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Journal of Language Sciences & Linguistics. Vol., 4 (4), 229-234, 2016
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ISSN 2148-0672 ©2016
Derivational Morphology in French
Khalil Nemat*
Assistant professor of French Language and Literature, department of French,
Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sanandaj, Iran
*
Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT The theories of linguistics distinguish derivational morphology from inflectional morphology.
Inflectional morphology uses only suffixes and understanding their meaning refers us to the syntactic context
that is sentence. Derivational morphology returns to vocabulary and prefixes, roots, suffixes are used there. The
meaning of a word is formed by the successive analysis of morphemes that constitute it. Derivational
morphology allows to study the construction of new words formed by joining morphemes already known and
used in other terms. In the present study which is related to the performance of words, only derivational
morphology which is related to the word is supposed to be studied.
Keywords: Morphology, Morpheme, Derivation, Derivative Affixes, Inflectional Affixes.
INTRODUCTION
Language is considered as an important and key element in human societies because it is used as an
essential and primary tool for expressing individual and collective identities. Language is also the most
important communicational device among people and groups. When the subject of finding some ways to live
peacefully is discussed, the role which is played by language and verbal communication in human interaction is
completely considerable.
In fact, with all its shapes, language has close relationship with human social life and human doesn’t get it
through genetic heritage. Learning language is acquisitive and its trend is wider and more complete from one
generation to the other. Based on this, intellectual progress of a person is tightly related to his vocabulary
growth and competence to use it correctly.
The words are integral parts of the language. No language can exist without word. Assessing the richness
of language is carried out considering the richness of words and the importance of terminology studies refers to
it. Of course it has to be known that social developments, gradual development of sciences, changes which
happen in the custom and culture of a country will inevitably bring some changes in language. In another word,
the language is developed and completed in parallel with the development of the country which it belongs to.
French hasn’t also remained stable and it has been developed, completed and richer over time. Contemporary
France is the result of this historical gradual development. Main resources of French richness are semantic
transformation of words, loaning from other languages and constructing new terms. Creating new words is
through four methods: derivation, compounding, phonemes, abbreviations. Present study named derivational
morphology studies derivation generally and investigates its different aspects.
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MORPHOLOGY
Morphology includes investigating and studying the smallest units of form and meaning that are
morphemes. Morphemes in fact constitute the words (Huot, 2005). 75 percent of morphemes in French are
complex morphologically that is they have been compounded from one root and one or more affixes (ReyDebove, 1984). If look at word chaton up close, its concept is reduced from the morphemes which have formed
it: chat and -on that is an affix named small. The study of morphology proposes some criteria that allows us to
understand a word which is complex morphologically is formed through some meaningful elements and these
elements are compounded with each other according to the logic which allows producing new words.
Morpheme
Morpheme is defined as the smallest semantic unit of language. Successive analysis of morphemes making
up a word will lead to forming its meaning (Lehmann & Martin-Berthet, 2005). A morpheme can be
compounded with other morphemes: morpheme chant can be compounded with morpheme -eur and make the
word chanteur or can be compounded with morpheme -euse and create the word chanteuse. To make one part of
word as morpheme, it should be able to be replaced with other morpheme (e.g. vol-er, chant-er, chant-eur).
A fixed concept should be also linked to it. Therefore, a word may consist of only one basis (e.g. lait) or of
one joined basis to one or several affixes (e.g. lait-ier). This is the basis which has the identity of the word, affix
is an “attached element”. When all affixes are removed from basis and the basis isn’t in accordance with an
independent word, it will be called “root” (Gardes-Tamine, 2002), for example the root of word ir-réalis-able”
is -réalis- .
Considering the location of affix, the prefixes which are at the beginning of the word will be distinguished
from suffixes that are at the end of the word. Suffixes stretch the last syllable of a word in its right side and their
changes are very general (e.g. feuillage in which suffix -age means “set of leaves”). Suffixes are featured in
determining grammar form of word (sent-iris a verb, sent-iment is a noun).
The number of prefixes which are located on the left side of the word is less. In fact, prefixes are old
prepositions that are have been linked to the root and their meaning can be recognized better (re-faire, dé-faire).
Therefore, the prefixes are added to the beginning of the word and allow creating new words.
Derivational morphology
Functionalism is first identified based on tending not to consider language structure as a reality which
exists by itself and then based on its explanation according to balance among communicational needs as they are
shown in a specific language community. It can be said, this is very definition that André Martinet (1979)
proposes from functionalism.
After 1871, the introduction of derivational morphology was affected by historical comparisons especially
discovering Sanskrit at the end of the eighteenth century that intensified derivation with notable regularity. The
study of words transformation was discussed another time but this time only related to their shapes and
internal structure.
1- André Martinet who was born in April 12th 1908 and passed away in June 16th 1999 was French
linguistic that is known as the father of applied analysis in French linguistics. He was the manager of Center for
the Study in Applied Faculty of Paris Higher Education (1938, 1946, 1955, 1999). He was also responsible for
managing International auxiliary language association in New York (1946-1948). He also used to teach in
Colombia University and he became the head of linguistics group in there (1947-1955). Then he took the
position of general linguistics at the Sorbonne University from 1955. He managed European community of
linguistics as well (1966-1999). He was inspired by Literary Linguistics Assembly of Prague and became
innovative in functionalism approach of syntax (language and role, 1962) and authored more than 20 important
books in the field of Linguistics in Time (The economy of changing phonemes, 1955) and General linguistics
(The elements of general linguistics, 1960; General syntax, 1985; Languages’ roles and dynamicity, 1989) that
some of them are translated into several languages. He has also left an intellectual biography which is named
“The memories of a linguistic, the experience of languages” in 1993.
Organized study of word construction entered grammar in the book Root and constructing French (18531857) by Albin d’Abel de Cheval let.
Ferdinant de Saussure continued this subject through writing completely theoretic articles such as the
Philosophy of language science studied in constructing the words (1875) in order to perceiving comparative
constructions. Since then, derivation found its place in grammar. For example, the word Chevalier (Horseman)
is investigated: first is the infinitive or gerund of the word which is related to the person who belongs to
medieval military aristocracy or the member of modern Knights system (distinction is obtained from individual
merit). However, finding out that Chevalier is related to cheval (horse) is easy. Comparing other gerunds of
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other similar words (jardin > jardinier, sauce > saucier, école > écolier) it can be confirmed that there is a
relatively organized grammar process and we mean constructing new words that are based on the gerund of
word which exist. This morphological phenomenon is called derivation. Therefore, derivation is considered as
word trend whose curtesy, the person can make new terms in order to increase his/her vocabulary.
Derivation and compounding are traditionally considered as in contrast with inflection and distinguish
them. While inflection is derived from grammar morphology and is related to shape variation of a word,
compounding and derivation are considered as the morphology of constructing the words. In another word, a
new word can be constructed through compounding and derivation while through inflection, only variety of
shapes can be given to the word.
In his study about derivational morphology, Danielle Corbin compared simple words with constructed
words (Corbin, 1987). Unlike simple words such as table, fleur or dormir, constructed words are objective
(motivational) that is their meaning is compounding because they can be analyzed based on their internal
structure which is derived from involuntary combination. For example, défaire, refaire and parfaire are justified
based on the root faire and lave-glace and vide-ordures based on their constituent elements. Therefore,
compounding and derivation are considered as two methods for constructing new lexical units.
1- Albin d’Abel de Chevallet was born in 1812 in Or Pierre and passed away in 1858, he was French
terminologist, linguistic and translator. He was the author of a three-volume work called “The root and
construction of French” (1853-1857). France Large Institute of Linguistics gave this book the award of Prix
Volney in 1850. In that very year big award of Grand Prix Gobert belonged also to this book. He also translated
the book of “Poetic anecdotes of Phèdre” in 1840.
2- Ferdinant de Saussure, Swedish linguistic, was born in November 26 th 1858 in Genova and passed away
in February 22nd 1913 in Vufflens-le-Château. He is known as founder of structuralism in Linguistics. He is also
reputed because of his researches about Indo-European languages, formerly called Indo-German. Saussure
established modern linguistics and laid the foundations of semiotics.
3- Danielle Corbin, French linguistic and novelist, was born in April 4 th 1946 in Toulouse and passed away
in August 6, 2000 in Lille³. He was the master of linguistics in Lille 3 University. Well-known book of
Derivational morphology and constructing words is written by him. Corbin had conducted many researches and
activities about linguistics.
Compounding includes creating a word through linking several roots that can be dependent or independent,
for example, chou-fleur, auto-radio and hippodrome are formed through compounding: two first words include
completely separate two lexical units (chou, fleur and auto, radio) and vice versa in last word, hippo- cannot
exist independently from other root. Derivation by itself includes constructing derivations using two methods:
through linking affixes to the root which is called affix derivation and converting that is called inappropriate
derivation.
Affix derivation
Affix derivation allows consisting a derivation through adding one or several derivational affixes to a root
or basis. Danielle Corbin discusses the concept of constructed word and defines it as:
“Constructed word is a word whose guessable meaning based on its internal structure is completely
compounding and is related to derivational operations of a big group of words (basis) that are applied by a kind
of rule of forming words that related the operations of subject, semantics, syntax and morphology to each
other” (Corbin & Corbin, 1991).
Practically, derivational affixes related to derivation are needed to be recognized from those inflectional
affixes that are resulted from inflection. Igor Aleksandrovič Mel'čuk¹ argues derivational and inflectional affixes
respectively (Mel'cuk et al., 1994). Inflectional affixes are completely grammatical concepts that distinguish
different shapes of a word and state symptoms of Morphology number (singular, plural), persona and time. For
example, in cases below, letter s indicates the plurality of the word champion and identifiers ons, ez and aient
clarify person, time and verb root of chant:
Champion/-s; chant/-ons/-ez/-aient …
Derivational affixes are concepts and terms that are used for constructing new lexical units that are called
derivations. Of course, it has to be noticed that derivational affixes rarely work like independent words. Affix
derivation based on the type of added affix to the basis (one or more basis), can be prefix, suffix or prefix-suffix
simultaneously. Two prefix and suffix derivation are respectively adding a prefix or a suffix to the basis.
Therefore, derivation repeindre through adding prefix re- to verb peindre and derivation pauvreté through
adding suffix –té has been converted to adjective pauvre. Prefix-suffix form is the result of simultaneous joining
of suffix and prefix to the basis. For example, the word
1- Igor Aleksandrovič Mel'čuk is retired professor of linguistics and translation group of Montreal
University and graduated from linguistic group of Moscow state University. He has been working for language
science institute in Moscow since 1956. He has also been one of developers of meaning-context theory since
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1974 and he is also the author of book the lessons of general morphology in five volumes. Mel'čuk has
conducted many researches about linguistic science.
Encolure by adding prefix en- and suffix –ure simultaneously to noun col and the word indécorable has
been made by adding prefix in- and suffix –able to the noun décore.
Inappropriate derivation or conversion
Inappropriate derivation isn’t the result of structural change but it is the result of grammatical re-ranking.
A word changes its group without changing its shape. For example, the verbs boire and manger in the
expression of le boire et al manger has been turned to noun as the result of converting verb group to noun
group; the noun bleu has been created following changing adjective group of bleu to noun in example:
L’ouvrier portait un bleu tout couvert de graisse
Now that we have studied two modes of affix derivation and inappropriate derivation, it has to be noted
that not all lexical units of language have derivations. Considering that derivational complexes are made of more
than one morpheme, derivational morphology studies the shapes of bound morphemes and free morphemes,
their different types and semantic coverage of these contextual types. Each one of a derivation’s morphemes,
whether basis or affix can have different shapes. Through observing these factors, it can be understood that affix
morphology in any case is pure connection of two morphemes but it is often simultaneous change of basis and
affix. Derived word is considered as a derivational compounding that is completely analyzable to two
morphemes or more: one free morpheme or basis and one or several affixes. This position of affix is related to
basis that specify one of situations below for that:
- Prefix (when it is at the beginning of the word): ré- in réforme (1)
- Suffix (when it is at the end of word): -ment in lancement (2)
- Detached affix (when it involves basis): dé…ment- in dépassement (3)
However, detached affix should be recognized for example in word dépassement (3) in which dé-…-ment
indicates an affix in different parts of derivative evidenc from a set (one prefix+one suffix) for example in
réélaboration (4) considering that constructed complex with basis (passe) and suffix –ment isn’t accepted (that
is word passement doesn’t exist in language), while in example 4 the compounding elaboration in language has
been accepted. In word réélaboration the prefix ré- is a prefix which is independent from –tion. While detached
affix can be seen in the phrase, the derivation is called beyond compounding.
Derivational affixes and inflectional affixes
It has to be known that studying the range of combinability of affixes cannot separate them from identifiers
that according to some of linguistics are called inflectional affixes. Derivational affixes are never clear as
identifiers because this word is derived that can be defined separated from its constituent elements. On the other
hand, the contrast between these two is clear: derivational affix isn’t combined with any bases while inflectional
affix follows a completely regular compounding. The next contrast is that derivational affix often changes the
group while identifier isn’t the same at all.
Lexical production of affixes
Derivational affix is the tool of producing the words while derivation is a production process of new
derivational compounds. Talking about the capability of producing affixes is difficult because their
transformation is complicated and their performance is very diverse. Comparing them that can help recognizing
a dependent basis is misleading and cause ordinary user to make mistake; in series: tessiture, ouverture, culture,
signature, candidature, aventure allure, température and législature, suffix –ure is capable of producing noun
derivations whose basis belong to different groups. Therefore, from verb basis signer, derivation signature and
from cultiver derivation culture is obtained and aller derivation allure but candidature has been taken from
noun basis candidat and in simple morphemes temperature and aventure, there is tendency to eliminate suffix –
ure that doesn’t exist in origin. Finally, only a morphophonemic can recognize suffix –ure in tessiture, the suffix
which is joined to a unfree basis as the result of comaprign with word législature.
Some affixes such as –tion and its variables: -ssion, -sion, -ition, -ation and –xion can create some
derivations from all bases that indicate one type. For example, for verb variable bases, the cases below can be
mentioned:
Signifie…signification; créer…création; convaincre…conviction; voir…vision; réfléchir…réflexion;
diriger…direction; décider…décision
And suffix -ité can produce a noun derivation almost out of all adjectives especially those end to –able and
–ible:
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Futile …futilité; incomparable … in comparabilité; capable …capacité; probable…probabilité; moral
…moralité; vrai …vérité
Basis, derivation, affix and their mutual relationships
Derivative constituent elements are integrated and their regularity is very accurate. There are very
complicated mutual relationships among them so that signifier forced linear structure brings similar semantic
structure to sentence is some aspects.
Derivation is a set which get meaning through its constituent elements, the elements that don’t have value
by themselves in linguistic system and because of their correlation become important. The performance of a
derivation is effective show of Saussure’s thought about its value. The relationships among constituent elements
are as companion. This makes constrains for absolute freedom of sign. According to this, it is said that
derivation is relatively motivational. Derivational motivation that is natural intra-language has an important role
in being aware of regulate arrangement of derivation construction. Although this arrangement is putting some
elements beside each other that exist before, semantic effect which is obtained is different and is distinguishable
from set of constituent elements concepts. This shows that derivation isn’t pure and simple connection but it is
the companion of living elements.
Unlike basis, the affix doesn’t propose information about metalinguistic experience but it is more a unit
that refers to a mental reality and does a kind of semantic activity on it. Whatever this action is multi value like
basis action, it is generally coordinated with inside an affix set that affix is identified in it.
In terms of semantics and syntactic, derivation enters the sentence as a simple unit but its difference with
simple units is that it makes a picture with accurate arrangement of its components. Out of more or less regular
sets, comparison helps us to consider these images as semantic forms but these semantic forms aren’t always
overt: common point of a family word set should be in accordance with the common point signified. Common
point of signifiers may be sometimes empty and deep phonetic changes such as loaning and calques from Latin
and Greek make a hidden barrier that prohibits any kind of accessing the meaning for ordinary user especially
foreigner. In fact, when the goal is describing the derivations of a series of wisely words next to another series
of slang words by the same token, the application of relative motivation will be disturbed and identifying a
concept inside a family of words will be impossible without help of natural motivation. In the set of derivations
below, what reveals semantic relationship or inherent recognition of verbs sembler- similaire (similaire is a
Latin word means being similar)?
1. Sembler, ressembler, ressemblance, semblable, dissemblable, dissemblance…
2. Similaire, similitude, dissimilitude, assimiler, assimilable, assimilation…
3. Simuler, simulation, simulacre, dissimulé, dissimulateur, dissimulation…
Another deviating phenomenon is polysemy. Derivation also as a simple sign that is constrained as soon as
being created, introduces an idea or a thing and gradually is used for other idea or thing as well and after a short
time refers to both modes or returns to one of them and cut with the other one and therefore, it will follow this
type of language system logic. Verb avorter (transitive verb) includes three concepts:
1. A premature childbirth
2. Not to reach full growth (in fruits)
3. Stopping in growth, failure, not succeeding
And when this verb is intransitive, it has only one meaning; “force a woman into abortion”. And this last
meaning that derivation avorteur/avorteuse (a person who commits abortion illegally) has accepted it.
Moreover, nothing refers to “illegal” in its main concept while this feature is prominent in its accepted meaning.
Semantic relationship can be expanded with basis unit or even eliminated completely while it paves the
way for the phenomenon of polysemy that can be transformed either in basis unit or derivation differently. In
this mode, the motivation will ruin and doesn’t play role at least for one of these cases: for example, derivation
moineau has lost any kind of semantic relationship with its root moine.
A derivation with polysemy can be single meaning, therefore, it is clear that this derivation refers to one of
probable meaning of basis. Such derivation is usually a scientific word: Avulsion is a word that only exists in
scientific language and means the action of supplanting (avallare is a Latin variable from verb arracher):
L’avulsion de dent. And of course verb arracher in slang covers wide semantic scope.
But how a user would recognize this meaning? The application of picture isn’t that much clear in there too
and agreement on that each semantic unit, derivation or plain, seems rational to be always the center interaction
of linguistics and social - cultural events phenomenon of society.
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CONCLUSION
Different parts of this research show the importance of words in transformation and evolutionary of
French. The words by themselves considering social, cultural developments and science progress haven’t
remained stable and have been transformed and evolved. Contemporary France is the result of this historical
gradual development. Therefore, we can see that a language lexicon isn’t a stable and invariable set. Besides
existing lexicon resources, there are many various mechanisms of production change the concept of words. One
of main resources of French lexicon richness is constructing new words that is carried out through four methods:
derivation, compounding, phonemes and abbreviations. Derivation was generally studied in this research and its
different aspects were investigated.
Through investigating different modes of derivation, it was concluded that not all language lexicon units
have derivation. Considering that derivation compounds are formed from more than one morpheme, derivational
morphology studies the shapes of bound and free morphemes, their different types and semantic coverage of
these contextualized types. Each one of a derivation’s morphemes, whether basis or affix can have different
shapes. Through observing these factors, it can be understood that affix morphology in any case is pure
connection of two morphemes but it is often simultaneous change of basis and affix.
On the other hand, semantic development and accuracy cause the words to involve wider concepts. For
example, compound word feu vert originally means green light in intersections but this word has been also used
as permission for some recent years (for example, it is said that an X has shown green light to his friend). Many
examples in this case can be found in French. The trend of semantic development and its complete recognition
require comprehensive investigation that should be studied by the researchers of language field.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest
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