wheels have been used for
centuries mainly for mailing grain. The eminence of climate change
impacts requires evaluation of these technologies for promotion,
especially with regard to resilience and efficiency.
• There are different technologies available, ranging from the large
hydro-power stations with a capacity of several hundreds of
megawatts that supply the plains with electricity, to directly used,
decentralised small-scale applications which range from a few
kilowatts up to tens of kilowatts (Messerli and Ives, 1997).
• This indicates great potential for increased irrigated agricultural
production in these countries. However, Sustainability of this
potential will, however, entirely depend on conservation and land
management systems and practices in the major water catchments
of the river, the mountains and highlands.
• In the Atlas Mountains, the farming communities use indigenous
irrigation technologies on vibrant small-scale farms dominated by
fruits and vegetables which are sold to the urbanized population
markets in the lowland, and some exported to Europe.
• Therefore in this mountain region, ingenuous management of water
resources in the otherwise relatively dry mountains has enabled
productive agricultural system based on a variety of crops including
fruits and vegetables.
• On most of the mountain slopes of Africa, and especially high
mountains, the uppermost parts have been designated conservation
areas, and are particularly protected as water catchments. The gives
higher resilience capacity, given that a healthy ecosystem is best
placed to absorb the shocks and impacts of climate change.
• In the Atlas Mountains, the farming communities use indigenous
irrigation technologies on vibrant small-scale farms dominated by
fruits and vegetables which are sold to the urbanized population
markets in the lowland, and some exported to Europe.
• Therefore in this mountain region, ingenuous management of water
resources in the otherwise relatively dry mountains has enabled
productive agricultural system based on a variety of crops including
fruits and vegetables.
• On most of the mountain slopes of Africa, and especially high
mountains, the uppermost parts have been designated conservation
areas, and are particularly protected as water catchments. The gives
higher resilience capacity, given that a healthy ecosystem is best
placed to absorb the shocks and impacts of climate change.
• Increased adoption of sedentary livestock farming, including zero
grazing; and, the production of biogas and animal manure from the
animal waste, helps to reduce both the GHG (methane) emissions
and energy demand pressures on forestry resources; while at the
same time increases soil productivity through supply of animal
manure.
• Soil and water conservation practices such as terracing, agro
forestry and general planting and conservation of tree cover, are
both mitigation and adaptation strategies to climate change in the
naturally fragile mountain regions.
• Production of compost manure from both, domestic waste and
farm residue, help to reduce GHGs while at the same time
improving soil stability and productivity, in turn, increasing yield
per unit area; and reduction in more encroachment on fragile
slopes and soil erosion (Plate 5).
Using household waste to make compost. Photo credit: Elizabeth Mutayanjulwa
• Mountain farming techniques have been refined over time, based on local
people’s in-depth knowledge of the variations of climate and terrain, and
using methods and practices.
•
For example, contour-bunding and terracing of steep slopes in the
Central African Mountains of Rwanda and Kigezi region south-western
Uganda (Plate 1) and; in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco.
• Other examples include migratory grazing, especially in mountains
surrounded by semi-arid lowlands or areas that experience winters and
summers such as in the South African and North African mountains;
irrigation; shifting cultivation and; sustainable harvesting, processing and
storage of food, fodder and fuels from mountain forests.
• The relative geographic isolation and precarious conditions of production
means most mountain communities have engaged in both crop
agriculture and pastoral activities, thereby taking advantage of different
altitudinal zones.
• Livestock play a vital role in the livelihoods and economies of many mountain areas
of Africa, including: providing high energy foods (meat and dairy products); animal
power (for transport and plough); organic fertilizer (animal manure) and; materials
(hides/skins and fur).
• Transhumance, the seasonal movement of people and livestock between different
pastures, is common in semi-nomadic mountain communities in Africa such as the
Tibestan. Movement may also involve trade or some form of exchange of products.
• These movements can involve large distances and contribute to development both
within and outside the mountains mainly through the interactions.
• Through centuries of occupation, local communities in mountain regions have
evolved and applied best natural and socio-cultural resources management
technologies and practices that are well or better adapted to harsh mountain
conditions and challenges.
•
However, these were recently integrated into the so called modern technologies and
practices introduced from outside, normally by government sectoral institutions.
Some specific examples of technologies and practices
• Terracing, for example, the Konso terracing practiced in Ethiopia; fanya juu
terracing in Machakos, Kenya; and contour-bunding and terracing in Tigray in
Ethiopian highlands and Kigezi region in south-western Uganda.
• Terracing steep slopes in order to use marginal land without substantially
degrading it; terracing catchment areas of small dams that serve a village without
jeopardising water use of downstream users (e.g. in Eritrea);
• Agro-forestry (both indigenous and modern), intercropping and post harvest
management. Agroforesty has been used for conservation, soil fertility and soil
and water conservation in general, provision of shade to crops like coffee (e.g. in
Mount Elgon, Uganda), and provision of miscellaneous other services such as
timber, fuelwood, building materials, fodder, and windbreaks.
• Mixed farming systems, intercropping and post harvest management, which have
been practiced to promote: diversified farm income; land husbandry and
maximum productivity per unit area; soil erosion control and nutrient
management; improvement of food security, marketing opportunities and;
enhancement of household, regional and national incomes.
• Transhumance, which is still widely practiced in some mountain
regions and in others on the downward trend, is a good example of
efficient spatial use of land resources practiced by mountain people,
and is dictated by altitudinal and climate or seasonal changes and
variations.
• Construction of furrows and irrigation channels, in order to
manage and distribute water for crop production and domestic use;
for example, the Tuareg community in the Atlas Mountains in
North Africa;
• Local and regional marketing of agricultural products, which is
happening in the production systems in many mountain areas
encouraged by potential markets in the surrounding lowlands.
• This opens up development opportunities to the largely isolated and
marginalized mountain economies and removes overdependence on
subsistence production and local markets that are more prone to
impacts of climate change.
• Planting of drought resistant food crops and cash crops, for
more food security and for accumulating some cash such for
bad times likely to be triggered by climate change.
• Shifting from range grazing to stall-fed cattle (zero grazing),
where grazing land is scarce or where the land tenure systems
favour dairying and mixed farming, for example, what is
happening in most mountains of East and Central Africa,
including, among others, Mount Elgon in Eastern Uganda, in
Kigezi highland in south-western Uganda, and in Rwanda.
• Electrification of mountain areas: to promote crafts and small
industries for landless people (mainly young men and
women) through diversifying the production base of an area
from farming alone by developing labour-intensive
manufacturing and handicrafts, cottage industries.
Crop and livelihood diversification
• Mountain farmers cultivate a range of crops, some of which are
appropriate for specific elevations and climates, thereby spreading the
risk of any single crop failure, which may increase with climate change.
• Furthermore, domestication of wild plants and cross-fertilisation between
wild and domestic varieties of crops is often encouraged and has been
practiced for centuries.
• Employing these strategies encourages new characteristics to emerge
while strengthening a species genetic diversity and resilience; and in
some cases improves yields and minimizes the need for chemical
pesticides and fertilizers.
• This serves the purpose of absorbing both surplus peasant labour and
produce, and the livestock herders to cope with the ‘too many people
doing the same thing’ syndrome.
• Diversification of production and income is a strategic form of
adaptation to climate change. This practice is just beginning to take
place in some African mountain regions, like is the case in Uganda.
• These sound and innovative land management practices have, not
only promoted conservation of the basic natural resource in a very
fragile environment, but have also, promoted development and
increased the land carrying capacity of population.
• Examples include Gedo District in Southern Ethiopia, and both the
Mount Elgon slopes and the Kigezi mountain in Uganda, where
high population densities, of up to 1,300 people per sq. km. are to
be found.
3.2.3. Restoration of degraded forests and other ecosystems
• Many mountain areas have been subject to heavy population
pressures, which have resulted in inappropriate vegetation cover
clearing and associated land degradation and drainage of wetlands.
However, efforts have been made to restore the forest cover and
other ecosystems, driven by two forces:
• First, is the desire to restore on-site productivity for the benefit of
local communities and; second, is the perception that restored forests
will provide downstream benefits of improved stream flow and
reduced sedimentation.
• Already benefits are being realized through decreasing erosion and
restoring nutrient cycles through re-establishment of a fully
functional ecosystem.
• However, large-scale reduction of downstream flooding and river
sedimentation as a result of reforestation of small mountain
watersheds is less likely, and the limited efforts that have been
undertaken confirm this conclusion.
3.2.4. Mountain hazards and Human disasters prediction and
management
• Mountain hazards and disasters are mainly caused by the high rainfall
climate and the fragility of the mountain environment - rugged and steep
slopes, largely covered by unconsolidated earth materials, which are
prone to soil erosion, and landslides and related phenomena.
• Steep mountain slopes promote rapid movement of rocks and soil as well
as the large amounts of water and snow which fall in the mountain areas,
causing avalanches, floods and landslides.
• Mountain environments today face an escalation of these risks from the
increase in lowland and highland populations increased pressure on land:
settlements, infrastructure, and the intensification of agricultural landuse and natural resources extraction, often using inappropriate methods.
• Due to the steepness of mountain slopes, fast water movement is able to
collect and carry large particles with immense erosive power, causing
sudden and irreversible loss of mountain soils.
• The natural factor of intense rainfall that contribute to the soil
movement aggravated by human factors such as deforestation,
overgrazing, extension of agriculture onto steep slopes, open-cast
mining and quarrying, and construction of roads and settlements,
without regard for environmental and geological factors.
• A recent example, are the mountain regions of Uganda and
especially Mt. Elgon slopes, which in 2010 experienced severe and
extensive landslides on the steep slopes, and flooding in the
mountain valleys and surrounding lowlands.
• The main trigger is thought to have been deforestation,
intensification of farming steep slopes and climate change in form
of unusually heavy and prolonged rainfall.
Plate 6: Landslides leave ugly scars on the ground and lead to soil erosion, loss
of infrastructure and human lives. A ground photo and satellite image (March
2003) of a landslide scar in Bulucheke, Bududa District on Mount Elgon slopes in
Uganda.
Satellite image from Google maps; Photo credit: Goretti Kitutu.
3.2.5.
Adaptation through Green Economy Development
• The “Green Economy” can be simply defined as a way of doing business, in a
way that provides for people’s needs and takes advantage of new technologies
and climate friendly innovations.
• Given the resource potentials in mountains regions and their role in development;
and the predicted future investment opportunities in these regions, and given the
merging challenges of climate change, adoption of green economy development
approaches in the regions becomes a high value option.
• Green economy development in the mountain regions has multiple dimensions
including: adoption and use of low carbon renewable energy (mini-hydro electric
power, solar energy wind energy); practicing climate smart agriculture and; use
of constructed wetlands for waste water and sewage treatment.
• The move for green economy development in mountain regions is already
gaining momentum and; the International Centre for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD) in collaboration with UNEP, has in the past (in
Kathmandu, 5-7th September 2011), organized the “International Conference on
Green Economy and Sustainable Mountain Development.
• The Kathmandu Conference identified certain priority principles
and actions for harnessing the green economy framework, to
improve the lives of mountain people and, to conserve mountain
ecosystems to promote sustainable development.
• The development of a policy framework and global, regional,
national and local mechanisms to compensate and reward mountain
communities for the services they provide.
• Establishment of favourable conditions for improving markets for
mountain ecosystem goods and services (ICIMOD, 2011).
• To encourage adoption of green economy (or more environmentally
friendly) approaches, technologies and practices; to best adapt to
impacts of climate change, improve production efficiency and
contribute to global efforts in climate change mitigation.
(a)
The Energy sector: The greatest opportunity in the African mountain
regions for green economy development is the energy sector, especially
involving harnessing and distribution of the high reserve potential of
hydroelectric power, to drive economies in the mountains and beyond.
•
In isolated mountain regions, mini-hydroelectric power generation from several
megawatts to tens of megawatts is a most feasible development option.
• Large hydroelectric power projects utilizing water flowing from the mountains,
and involving hundreds to thousands of megawatts capacity, are also possible
and; this indicates the potential of mountain regions for driving green economic
development in Africa, well adapted to climate change.
• The great energy potential of the mountain streams and rivers in Africa has not
yet fully assessed, and only a very minute proportion of this potential in known
to have been harnessed.
• Due to location within the tropics and sub-tropics, the mountain regions of
Africa also have great potential for solar power produced from radiation
captured by photovoltaic PV, and wind generated energy.
• The wind energy, however, may face some limitations due to the rugged
nature of terrain that reduces wind fetch and hence its energy, but is still
another option whose viability real but still needs evaluation.
• Other solar-based green technologies too, provide great options as
alternative energy source; which technologies help to reduce fuel wood
use for cooking and heating, which reduces indoor pollution, a major
domestic-based environmental health problem in rural mountain
communities.
• In particular, these technologies are appropriate for mountain areas due to
their being relatively easy to use and maintain. Some of these
technologies include solar cookers, solar driers, solar lamps and solar
water purification systems and; the same is true for use of biogas, mainly
for cooking and to some extent lighting.
• The technologies have been introduced in many mountain areas of Africa
(e.g., Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia), but the adoption rate is still
low, mainly due to limited demonstrations to popularize the technologies,
and the problem of affordability.
(b) Transport sector: Use of simple low carbon transport systems such
as bicycles, is another green economy technology; However, bicycle use
in mountains remains faced with the major challenge of dominantly
rugged and steep landscapes and; as a result motorized transport remain
important.
• However, popularization of the animal of burden transport systems, such
as use of donkeys in the Mount Elgon region, Uganda, could provide
partial solution and; is already in use in many mountain areas.
• The systems are quite innovative, simple and low carbon in nature and; in
addition, the systems have provided relief to women who often carry on
their head or back food, fuelwood and other products for long distances
on the mountain slopes, to their homes or local markets using.
• It is important to note that the valuable contributions of mountains to
green economies beyond the mountains regions themselves cannot be
underestimated, especially in terms of generation of clean and nearly all
carbon-free hydroelectric power to support industries and a host of other
social and economic activities.
Thank You!