Download some key themes in the study of human geography

PA RT
1
The importance of site is illustrated in this photo. The land adjacent to the Red River
was viewed as ideal for human occupation because it was flat, fertile, and adjacent
to a major water way. However, it is also prone to flooding. The Red River floods
thousands of acres of farmland as it overflows its banks. The river crested April 6,
1997, but the continued inflow from its tributaries is preventing the water level from
dropping at a regular rate.
SOME K EY THEMES IN THE STUDY
OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
H
uman geography studies the ways in which people and
societies are regionally different in their distinguishing
characteristics. It seeks to understand the flow of people,
goods, and ideas from one region to another. Additionally, it
examines the ways that different societies perceive, use, and alters
the landscapes they occupy. This wide range of interests would
seem to imply an unmanageable range and variety of topics. This
implication is misleading, however, for the diversified subject
matter of human geography can be accommodated within the
themes of geography identified in the first chapter. In part 1 of the
book, we devote specific attention to three of these themes—the
world in spatial terms, human systems, and regions and places.
Two general views emerge from many of the problems facing
our world today. The first is cultural and reflects how different
social groups are characterized and comprise the individual pieces
of the human mosaic. Underlying this perspective are matters
related to learned behaviours, attitudes, and group beliefs that are
fundamental and identifying features of specific social groups and
larger societies. The second view concerns itself with the systems of
production, livelihood, spatial organization, and administration—
and the institutions appropriate to those systems—that a society
erects in response to opportunity, technology, resources, conflict,
or the need to adapt and change. This second view recognizes what
the French geographers in the early twentieth century called genre
de vie—the way of life—of a population that might be adopted or
pursued no matter what the other intangible cultural traits of that
society might be. Interwoven with and unifying these primary
features are the continuing background concern for geographers:
society and environment interactions (Chapter 12).
We shall pursue each of these views in separate sections of
this book and address the unifying interest of human impact on
the earth surface both as an integral part of each chapter and as
the topic of our concluding chapter. Throughout, we shall keep
returning to a small number of basic observations that underlie all
of human geographic study: (1) People and the societies they form
are differentiated by a limited set of cultural characteristics and
organizational structures; (2) without regard to those cultural and
organizational differences, human spatial behaviour has common
and recurring motivations and patterns; and (3) cultural variations
and spatial actions are rooted in the distribution, number, and
movements of people.
These observations are the concerns of the following two
chapters, which focus further attention on the four themes of
geography. In Chapter 2, a general approach to research is provided. The second part of this chapter pursues the “World in
Spatial Terms” theme, and notes how maps can be used as a data
source as well as a tool to interpret information. Maps have been
an ongoing pursuit of geographers that has transcended cultures.
Chapter 3 examines three important themes in human
geography—human systems, regions, and places in the context of
globalization. The general physical and behavioural factors that
influence spatial interaction are described. This understanding is
an important first step in providing a geographical perspective on
world, regional, and local processes and problems.
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CHAPTER
2
THE WORLD IN SPATIAL
TERMS—GEOGRAPHIC
RESEARCH AND MAPS
Aims
• To understand the research process
• To understand the basic properties of maps and how they show data
• To appreciate the power of geographic information systems
Some Specific Considerations for Review:
1. The sources of information, primary and secondary, which geographers use, pp. 31–37.
2. How the Census of Canada is spatially organized and some problems of using census data,
pp. 34–35.
3. Why geographers use maps, and how maps show location and spatial information, pp. 37–51.
4. Other means of visualizing and analyzing spatial data: mental maps, remote sensing, GIS, and
models, p. 51–55.
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T
his chapter has two purposes. First, a general approach to
conducting research is described, and focuses attention
on two general approaches to reasoning, and the nature of
data. Second, we examine the properties of maps and how they can
(mis)represent information. Understanding the nature of research,
such as how questions are posed, research is designed, data are
collected and analyzed, and how maps are used to display results,
are important to the development of critical thinking skills.
A Research Question:
What is the Influence of
Place on Human Health?
Human health reflects a complex interplay of two general characteristics: (i) individuals (e.g., age structure, genetic composition,
lifestyles, culture), and (ii) the circumstances in which they live
both environmental (e.g., exposure to pollution) and social (e.g.
access to social services). There is a considerable body of research
that has focused attention on the relationship among individual factors, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, obesity, and income
levels, on health. There has also been concerted and longstanding
research to establish causal relationships between exposure to
different environmental conditions and health. However, there is
also growing concern about the nature and the extent of relationships among urban form, people, the environment and health.
The North American population is becoming increasingly obese.
There are also increasing rates of asthma and depression. At the
same time, North American lifestyles are becoming increasingly
sedentary, and this may be linked, in part, to the structure and
form of our communities. However, while there is suspicion about
linkages between urban form (or place) and health, there has been
little conclusive research.
This point is illustrated in the 2002 Annual Report on the
Health of Montrealers by the Régie Régionale de la Santé et
des Service Sociaux de Montréal-Centre. It revealed “big gaps”
in health indicators based on a person’s socio-economic status
and place of residence (Figure 2.1). It found that life expectancy
increased with income levels—poorer men lived 6.6 years and
women 3.6 years less than their higher income counterparts. However, determining the nature and extent of the link between place
and health has been a difficult research question, in part, because
(i) it is difficult to obtain data at the level of the individual (i.e.,
a scale problem); and (ii) the absence of appropriate statistical
methods (i.e., a technical or methodological problem) (Macintyre
et al., 2002). Rising to this type of research challenge is the
essence of the work of university and college professors, and
those who are involved in research in the public, private, and nongovernment sectors.
Ross et al. (2004) became intrigued with the link between
place and health and specifically posed the following question:
“What were the neighbourhood effects (place effects) on health
within Montreal?” Using data collected through the Canadian
Community Health Survey and the Census of Canada, and applying computer technology to handle large data sets, they applied
statistical techniques to answer this research question. They
found that neighbourhoods exerted an effect on health status
above and beyond the impact of individual risk factors, including smoking, obesity, high stress, and a low sense of belonging
to a community. This study is of specific interest to geographers
because it was conducted at two scales—the individual and the
neighbourhood. Although the neighbourhood effect was found to
be small (about 3%) relative to individual factors (e.g., smoking,
obesity), they are significant because we can more easily improve
the design of our communities (e.g., providing better spaces for
walking and recreating) than change individual behaviours (e.g.,
adopting and affording healthy lifestyles). Ross et al. also found
that poor health status was also associated with high levels of
self-perceived stress and a low sense of belonging to community.
Better community design can increase a person’s sense of belonging to a community. The form and structure of Montreal and
many other Canadian cities promotes a high level of car usage,
which leads to air pollution and a sedentary lifestyle. Achieving
healthy cities should be considered as a key goal for public policy
and urban planning, and is an area where geographers can make a
meaningful contribution.
We will return to this study later in this chapter. For now,
appreciate how research questions can develop from previous
FIGURE 2.1 Life expectancy maps for Montreal.
Source: 2002 Annual Report, “A Profile of Health in Montreal.”
The World in Spatial Terms—Geographic Research and Maps
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research studies, how geography can contribute to public policy,
and how there are a mix of challenges, in this case the problems of
obtaining health data at the individual level and the initial absence
of appropriate statistical tests, which must be overcome in a successful research project.
The Research Process
The research study above asked and answered some of the questions that lie at the core of geography: What is the pattern of
life expectancy in Montreal? What factors explain this pattern?
What are the opportunities to improve current conditions? To
answer these types of questions, geographers develop knowledge by applying their techniques and skills in a systematic and
rigorous manner. There are two general approaches to developing knowledge—inductive and deductive reasoning—both of
which use a series of logical steps to explain the world around
us (see Figure 2.2). However, they are different in that inductive
research looks at particular facts or events and sees if they can
be the basis for formulating a general rule or principle. The steps
would generally follow from observations made by the researcher,
to patterns observed based on a categorization of the observations, to explanations. An example is the Demographic Transition
theory, which will be described in Chapter 4. Deductive research
more closely follows the “scientific method.” It starts with a sense
that a general principle exists and research determines if it applies
in specific circumstances. Experiments are designed to prove the
validity of the generalization. If it is shown to be valid, then a
theory or law can be established. The development of the gravity
model (Chapter 3) is an example of this type of thinking. The key
in both approaches is to ensure the research question is clear and
the appropriate data and analytical techniques are applied that
truly test the idea being proposed.
Ethical considerations are a fundamental requirement that
researchers must consider. Everyone conducting research must
consider the ethical aspects. In Canada, the three major research
funding agencies—Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada (SSHRC), Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR)—have adopted a set of ethical
principles (The Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethics in Research
with Human Subjects) to guide research (Table 2.1)
The use of GIS presents some interesting questions related
to free and informed consent, and privacy. For instance, should a
researcher have access to a car navigation system to track a person’s (or number of persons) daily travels without their consent?
Whether or not consent is obtained, how can a person’s privacy be
maintained if their house location is shown on a map?
While each research effort has its own approach (e.g., inductive and deductive thinking), ethical considerations and practical
issues (e.g. time and money available, working in remote places),
a general research process would likely contain the following elements: (1) clarifying the problem or question, (2) data collection,
(3) data analysis, and (4) making conclusions. The following section will consider these four aspects in the context of geographic
research.
You are probably aware that problem solving is easier when
the problem is clearly defined. Before you think about what data
you want to collect, ask why you are collecting it. To this end, think
about the many purposes that research projects can pursue. It is often
INDUCTIVE REASONING
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Perceptual Experiences
Perceptual Experiences
Unordered Facts
Views of the Real World Structure
Define, Classify, and
Measure the Real World
Negative
Feedback
Establish a Model
Positive
Feedback
Develop a Hypothesis
Develop a Set of Ordered Facts
Develop a Research Design
Inductive Generalization
Collect Data
Establish Laws & Theory
Unsuccessful Verify Procedures
EXPLANATION
Establish Laws & Theory Successful
EXPLANATION
FIGURE 2.2 Inductive and deductive reasoning.
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TABLE 2.1
Ethical Aspects of Research
•
The ethical principles that guide research in Canada and most
applicable to research in human geography are:
Respect for Human Dignity: Aspires to protect the multiple
and interdependent interests of the person—from bodily to
psychological to cultural integrity.
•
Respect for Free and Informed Consent: Requires that people
not be forced or pressured into participating in research. This is
especially relevant where researchers had previously relied on
‘captive audiences’ for their subjects—prisons and universities.
This also means that prospective research participants must be
fully informed about the procedures and risks involved in research
and must give their consent to participate.
•
Respect for Vulnerable Persons: Children, institutionalised persons
or others who are vulnerable are entitled to protection and
special procedures to protect their interests. At a university, these
procedures must be approved by the Ethics Board.
Respect for Privacy and Confidentiality: The researcher promises
participants that their identifying information will not be made
available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study. This
can sometimes take the form of anonymity, which essentially means
the participant will not be named or identified throughout the study.
Clearly, the anonymity standard is a stronger guarantee of privacy,
but it is sometimes difficult to accomplish, especially in situations
where participants have to be contacted several times during a study.
Respect for Justice and Inclusiveness: Justice connotes fairness and
equity. Procedural justice requires that the ethics review process
have fair methods, standards and procedures for reviewing research
protocols, and that the process be effectively independent. Justice
also concerns the distribution of benefits and burdens of research.
Balancing Harms and Benefits: Harm can be defined as both
physical and psychological. The analysis, balance and distribution
of harms and benefits are critical to the ethics of human research.
Modern research ethics, for instance, require a favourable harmsbenefits balance—that is, that the foreseeable harms should not
outweigh anticipated benefits. These concerns are particularly
evident in biomedical and health research; in research they need
to be tempered in areas such as geography, political science,
economics, or modern history (including biographies), areas
in which research may ethically result in the harming of the
reputations of organizations or individuals in public life.
helpful to clarify which specific purpose(s) your research seeks to
achieve. Five common purposes found in geographic research are:
• Description: A major purpose of geographic inquiry is to
describe places or how people perceive places, the flow of
people, goods and/or services, events, and how humans interact with the environment. Describing the physical and human
characteristics of a region, such as the pattern of mortality in
Montreal must be done systematically if it is to be considered
research rather than journalism. Descriptive studies would
answer questions related to what, where, when, and how.
•
Sometimes, descriptions can involve quantitative measurements in order to establish the strength of relationships.
Explanation: Explanatory studies answer the question “why,”
such as why do people living in the east end of Montreal
have higher mortality rates than those living in the west end?
Why do most people immigrating to Canada prefer to live in
Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver?
Forecasting and Prediction: The focus is on the future. What
will the health of people be if we do not change current urban
planning approaches? How will Canadians change their
modes of daily travel if the price of gasoline doubles?
Assessment: Governments and businesses are often interested
in knowing if their programs are working effectively, efficiently, and fairly. Defining these terms and determining how
to measure them is often a tricky task. For instance, should
we measure the efficiency of a government program by how
quickly ambulance services serve the public and at what cost?
We could also measure efficiency by how quickly people
receive required medical procedures. Alternatively, we might
ask people who are served by the program about their views
of their own health (e.g., stress level) and the efficiency of the
health care system. The overall state of a population can be
measured directly by relying on quantitative indicators such
as mortality rates, life expectancy at birth, activity restrictions, and people’s perception of their own health.
Prescription: Identifying changes that will improve the current situation, much like a doctor prescribes drugs to remedy
a disease, is a final general research objective. For instance,
how should urban form be changed in order to improve health
within a neighbourhood?
Having clarified the research question, a researcher is now
ready to collect data. There are two types of data sources—primary
and secondary. Primary data are collected by the researcher or a
member of the research team specifically for the research project or program. Within this context, geographers will talk about
“collecting data” or “going to the field.” Fieldwork in geography may involve anything from a walk around campus to Ph.D.
research conducted on faraway places for a year or more. When
in the field, you must use your observation skills to their best
advantage. Examples of primary data sources include questionnaires and social surveys, interviews, focus groups, observational
techniques (e.g., “people watching” and participant observation),
and landscape analysis.
Rather than being collected by the researcher or their team,
secondary data are collected by somebody else or another
organization. Note that Ross et al. used secondary data sources,
which indicates new analysis on secondary data is considered
“research.” Geographers often use secondary data collected by
government agencies, private organizations (e.g., business reports
and statements), or other academic researchers. Census data provided by Statistics Canada are an invaluable source of high quality
data (see “The Census of Canada”). Other examples of secondary
sources include archives, historical accounts and images, newspapers, censuses, maps, and photographs.
Other federal government agencies (Health Canada, Environment Canada), as well as provincial, territorial, and local government
The World in Spatial Terms—Geographic Research and Maps
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The Census of Canada and Its Geography
The first known census to be completed on
Canadian soil was initiated by Intendant Jean
Talon in 1666. He recorded the age, gender,
marital status and occupation of the Colony
of New France’s 3,215 inhabitants (excluding
the Iroquois, who had long lived in the area)
in order to aid its planning and development.
Some 340 years later, 13.5 million households
responded to the census questionnaire issued
by Statistics Canada. Eighty percent of the
households were asked in 2006 to respond
to 8 questions, while the remaining 20% in
southern portions of the country responded
to an additional 53 questions. Since sampling
would not produce accurate results for small
populations, all households in northern areas,
remote areas, and Indian reserves, completed
the longer questionnaire. The census continues to help governments and businesses plan
for the future.
Section 8 of The Constitution Act of 1867
(formerly The British North America Act)
required that a census be taken in 1871. Since
that time, decennial census data (called a full
census) have provided the cornerstone for representative government. Beginning in 1906,
the prairie provinces of Manitoba, Alberta,
and Saskatchewan began to take a separate
census of agriculture every five years to
monitor the growth of the West. Since 1956,
the Census of Agriculture and the Census of
Population have been taken together every
five years across the entire country. The
following are the major subjects that Statistics Canada can provide information on:
Economy: Business enterprises, Communications, Construction, Manufacturing,
National accounts, Prices and price indexes,
Science and technology, Service industries,
Trade, Transport and warehousing
Land and Resources: Agriculture, Energy,
Environment, Primary Industries
People: Arts, culture and recreation, Education, Health, Labour, Personal finance
and household finance, Population and
demography, Social conditions, Travel and
tourism
Nation: Government, Justice
Statistical Methods and Reference:
Geography, Reference, Statistical methods
The quality of the data is very good
because of the high response rate and the
efforts of officials at Statistics Canada who
collect and analyze the information. In 2006,
just over 18% of all respondents completed
their survey online—the first time this option
was made available. This development will
reduce the time required to process and
release census data, which has been somewhat problematic in the past.
Census data are available at various
scales, ranging from a city block to the entire
country. Key features of its geography are as
follows.
The 2006 Census Geography
FIGURE 2.3a A dissemination block is an
area bounded on all sides
by roads and/or boundaries
of standard geographic
areas. The dissemination
block is the smallest
geographic area for
which population and
dwelling counts are disseminated.
Source: Statistics Canada, http://geodepot.statcan
.ca/Diss/Reference/COGG/Index_e.cfm.
FIGURE 2.3b The dissemination area is
a small, relatively stable geographic unit
composed of one or more dissemination
blocks. It is the smallest standard geographic
area for which all census data are
disseminated. They usually have populations
of 400 to 700 people. The Dissemination
Area that comprises the Census Subdivision
of Maple Ridge (B.C.) is shown below.
Source: http://geodepot.statcan.ca/Diss/Reference/
COGG/Index_e.cfm.
Dissemination area (400–700 people)
within Maple Ridge, British Columbia
agencies also publish substantial amounts of information, as do
other national governments, and international organizations (United
Nations, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD)). Information can range from statistics on transportation,
to public attitudes on topics such as immigration, transportation
preferences, and perceptions of health and environmental management. Most research projects begin with a search of secondary
sources in order to find out what is already known about a topic and
what questions remain to be asked/answered.
One must be careful when using secondary data, even those
that are of high quality such as Canadian Census data, in order
to realize their strengths, weaknesses, and idiosyncrasies. For
instance, if you were doing a project on Canadian cities, you
would want to make sure you know how urban areas are defined
by the census over time. In 2006, an urban area was defined as
having a population of at least 1,000 and no fewer than 400 people
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per square kilometre. In 1931, all incorporated cities, towns, and
villages in Canada, regardless of population size or density, were
defined as urban. Other problems can also be encountered. A
social geography project on Aboriginal populations would have to
be sensitive to the changing definition of the term “Aboriginal,”
and changes to the wording of census questions, and patterns of
self-identification. Métis were not included in the census until
1981, and only patrilineal descent (male) was counted until 1981.
In areas where there is a small population, Statistics Canada will
protect the confidentiality of individual responses by applying
random rounding to data (especially socio-economic data). In
some instances, this means that some of these census tracts appear
to have “zero persons” with certain characteristics. However, you
cannot be sure if this is the case or if it is due to random rounding.
Go to the Statistics Canada website at www.statcan.ca/start.html
to find more about the quality of census data.
Some Key Themes in the Study of Human Geography
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Maple Ridge
Consolidated
Subdivision
Dissemination
Area
Maple
Ridge
Maple Ridge Consolidated Subdivision
FIGURE 2.3c Census tracts are small, relatively stable geographic areas
that usually have a population of 2,500 to 8,000. They are located in census
metropolitan areas (CMAs) and in census agglomerations with an urban core
population of 50,000 or more in the previous census. Census subdivision is
the general term for municipalities (as determined by provincial legislation)
or areas treated as municipal equivalents for statistical purposes (for
example, Indian reserves, Indian settlements, and unorganized territories). A
census consolidated subdivision (Figure 2.3d) is a group of adjacent census
subdivisions. Generally, the smaller, more urban census subdivisions (towns,
villages, etc.) are combined with the surrounding larger, more rural census
subdivisions in order to create a geographic level between the census
subdivision and the census division. A census metropolitan area (CMA) or a
census agglomeration (CA) is formed by one or more adjacent municipalities
centred on a large urban area (known as the urban core). A CMA must have
a total population of at least 100,000 of which 50,000 or more must live in
the urban core. A CA must have an urban core population of at least 10,000.
To be included in the CMA or CA, other adjacent municipalities must have
a high degree of integration with the central urban area, as measured by
commuting flows derived from census “place of work” data.
Source: Statistics Canada Geography Division, 2008, http://geodepot.statcan.ca/Diss/
Reference/COGG/Index_e.cfm.
Census Division—Greater Vancouver Regional District
FIGURE 2.3d Census division is the general term for
provincially legislated areas (such as county, municipalité
régionale de comté, and regional district) or their equivalents.
Census divisions are intermediate geographic areas between
the province level and the municipality (census subdivision).
Source: Statistics Canada Geography Division, 2008, http://geodepot.
statcan.ca/Diss/Reference/COGG/Index_e.cfm.
FIGURE 2.3f An economic region (ER) is a grouping
of complete census divisions (with one exception in
Ontario) created as a standard geographic unit for
analysis of regional economic activity. Note that the size
of an ER relates to population densities, which explains
the large regions in the north and the small sizes in the
south of the country.
Source: http://geodepot.statcan.ca/Diss/Reference/COGG/
Index_e.cfm.
Census Division
FIGURE 2.3e In 2006, there were 288
census divisions (Figure 2.2e), 5,418 census
subdivisions, as well as all 33 census metropolitan
areas and 111 census agglomerations.
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Another way of classifying data is the distinction made between
quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative studies often apply
a deductive research approach in order to test and verify hypotheses,
and develop models (e.g., gravity model). As mentioned in Chapter
1, quantitative geographers often examine patterns and flows on
the landscape. In contrast, the behavioural geographers focus attention on the behaviour of people (e.g., individuals, managers, and
business people). They believe that how each person perceives and
experiences the landscape reflects differences in a person’s ability
to gather and organize information. It is the perceived landscape
that emerges from this process that is of interest to behaviouralists.
Rather than asking questions about what kind of interaction and/or
landscape should be created on the basis of economic or other normative laws, behaviouralists ask why people do (or do not) conduct
certain activities. Perceptual data (quantitative data) were obtained
by behavioural geographers from people often through questionnaires and perceptual tests. Respondents were often grouped into
categories (e.g., floodplain resident, socio-economic status, level
of experience with issue) and statistical analysis is commonly performed. Like the quantitative geographers, behaviouralists wanted
to provide general explanations and develop laws and theories.
Explaining how humans adjust to hazards, and why certain land
use patterns in urban and agricultural existed on landscapes, are
two examples of the behaviouralist paradigm in geography. However, note that both types of geographers are obtaining different
types of quantitative data.
Data may also be provided through qualitative methods—
interviews, observations, journal accounts, and interpretations. From
these sources, a researcher can tease out how emotional, aesthetic,
and symbolic factors that bind people and place. This set of tools—
interviews, observations, and textual interpretations—developed in
a variety of disciplines, came to geography in the 1980s. They
are often used by feminist geographers (see “Feminist Geography
Research Methods”). Unlike quantitative methods, which use
statistics and mathematical modelling to generalize, predict, and
control spatial patterns and relationships, qualitative methods promote understanding of how the world is viewed, experienced, and
constructed. In other words, these methods help geographers investigate the motives, goals, and social relationships of individuals
and groups that help to explain how human landscapes, places, and
events are created and represented. Interviews are used to elicit
information from individuals or groups and may range widely in
terms of number of people questioned, duration of the interview,
and the length and type of questions posed. Observations may take
a variety of forms, ranging from participant observation—whereby
the geographer observes through direct engagement with a people
or place—to passive observation—whereby the geographer does
not actively engage or encounter the site or people, and merely
observes non-obtrusively—to personal reflection—the geographer
records his or her impressions after experiencing a particular place
or social event. The interpretation of texts also provides a means
of understanding the human geographical condition. By critically
interpreting the content and social construction of images and
writings (e.g., advertisements, diaries, films, literature, maps, newspapers, even song lyrics), geographers can gain rich insights into
how humans view, experience, and represent their world. Whether
to use quantitative methods, qualitative methods, or some combination of the two, depends upon the kind of questions posed, the kind
of knowledge sought, and the philosophical and methodological
disposition of the geographer.
Data analysis is the third step of the research process. At
this stage, the researcher reviews the data that has been obtained,
Feminist Geography Research Methods
In conducting their research, particularly in
the areas of urban, social, and development
geography, feminist geographers questioned
whether there was a better way to apply the
established methods—questionnaires, interviews, and case studies. For instance, they
found the phrase “administer a questionnaire” somewhat annoying because it implied
that a researcher had to be distant from
the “research subject” in order to remain
“objective.” Feminists and others, including
post-modernists and post-colonialists, were
critical of the traditional research process and
power dynamics that distanced “researchers”
from “subjects.” The most common approach
to feminist research has been to apply qualitative methods, and like most researchers, often
apply multiple data sources and/or analyses
in order to compensate for the weaknesses
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of one source with the strengths of another.
Table 2.2 compares key elements of traditional and feminist research approaches, and
illustrates some of the contributions feminists
have made to methodology.
Feminists have been recently applying
quantitative methods, including GIS. Kwan
(2002: 650) suggested that “feminist geographers using GIS methods can experiment and
create new visual practices, especially those
that can better represent gendered spaces
and help construct different spectator positions when compared to conventional GIS
methods.”
These techniques also carry over to the
writing of feminist geographers. While
writing in the third person has been the standard rule of “academic writing,” feminists
advocate the use of the first person singular
(e.g., “I, me”) to remind both the writer and
the reader that an actual person has lived
through the events associated with the words
and sentences, and that this experience can
be very different from another person who
lived through those same events. Feminist
methods are not that unique in the sense that
other approaches will also use qualitative
techniques. However, feminist research is
distinguished in its “ways of knowing, ways
of asking, ways of interpreting, and ways
of writing” (Women and Geography Study
Group of the IBG, 1997: 109). The methods
are used in ways meant to challenge gender differences and unequal gender relations
both within the practice of geography, and
outside in the larger society, with the intent to
help change for the better.
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Feminist Geography Research Methods
continued
TABLE 2.2
A Comparison of Traditional and Feminist Methods
General Research Stage
Traditional (Patriarchal)
Alternative (Feminist)
Nature of Research Question
Limited, specialized, specific, exclusive. Test
hypothesis in order to contribute to theory
development.
Broad, inclusive. Develop an understanding of
people’s experiences.
Data
Reports of attitudes and behaviours obtained
through questionnaires, interviews, and
archive records. Mode of data collection
determined prior to conduct of research.
Data analysis
Determined prior to research. Deductive
approach. Completed when all data are
collected. Statistical analysis.
Feelings, behaviours, thoughts, insights, actions as
witnessed or experienced by people obtained
through interviews, questionnaires, archive
records, journals. Mode of data collection
determined by context of research.
Done during data collection. Relies on development of
ideas. Inductive approach.
Analysis/Presentation Format
A research report describing hypothesis, data
collection methods, form of analysis, and
conclusions. Objective.
A story or a description which includes documentation
of the research process—data collection and how
patterns were found—and emergent concepts.
Subjective, assumes people’s interpretations are valid.
Source: Adapted from Reinharz, S. (1983). “Experiential Analysis: A Contribution to Feminist Research.” In Theories of Women’s Studies, edited by Gloria Bowles and Renate Duelli
Klein, 162–191. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
and decides what it contributes to the answering of the research
questions. Analysis can take many forms including describing the
context or processes of “something” (e.g., a government program),
classifying data into categories (e.g., a map of a city’s different
cultures), drawing graphs, or completing statistical analysis. The
last stage of the research process is to make conclusions based on
the evidence (data and analysis) that has been collected. This will
be influenced by one’s philosophy as illustrated by the age-old
problem of determining if a glass of water is half full or half empty.
While both responses are correct, they provide different interpretations. A universal guide in making conclusions is to ensure that they
answer the questions that were initially posed by the research and
are adequately supported by the evidence. To better illustrate how
four research steps may be used to organize a commentary on the
research completed by Ross et al., see “Thinking about Research.”
Maps
We now turn our attention to a longstanding and important tool that
geographers frequently employ in presenting their results—maps.
Geographer H. J. de Blij has suggested that “if a picture is worth a
thousand words, a map can be worth a million—but beware” because
they can distort reality (as contained in Monmonier, 1996: xi).
“All mapmakers use generalization and symbolization to highlight
critical information and to suppress detail of lower priority. All cartography seeks to portray the complex, three-dimensional world on a
flat sheet of paper or on a television or video screen. In short . . . all
maps must tell white lies” (Monmonier, 1996: xi). A map is a two
dimensional spatial representation of any part of our world.
Our attention for the remainder of this subsection are on map
projections, map features (e.g., scale), types of map, and how
data may be portrayed on maps. We shall learn that maps can
serve their purpose only if their users have a clear idea of their
strengths, limitations, and diversity, and the conventions used
in their preparation and interpretation. Knowledge of maps can
assist geographers in both gathering and interpreting data, and
influencing how others interpret their work.
Map Projections
A map projection is simply a system for displaying the curved
surface of the earth on a flat sheet of paper. The definition is easy;
the process is more difficult. No matter how one tries to “flatten”
the earth, it can never be done in such a fashion as to show all earth
details in their correct relative sizes, shapes, distances, or directions. Something is always wrong, and the cartographer’s—the
mapmaker’s—task is to select and preserve those earth relationships important for the purpose at hand, and to minimize or
accept those distortions that are inevitable but unimportant.
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Thinking about Research:
The Influence of Place on Human Health
Below is a description, based on the four key
steps of research: clarifying the problem,
data collection, data analysis, and interpretation. As you become more familiar with
the concepts, methods, and findings of a
research area, you will be able to extend the
comments from descriptive to a constructive
commentary.
(1) Clarifying the Problem or Questions
In the study by Ross et al., their purpose
was to describe and measure the relationship
between neighbourhood effects and health in
Montreal. A key geographic question Ross
et al. considered carefully pertained to the
meaning of the word “neighbourhood” and
how should/could it be measured? There
are many reasonable responses to the first
question and many constraints to its proper
measurement. Ross et al. used boundaries suggested by local government and
real estate boards, which are published in
the book le Direction de L’habitation. This
source defined 88 neighbourhoods on the
Island of Montreal. Since this source did not
cover the entire area, Ross et al. used the
census subdivisions, which are developed by
Statistics Canada, to define the additional 20
neighbourhoods in Montreal. This type of
inconsistency is common to many research
projects and is difficult to remove.
at least most of the factors influencing the
dimensions of health.
(2) Data Collection
(3) Data Analysis
Ross et al.’s primary data source was secondary and quantitative—the 2000/2001
Canadian Community Health Survey, which
is a comprehensive national survey that contains information on health outcomes as well
as behavioural and socio-economic information at an individual level. Within Montreal,
there was a sample of 1,652 respondents
aged 25 to 64 to the survey. Data collected
included age, gender, smoking, obesity,
stress, sense of community belonging, and
household income. Ross et al. measured
health outcomes using a health utilities index
(HUI), which is based on a respondent’s selfreporting of health across eight dimensions:
vision, hearing, speech, mobility, dexterity,
cognition, emotion, and pain. To measure
the influence of neighbourhoods, data were
obtained from the 1996 Census of Canada
for the following variables: proportion of
single-parent families, proportion of recent
immigrants, education level, and median
household income of the area. Thus, an
underlying assumption of the research was
that these variables ideally captured all, or
We will not describe the analysis in detail
here—many of you will take (or have to take)
statistics courses in upper years. Suffice it
to say that a combination of statistical and
GIS techniques allowed them to establish the
validity of their definition of neighbourhood,
and then measure its effect on the HUI.
Round Globe to Flat Map
The best way to model the earth’s surface accurately, of course,
would be to show it on a globe. But globes are not as convenient
to use as flat maps and do not allow one to see the entire surface
of the earth all at once. Nor can they show very much of the
detailed content of areas. Even a very large globe of, say, 1 metre
in diameter, compresses the physical or cultural information of
some 130,000 square kilometres of earth surface into a space
2.5 centimetres on a side.
Geographers make two different demands on the maps they
use to represent reality. One requirement is to show at one glance
generalized relationships and spatial content of the entire world;
the many world maps used in this and other geography textbooks
and in atlases have that purpose. The other need is to show the
detailed content of only portions of the earth’s surface—cities,
regions, countries, hemispheres—without reference to areas outside the zone of interest. Although the needs and problems of both
kinds of maps differ, each starts with the same requirement: to
transform a curved surface into a flat one.
If we look at the globe directly, only the front—the side
facing us—is visible; the back is hidden (Figure 2.4). To make a
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fel7005x_ch02_029-057.indd 38
(4) Making Conclusions
Three major conclusions were made from the
information provided above:
• individual risk factors (smoking, obesity,
high stress, low household income, low
sense of community belonging) have significant negative effects on HUI
• about 3% of variation in health status
was attributed to neighbourhoods
• future research is required to pursue the
extent and nature of the neighbourhood
influence
Source: Ross, N.A., S. Tremblay, and K. Graham. (2004).
“Neighbourhood Influences on Health in Montreal,
Canada.” Social Science and Medicine 59: 1485–1494.
world map, we must decide on a way to flatten the globe’s curved
surface on the hemisphere we can see. Then we have to cut the
globe map down the middle of its hidden hemisphere and place
the two back quarters on their respective sides of the already
visible front half. In simple terms, we have to “peel” the map from
the globe and flatten it in the same way we might try to peel an
orange and flatten the skin. Inevitably, the peeling and flattening
process will produce a resulting map that either shows tears or
breaks in the surface (Figure 2.5a) or is subject to uneven stretching or shrinking to make it lie flat (Figure 2.5b).
Projections—Geometrical and Mathematical
Of course, mapmakers do not physically engage in cutting, peeling, flattening, or stretching operations. Their task, rather, is
to construct or project on a flat surface the network of parallels and meridians (the graticule) of the globe grid. The idea
of projections is perhaps easiest visualized by thinking of a
transparent globe with an imagined light source located inside.
Lines of latitude and longitude (or of coastlines or any other
features) drawn on that globe will cast shadows on any nearby
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FIGURE 2.4 An orthographic projection gives us a visually realistic
view of the globe; its distortion toward the edges suggests the normal
perspective appearance of a sphere viewed from a distance. Only a single
hemisphere—one half of the globe—can be seen at a time, and only the
central portion of that hemisphere avoids serious distortion of shape.
surface. A tracing of that shadow globe grid would represent a
geometrical map projection.
In geometrical (or perspective) projections, the graticule
is in theory visually transferred from the globe to a geometrical
figure, such as a plane, cylinder, or cone, which, in turn, can be
cut and then spread out flat (or developed ) without any stretching or tearing. The surfaces of cylinders, cones, and planes are
said to be developable surfaces—cylinders and cones can be cut
and laid flat without distortion and planes are flat at the outset
(Figure 2.6). In actuality, geometrical projections are constructed
not by tracing shadows but by the application of geometry and the
use of lines, circles, arcs, and angles drawn on paper. In a planer
projection, a portion of the earth’s surface is transformed from a
perspective point to a flat surface. In polar areas, lines of latitude
are represented by a system of concentric circles sharing a common point of origin from which radiate the lines of longitude,
spaced at true angles. This type of projection shows true direction
only between the centre point and other locations on the map.
The location of the theoretical light source in relation to the
globe surface can cause significant variation in the projection of
the graticule on the developable geometric surface. An orthographic projection results from placement of the light source at
infinity. A gnomonic projection is a type of planer projection,
and is produced when the light source is at the centre of the earth.
When the light is placed at the antipode—the point exactly opposite the point of tangency (point of contact between globe and
map)—a stereographic projection is produced (Figure 2.7).
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 2.5 (a) A careful “peeling” of the map from the globe yields
a set of tapered “gores” which, although individually not showing much
stretching or shrinking, do not collectively result in a very useful or
understandable world map. (b) It is usually considered desirable to avoid
or reduce the number of interruptions by depicting the entire global
surface as a single flat circular, oval, or rectangular shape. That continuity of
area, however, can be achieved only at the cost of considerable alteration
of true shapes, distances, directions, or areas. Although the homolographic
(Mollweide) projection shows areas correctly, it distorts shapes.
Source: Redrawn with permission from American Congress Surveying and Mapping,
Choosing a World Map. Special Publication No. 2 of the American Cartographic
Association, Bethesda, Md. Copyright 1988 American Congress on Surveying and Mapping.
Each projection scheme, however, presents a different
arrangement of the globe grid to minimize or eliminate some
of the distortions inherent in projecting from a curved to a flat
surface. Every projection represents a compromise or deviation
from reality to achieve a selected purpose, but in the process
of adjustment or compromise, each inevitably contains specific,
accepted distortions.
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FIGURE 2.6 The theory of geometrical projections. The three common
geometric forms used in projections are the plane, the cylinder, and the
cone.
FIGURE 2.8 These three figures are all equal in area despite their
different dimensions and shapes.
in agriculture in two different parts of the world, for example, it
would be very misleading visually to use a map that represented
the same amount of surface area at two different scales. To retain
the needed size comparability, our chosen projection must assure
that a unit area drawn anywhere on it will always represent the
same number of square kilometres (or similar units) on the earth’s
surface. To achieve equivalence, any scale change that the projection imposes in one direction must be offset by compensating
changes in the opposite direction. As a result, the shape of the
portrayed area is inevitably distorted. A square on the earth, for
example, may become a rectangle on the map, but that rectangle
has the correct area (Figure 2.8). A map that shows correct areal
relationships always distorts the shapes of regions, as Figure 2.9a
demonstrates.
Shape
FIGURE 2.7 The effect of light source location on planar surface
projections. Note the variations in spacing of the lines of latitude that
occur when the light source is moved.
Globe Properties and Map
Distortions
Not all of the true properties of the global grid can ever be
preserved in any single projection; projections invariably distort
some or all of them. The result is that all flat maps, whether
geometrically or mathematically derived, also distort in different ways and to different degrees some or all of the four main
properties of actual earth surface relationships: area, shape, distance, and direction.
Area
Cartographers use equal-area, or equivalent, projections when
it is important for the map to show the areas of regions in correct or constant proportion to earth reality—as it is when the
map is intended to show the actual areal extent of a phenomenon
on the earth’s surface. If we wish to compare the amount of land
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Although no projection can reproduce correct shapes for large
areas, some do accurately portray the shapes of small areas. These
true-shape projections are called conformal, and the importance
of conformality is that regions and features “look right” and have
the correct directional relationships. They achieve these properties for small areas by assuring that lines of latitude and longitude
cross each other at right angles and that the scale is the same in all
directions at any given location. Both these conditions exist on the
globe but can be retained for only relatively small areas on maps.
Because that is so, the shapes of large regions—continents, for
example—are always different from their true earth shapes even
on conformal maps. Except for maps for very small areas, a map
cannot be both equivalent and conformal; these two properties
are mutually exclusive, as Figure 2.9b suggests.
Distance
Distance relationships are nearly always distorted on a map, but
some projections do maintain true distances in one direction or
along certain selected lines. True distance relationships simply
mean that the length of a straight line between two points on
the map correctly represents the great circle distance between
those points on the earth. (An arc of a great circle is the shortest
distance between two points on the earth’s curved surface; the
equator is a great circle and all meridians of longitude are half
great circles.) Projections with this property can be designed, but
even on such equidistant maps true distance in all directions is
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(a)
(c)
(b)
FIGURE 2.9 Sample projections demonstrating specific map properties. (a) The equal-area sinusoidal projection retains everywhere the property of
equivalence. (b) The mathematically derived Mercator projection is conformal, displaying true shapes of individual features but greatly exaggerating sizes
and distorting shapes away from the equator. (c) A portion of an azimuthal equidistant projection, polar-case. Distances from the centre (North Pole) to any
other point are true; extension of the grid to the Southern Hemisphere would show the South Pole infinitely stretched to form the circumference of the map.
shown only from one or two central points. Distances between all
other locations are incorrect and, quite likely, greatly distorted as
Figure 2.9c clearly shows.
Direction
As is true of distances, directions between all points on a map
cannot be shown without distortion. On azimuthal projections,
however, true directions are shown from one central point to all
other points. (An azimuth is the angle formed at the beginning
point of a straight line, in relation to a meridian.) Directions or
azimuths from points other than the central point to other points
are not accurate. The azimuthal property of a projection is not
exclusive—that is, an azimuthal projection may also be equivalent, conformal, or equidistant. The azimuthal equal-distance
(“equidistant”) map shown as Figure 2.9c is, as well, a truedirection map from the same North Pole origin.
There has been considerable debate within the cartographic
community about which map projection is “best.” The Mercator
projection, which was frequently placed as wall maps in most
classrooms across Canada during your parents’ school days, has
had a profound influence how they and others perceive the world
(Figure 2.10a). It was developed in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator
as a navigation aid because direction is maintained on the map.
Draw a line between two points and that provides a compass
direction for the trip. However, this benefit comes at a cost—the
amount of distortion increases as you move away from the equator. This means that countries such as Canada and the northern
hemisphere’s continents, appear much larger than they are relative
to equatorial countries and the continents of the southern hemisphere, which are located relatively closer to the equator. This map
appeared not only in classrooms but was frequently seen in newspapers, books, and atlases. Thus, the Mercator projection became
the mental map of the world for Canadians and people living in
the northern hemisphere. This was seen as a distinct but inappropriate geographic advantage of the colonial (European) powers
over their many colonies located in the southern hemisphere. In
response, it was argued that the Mercator Map should only be
used for navigation, and that the Gall-Peters Map (Figure 2.10b)
should be used for used for other purposes because it preserves
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(b) Gall-Peters Projection
(a) Mercator Projection
(c) Robinson Projection
(d) Winkel-Tripel Projection
FIGURE 2.10 The Mercator, Gall-Peters, Robinson, and Winkel-Tripel Map Projections.
© Peter H. Dana/08
area. Originally developed in 1855 by James Gall and popularized
Arno Peters in 1973, this projection, like the Mercator, utilizes a
rectangular coordinate system but distorts shape, area, scale, and
distance. Since it better represents the size of countries, intense
lobbying occurred to have the Gall-Peters adopted as “the map
of the world.” The United Nations Development Programme
responded and adopted it in its publications. In truth, neither the
Gall-Peters nor the Mercator maps provide an accurate representation of the world—only the globe can do that! A compromise
projection is the Robinson projection (Figure 2.10c), developed in
1963 by Arthur H. Robinson. While the projection is neither equal
area nor conformal, it produced a more appealing visualization.
In 1988, The National Geographic Society adopted the Robinson
projection for its publications. It switched 10 years later to the
Winkel-Tripel projection (Figure 2.10d), which is a modification
of the Robinson projection. It was developed to minimize distortion relative to shapes, distances, and perspective.
The previous discussion suggest that Canada can be mapped a
number of ways. The distortion of shape and area in high latitudes
that is commonly associated with cylindrical projections has
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affected Canada by overemphasizing its northern extent and either
distorts the shape of high latitude areas or makes them appear
very remote (Figure 2.11).
A Cautionary Reminder
Mapmakers must be conscious of the properties of the projections they use, selecting the one that best suits their purposes. It
is not ever possible to transform the globe into a flat map without
distortion. But cartographers have devised hundreds of possible
mathematical and geometrical projections in various modifications and aspects to display to their best advantage the variety of
earth features and relationships they wish to emphasize. Some
projections are highly specialized and properly restricted to a single limited purpose; others achieve a more general acceptability
and utility.
If the map shows only a small area, the choice of a projection is
not critical—virtually any can be used. The choice becomes more
important when the area to be shown extends over a considerable
longitude and latitude; then the selection of a projection clearly
Some Key Themes in the Study of Human Geography
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(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 2.11 Canada Portrayed by Different Map Projections. (a) Transverse Mercator Projection is a cylindrical projection and is conformal. It is
often used for mapping continents and oceans, equatorial and mid-latitude, and areas with a reasonably large north-south extent. It is used for the
1:250,000 and 1:50,000 National Topographic System series in Canada (to be discussed very soon), in part because it is relatively easy to match
the edges of maps. The USGS also uses this type of projection for its topographic map series. (b) Gnomonic Azimuthal Projection is a type of planer
map. It maintains (with some limitations) equidistance and true direction. It is well suited for mapping the World (with some limitations), hemispheres,
equatorial and mid-latitude areas, continents and oceans, large regions and seas, and polar areas. This type of map is generally used for topographic
and navigation purposes, and by the United States Geological Survey, which supplies base and thematic maps covering the United States of America.
(c) Lambert Conformal Conic Projection is conformal and maintains true direction (with some limitations). It is particularly well suited for mapping the
continents/ oceans, equatorial and mid-latitude areas, and areas with a reasonably large east-west extent. It is often used to map large countries.
Source: Reproduced with the permission of the Ministry of Public Works and Government Services, 2008. Map Projections, Atlas of Canada, http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/
learningresources/carto_corner/map_projections.html.
depends on the purpose of the map. As we have seen, Mercator or
gnomonic projections are useful for navigation. If numerical data
are being mapped, the relative sizes of the areas involved should be
correct, and equivalence is the sought-after map property. Conformality and equal distance may be required in other instances.
While selection of an appropriate projection is the task
of the cartographer, understanding the consequences of that
selection and recognizing and allowing for the distortions inevitable in all flat maps are the responsibility of the map reader.
When skilfully designed maps are read by knowledgeable users,
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clear and accurate conveyance of spatial information and earth
relationships is made convenient and natural.
Map Scale
We have already seen in Chapter 1 that scale (page 18) is a vital
element of every map. Because it is a much reduced version of
the reality it summarizes, a map generalizes the data it displays.
Scale —the relationship between size or length of a feature on the
map and the same item on the earth’s surface—determines the
amount of that generalization. The smaller the scale of the map,
the larger is the area it covers and the more generalized are the
data it portrays. The larger the scale, the smaller is the depicted
area and the more accurately can its content be represented
(Figure 2.12). An easy way to remember the distinction between
small scales and large scales is to compare the numerical value
of the representative fraction. The larger the fractional value, the
larger the scale (e.g., 1:25,000 is larger than 1:50,000).
Map scale is selected according to the amount of generalization of data that is acceptable and the size of area that must
be depicted. The user must consider map scale in evaluating the
reliability of the spatial data that are presented. Regional boundary
Scale 1:250,000
lines drawn on the world maps in this and other books or atlases
would cover many kilometres or miles on the earth’s surface.
They obviously distort the reality they are meant to define, and on
small-scale maps major distortion is inevitable. In fact, a general
rule of thumb is that the larger the earth area depicted on a map,
the greater is the distortion built into the map.
The Globe Grid
Maps have been geographers’ longstanding primary tools. With
the advent of GIS, they are now used in an even greater variety of
ways including as equivalents to notebooks for listing observations,
as rough notes, for classifying data, for displaying draft results as
patterns, and finally as a means of visualizing spatial conclusions.
All spatial analysis starts with locations, and all absolute locations
are related to the global grid of latitude and longitude. The key reference points in the grid system are the North and South poles and
the equator, which are given in nature, and the prime meridian,
which is agreed on by cartographers. Because a circle contains
360 degrees, the distance between the poles is 180 degrees and
between the equator and each pole, 90 degrees (Figure 2.13).
Latitude measures distance north and south of the equator (0⬚ ),
Scale 1:50,000
FIGURE 2.12 The effect of scale on area and detail. These two maps of Squamish, B.C. are from the NTS series and are scales of 1:250,000 and 1:50,000.
NTS stands for the National Topographic System which provides topographic map coverage of Canada at scales of 1:500,000, 1:250,000, 1:125,000,
1:50,000, and 1:25,000. The larger the scale, the greater the number and kinds of features that can be included on the map. Scale can be reported in one
(or more) of three ways. A verbal scale is given in words (“1 centimetre to 1 kilometre” or “1 inch to 1 mile”). A representative fraction (such as that placed
at the left, below each of the maps above) is a statement of how many linear units on the earth’s surface are represented by one unit on the map. A graphic
scale (such as that placed at the right and below each of the maps above) is a line or bar marked off in map units but labelled in ground units.
Source: © 2006. Produced under licence from Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, with permission of Natural Resources Canada.
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FIGURE 2.13 The grid system of parallels of latitude and meridians of
longitude. Since the meridians converge at the poles, parallels become
increasingly shorter away from the equator. On the globe, the 60th
parallel is only one-half as long as the equator, and a degree of longitude
along it measures only about 55 1/2 kilometres (about 34 1/2 miles)
compared to about 111 kilometres (about 69 miles) at the equator (0⬚).
and parallels of latitude run due east–west. Longitude is the angular distance east or west of the prime meridian and is depicted by
north–south lines called meridians, which converge at the poles.
The properties of the globe grid the mapmaker tries to retain and
the map user should look for are as follows:
1. All meridians are of equal length; each is one-half the length
of the equator.
2. All meridians converge at the poles and are true north–south
lines.
3. All lines of latitude (parallels) are parallel to the equator and
to each other.
4. Parallels decrease in length as one nears the poles.
5. Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles.
6. The scale on the surface of the globe is the same in every
direction.
Only the globe grid itself retains all of these characteristics.
To project it onto a surface that can be laid flat is to distort some
or all of these properties and consequently to distort the reality the
map attempts to portray.
How Maps Show Location
The properties of the globe grid and of various projections are
the concern of the cartographer. Geographers are more interested
in the depiction of spatial data and in the analysis of the patterns
FIGURE 2.14 A portion of the 1:50,000 NTS map for Ottawa
(Map 031G05). Topographic maps provide excellent information about
ground relief (landforms and terrain), drainage (lakes and rivers), forest
cover, administrative areas, populated areas, transportation routes and
facilities (including roads and railways), and other artificially-made
features. Because so much information is provided about human use
of the land, topographic maps are classed as general purpose or
reference maps by the International Cartographic Association.
© 2006. Produced under licence from Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, with
permission of Natural Resources Canada.
and interrelationships those data present. Out of the myriad of
items comprising the content of an area, the geographer must,
first, select those that are of concern to the problem at hand and,
second, decide on how best to display them for study or demonstration. In that effort, geographers can choose between different
types of maps and different systems of symbolization.
General-purpose, reference, or location maps make up one
major class of maps familiar to everyone. Their purpose is simply
to show without analysis or interpretation a variety of natural or
human-made features of an area or of the world as a whole. Familiar examples are highway maps, city street maps, topographic
maps (Figure 2.14), atlas maps, and the like.
As noted above and in Chapter 1, latitude and longitude
form the basis of location. However, since this coordinate system
can be difficult to use, others such as the Military Grid, Civilian Grid System, and Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate
system have been developed. This subsection devotes attention to
the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system
because it is often incorporated into GPS systems. The UTM
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FIGURE 2.15 The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system
© Peter H. Dana/08
system is based on a grid pattern that divides the earth into
60 zones, each comprising 60 degrees of longitude (Figure 2.15).
Each zone is numbered 1 through 60, starting at the international
date line (longitude 180⬚ ), and proceeding east. West to east,
Canada spans zones 7 through 22 (Figure 2.16). Twenty UTM
zones extend from 80⬚S to 84⬚N. Beginning at 80⬚S and preceding northward, the bands are lettered ‘C’ through ‘X’ (omitting
letters ‘I’ and ‘O’ in order to avoid confusion with numbers
one and zero). Each of these bands is 8⬚ wide with the exception
of band X, which is 12⬚ wide. Note that beyond zones C and X, the
Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) grid system is used, and not
the UTM system. The UTM lettering system covering the latitude
zones for Canada are:
—
—
—
—
—
from 72⬚N lat. to 84⬚N ⫽ “X” (northern 12⬚ zone)
from 64⬚N lat. to 72⬚N ⫽ “W”
from 56⬚N lat. to 64⬚N ⫽ “V”
from 48⬚N lat. to 56⬚N ⫽ “U”
from 40⬚N lat. to 48⬚N ⫽ “T”
The Grid Zone Designation is identified by reading the column first and then the row. Winnipeg would be in zone 14U and
Toronto 17T (Figure 2.16).
Within each zone, a square grid is superimposed and is
aligned in order that vertical grid lines are parallel to the centre
of the zone. Location is determined by the UTM grid coordinates, which are expressed as a distance in metres to the east of
the central meridian, referred to as the “easting,” and a distance
in metres to the north of the equator, referred to as the “northing.”
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fel7005x_ch02_029-057.indd 46
The northing values are measured continuously from zero at the
Equator, in a northerly direction. To avoid negative numbers for
locations south of the Equator, it has been assigned an arbitrary
false northing value of 10,000,000 metre. A central meridian
through the middle of each 6⬚ zone is assigned an easting value
of 500,000 metre. Grid values to the west of this central meridian are less than 500,000; to the east, more than 500,000. Thus,
anything west of the central meridian will have an easting less
than 500,000 metre. For example, UTM eastings range from
167,000 metre to 833,000 metre at the equator (these ranges narrow towards the poles). In the southern hemisphere, northings
decrease as you go southward from the equator, which is given a
“false northing” of 10,000,000 metre so that no point within the
zone has a negative northing value. In the northern hemisphere,
positions are measured northward from the equator, which has an
initial “northing” value of 0 metre and a maximum “northing”
value of approximately 9,328,000 metre at the 84th parallel—the
maximum northern extent of the UTM zones. For instance, the
CN Tower, located in zone 17 has a grid coordinates 630084 m
east, 4833438 m north. UTM is easier to use than latitude and
longitude because it is in a grid (rather than curved) and is in
metric units.
The UTM system has been integrated into Canada’s National
Topographic System, and is represented on the 1:50,000 map sheets
in a light blue line (See Figure 2.14). Distances and places can be
measured and UTM coordinates determined. For more information
go to: http://maps.nrcan.gc.ca/cartospecs/ChapBorder&Grid/Chap
Border&GridEF50/BorGriIntro010704E50.htm.
Some Key Themes in the Study of Human Geography
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84°
Russia
Area covered by 1,250,000
gridded map sheet 67A Arct i c
which falls in two zones
Chukchi Bay
O ce a n
things
Appro
ximate 8,000,000 metres nor
G r e e n l a n d
Area covered by 1,250,000
gridded map sheet 87C
which falls in two zones
Beaufort Sea
Alaska
8,00
0
0,0
Baffin Bay
14
4°
Zo
ne
7
a te
oxim
Appr
gs
thin
nor
s
e
etr
0m
Gulf of Alaska
e
mat
roxi
App
Labrador Sea
0,000 m
Hudson Bay
0, 0
,00
te 8
ima
00
tre
me
ort
sn
gs
hin
°
48
e
Zon
21
l Merid
0
e2
Zon
19
Zone
Zone
18
°
Zone 17
Zone 16
Zone 14
Zone 13
12
Zone
Zone
U S A
Zone 15
12
6
11
Zo n
Pacific
Ocean
rox
App
Centra
0
2°
e1
13
Zo
ne
9
ian - 50
Zo
ne
8
Area covered by 1,250,000
gridded map sheet 73M
which falls in one zone
2
8°
Zo
13
2
ne
etres E
asti
ng
C a n a d a
gs
hin
ort
n
s
etre
0m
,00
0
0
8,0
r
App
00
0, 0
, 00
e8
t
a
oxim
tres
me
thin
nor
gs
°
56
A t la nt ic
Ocea n 60°
180°
114 °
108°
102°
90°
96°
The central meridian of every zone has been given
an easting of 500,000 metres Eastings in a zone
decrease to the west and increase to the east
MCR 65
84°
78°
66°
72°
All northings are distances in metres from the
equator which has been given a zero northing
FIGURE 2.16 The Universal Transverse Mercator System as it applies to Canada
Source: http://www.geod.nrcan.gc.ca/images/utm.jpg.
How Maps Show Other
Data—Thematic Maps
Until about the middle of the 18th century, the general-purpose
or reference map was the dominant map form, for the primary
function of the mapmaker (and the explorer who supplied the
new data) was to “fill in” the world’s unknown areas with reliable
locational information. With the passage of time, scholars saw
the possibilities to use the accumulating locational information to
display and study the spatial patterns of social and physical data.
The maps they made of climate, vegetation, soil, population, and
other distributions introduced the thematic map, the second major
class of maps. Thematic map is the general term applied to a map
of any scale that presents a specific spatial distribution or a single
category of data—that is, presents a graphic theme. The way the
information is shown on such a map may vary according to the
type of information to be conveyed, the level of generalization
that is desired, and the symbolization selected. Thematic maps
may be either qualitative or quantitative. The principal purpose
of the qualitative map is to show the distribution of a particular
class of information. The world location of producing oil fields,
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the distribution of Canada’s national parks, or the pattern of areas
of agricultural specialization within a province or country are
examples. The interest is in where things are, and nothing is
reported about—in the examples cited—barrels of oil extracted or
in reserve, number of park visitors, or value or volume of crops or
livestock produced.
In contrast, quantitative thematic maps show the spatial characteristic of numerical data. Usually, a single variable such as
population, median income, annual wheat production, or average
land value is chosen, and the map displays the variation from place
to place in that feature. Important types of quantitative thematic
maps include graduated circle, dot, isometric and isopleth, and
choropleth maps (Figure 2.17).
Graduated circle maps use circles of different size to show the
frequency of occurrence of a topic in different places; the larger
the circle, the more frequent the incidence. On dot maps, a single
or specified number of occurrences of the item studied is recorded
by a single dot. The dot map serves not only to record data but to
suggest their spatial pattern, distribution, and dispersion.
An isometric map features lines (isolines) that connect points
registering equal values of the item mapped (iso means “equal”).
The isotherms shown on the daily weather map connect points
recording the same temperature at the same moment of time or
the same average temperature during the day. Identical elevations
above sea level may be shown by a form of isoline called a contour
line. On isopleth maps, the calculation refers not to a point but to
an areal statistic—for example, persons per square kilometre or
average percentage of cropland in corn—and the isoline connects
average values for unit areas. For emphasis, the area enclosed by
isolines may be shaded to indicate approximately uniform occurrence of the thing mapped, and the isoline itself may be treated as
the boundary of a uniform region.
A choropleth map presents average value of the data studied
per pre-existing areal unit—dwelling unit rents or assessed values
by city block, for example, or (in Canada) population densities by
individual townships within counties. Each unit area on the map is
then shaded or coloured to suggest the magnitude of the event or
item found within its borders. Where the choropleth map is based
on the absolute number of items within the unit area, as it is in
Figure 2.17, rather than on areal averaging (total numbers, that is,
instead of, for example, numbers per square kilometre), a misleading statement about density may be conveyed.
A statistical map records the actual numbers or occurrences
of the mapped item per established unit area or location. The
actual count of each province’s colleges and universities shown
on an outline map of Canada or the number of traffic accidents
at each street intersection within a city are examples of statistical
maps. A cartogram uses such statistical data to transform territorial space so that the largest areal unit on the map is the one
showing the greatest statistical value (Figure 2.18).
Maps communicate information but, as in all forms of communication, the message conveyed by a map reflects the intent
and, perhaps, the biases of its author. Maps are persuasive because
of the implied precision of their lines, scales, colour and symbol
placement, and information content. But maps, as communication devices, can subtly or blatantly manipulate the message they
impart, or contain intentionally false information (Figure 2.19).
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fel7005x_ch02_029-057.indd 48
Maps, then, can distort and lie as readily as they can convey verifiable spatial data or scientifically valid analyses. The more map
users are aware of those possibilities and the more understanding
of map projections, symbolization, and common forms of thematic and reference mapping standards they possess, the more
likely are they to reasonably question and clearly understand the
messages maps communicate.
Mental Maps
Mental maps can be thought of a person’s internal map of their
known world and illustrate what they perceive about routes, places
and regions. Since these maps reflect what a person perceives
from a range of information sources, such as what they have
actually experienced (primary or direct information), what they
have heard, read, and/or seen through conversations, the internet,
news media, movies, and books, each person can be expected to
have their own unique mental map (secondary or indirect information). This information is used to complete everyday tasks,
such as finding your way to class, and giving someone directions.
For instance, a mental route map may also include reference
points to be encountered on the chosen path of connection or
alternate routes of travel (see Figure 1.2). They also allow us to
determine a person’s preferences and how they define unique
places. We draw mental maps of places that are unfamiliar to
us, which reflect our perceptions about a place. They can change
over time as we obtain more information. Whether drawn by an
individual or a group, mental maps are every bit as real as their
creators (and we all have them) as are the street maps and highway maps commercially available, and they are a great deal more
immediate in their impact on our spatial decisions. The naming
of a place (called toponymy), a topic covered in Chapter 6, helps
to shape and enhance our mental maps.
In 1960, Kevin Lynch wrote The Image of the City in which
he presented his research on student’s mental maps of four urban
areas in the United States. He identified five elements that were
and remain used to describe urban environments:
Paths— routes between places, such as walk or bike paths,
streets (e.g. route from home to school).
Landmarks— prominent points of interest or particular locations (e.g. home, school).
Nodes—meeting places or centres of activity where pathways
cross (e.g. financial district, shopping district).
Districts— regions which are perceived to be homogeneous
(e.g. downtown, university, industrial area).
Edges—form the boundaries between districts.
Noting the inclusion and exclusion of these elements, and
their prominence on a mental map are useful to interpreting how
people perceive their environment. Since Lynch’s time, additional
techniques have been developed to collect and analyze data from
mental maps. These include measuring uni-dimensional aspects
(e.g. distance and direction) and two-dimensional aspects as well
(e.g. how people draw maps if they are provided with instructions
or given a small pre-drawn portion of a map). The latter focuses
Some Key Themes in the Study of Human Geography
1/23/09 5:44:41 PM
Population by county
Population by county
10,000,000
10,000
100,000
4,000,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
100,000
(a) Graduated circle map
(b) Dot-distribution map
Population by county;
data in thousands
Population
per square mile
0–24
0–99
25–64
100–999
65–129
1000–1999
130–250
2000–16000
More than 250
(c) Isopleth map
(d) Choropleth map
FIGURE 2.17 Types of thematic maps. Although population is the theme of each, these different California maps present their information in strikingly
different ways. (a) In the graduated circle map, the area of the circle is approximately proportional to the absolute number of people within each county.
(b) In a dot-distribution map where large numbers of items are involved, the value of each dot is identical and stated in the map legend. The placement
of dots on this map does not indicate precise locations of people within the county, but simply their total number. (c) Population density is recorded by
the isopleth map, while the choropleth map (d) may show absolute values as here or, more usually, ratio values such as population per square kilometre.
Source: From Fred M. Shelley and Audrey E. Clarke, Human and Cultural Geography, © 1994. Reproduced by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.
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FIGURE 2.18 McDonald’s Cartogram. This is a cartogram in which each country is sized according to the number of MacDonald’s restaurants contained
within it. Note how large the United States is to every other country. The continent of Africa is very hard to distinguish. Due to very small number of
McDonald’s restaurants, some countries have been merged illustrating how maps can simplify reality (lie!).
Source: © Copyright 2006 SASI Group (University of Sheffield) and Mark Newman (University of Michigan).
attention on how mental images and maps are developed while the
former indicates the product of that process (Kitchin, 2000).
There are many findings associated with mental map
research, which, in part, reinforce comments made in Chapter 1
(see “Physical and Cultural Attributes,” “The Changing Attributes
Karta SSSR, 1958
Atlas SSSR, 1962
of Space”). First, what you know and how you draw it reflects
where you have lived (Figure 2.20) and travelled, especially if it
is a popular vacation destination. Second, our everyday conversations and media coverage about a place influence our perceptions.
For instance, we may choose routes or avoid neighbourhoods not
on objective grounds but on how the area is reported in the media
(e.g. high crime). In those choices, gender can play an important role. The mental maps of women may well contain danger
zones where fear of, for example, sexual assault, harassment, or
encounter with persons or conditions felt to be threatening are
determinants in routes chosen or times of journey. Third, individuals who are of lower socio-economic groups draw maps that
cover smaller geographic areas relative to those of higher socioeconomic groups (Figure 2.21). Generally, our areas of awareness
generally increase with the increasing mobility that comes with
Logashkino
Logashkino
FIGURE 2.19 The wandering town of Logashkino, as traced in various
Bol'shoy Sovetskiy Atlas
Mira, 1939
Atlas Mira, 1954
ze
Ala
Logashkino
R.
ya
Atlas Mira, 1967
Atlas SSSR, 1969
Logashkino
Logashkino
Soviet atlases by Mark Monmonier. Deliberate, extensive cartographic
“disinformation” and locational falsification, he reports, became a Cold
War tactic of the Soviet Union. We usually use—and trust—maps to tell
us exactly where things are located. On the maps shown, however,
Logashkino migrates from west of the river away from the coast to
east of the river on the coast, while the river itself gains and loses a
distributary and, in 1954, the town itself disappears. The changing
misinformation, Monmonier suggests, was intended to obscure from
potential enemies the precise location of possible military targets.
Source: Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps, 2nd ed. © 1996. Reproduced by
permission of the University of Chicago Press.
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Some Key Themes in the Study of Human Geography
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FIGURE 2.20 Mental map of Canada drawn by a Maritimer. Mental maps reflect a person’s view of the world. Note the importance and pride reflected
in local and regional place values.
Source: R.M. Downs and D. Stea (1977). Maps in Minds: Reflections on Cognitive Mapping. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers. ISBN: 0-06-041733-1. Figure 1.3, p. 9.
age, affluence, familiarity, and education, and may be enlarged or
restricted for different social groups within the city or country.
Mental maps are becoming more accessible through the
web. On Platial.com, over 5,000 custom maps have been drawn,
including maps called autobiogeographies, indicating where they
have been. Drawing mental maps forms an important element
in neogeography—people using and creating their own maps,
on their own terms, and by combining elements of an existing
toolset. A neogeographer geotags pictures and images (i.e. adds
information about where an image is located often by using a
global positioning system (to be discussed shortly) and locates it
on a web-based map, such as Google Maps (maps.google.com),
Microsoft Maps (local.live.com), or Yahoo Maps (maps.yahoo
.com/beta). People often geotag their photos to make a map of their
summer vacation. The popular term for drawing mental maps is
social mapping—maps that tell people something about a place.
Sometimes government agencies or consultants will use a
group facilitator to have members of a community work together
to learn more about them, their community, and their resources.
Over the past 20 years, there has been an increasing worldwide
interest in, and respect for, traditional knowledge in guiding
resource development decisions, such as timber harvesting, oil
and gas development, and park planning, as well as land claims
agreements between aboriginals and federal/state/provincial
governments (Folke et al., 2007). Broadly defined, traditional
knowledge is the “cumulative and collective body of knowledge,
experience, and values held by societies with a history of subsistence” (Ellis, 2005: 66). Mental maps have been developed by
combining the individual discourses and/or mental maps obtained
from local people can indicate a community’s local knowledge
or how it defines its region. In a resource management context,
information generated from this type of exercise can enhance
sustainability (Figure 2.22). Although it has been employed successfully, the utility and accuracy of this type of exercise remains
controversial. Some questions the merits of incorporating qualitative data (i.e., the stories, sketches) onto very accurate locational
(i.e., quantitative) maps. On the other hand, as illustrated by some
pharmaceutical companies, indigenous knowledge has sometimes
been exploited by private interests when the location of their
valued resources has been revealed.
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FIGURE 2.21 Four mental maps of Los Angeles. The upper and middle-income residents of Northridge and Westwood have expansive views of the
metropolis reflecting their mobility and area of travel. Residents of Boyle Heights and Avalon, both minority districts, have a much more restricted and
incomplete mental image of the city. Their limited mental maps reflect and reinforce their spatial isolation within the metropolitan area.
Source: From Department of City Planning, City of Los Angeles, The Visual Environment of Los Angeles, 1971. Reprinted by permission.
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Some Key Themes in the Study of Human Geography
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FIGURE 2.22 Mental map of the substrate of Lough Neagh as perceived
by local fishermen. A study completed by McKenna et al. (2008)
developed a mental map of the substrate of Lough Neagh, Northern
Ireland from interviews with local fishers. In this instance, fishers were
provided with the outline of Lough Neagh and asked to indicate the
substrate on it. The fishers’ local knowledge compared very favourably to
the information generated from scientific studies.
Source: Copyright © 2008 by John McKenna, Rory, J. Quinn and Daniel J. Donnelly,
adapted from maps by Admiralty Chart No. 2163 (1983) and Side-scan Sonar Survey
of Lough Neagh. Published here under license by The Resilience Alliance. McKenna, J.,
R. J. Quinn, D. J. Donnelly and J. A. G. Cooper. 2008. Accurate mental maps as an aspect
of local ecological knowledge (LEK): a case study from Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland.
Ecology and Society 13(1): 13. [online] URL: http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/
iss1/art13/.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing detects the nature of an object and the content of
an area from a distance. In the early 20th century, fixed-wing aircraft provided a platform for the camera and photographer, and by
the 1930s aerial photography from planned positions and routes
permitted reliable data gathering for large and small area mapping
purposes. Even today, high and low altitude aerial photography
with returned film remains a widely used remote sensing technique. Standard photographic film detects reflected energy within
the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. It can be
supplemented by special sensitized infrared film that has proved
particularly useful for the recording of vegetation and hydrographic features, and by non-photographic imaging techniques
including thermal scanning (widely used for studying various
aspects of water features such as ocean currents and water pollution and, because it can be employed during nighttime hours, for
military surveillance and energy budget observations) and radar
mapping (also operative night and day and useful for penetrating
clouds and haze).
For more than 30 years, both manned and unmanned spacecraft have supplemented the airplane as the vehicle for imaging
earth features. Among the advantages of satellites are the speed of
coverage and the fact that views of large regions can be obtained.
In addition, they are equipped to record and report back to Earth
digitized information from multiple parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum including some that are outside the range of human
eyesight. Satellites enable us to map the invisible, including atmospheric and weather conditions, in addition to providing images
with applications in agriculture and forest inventory, land use
classification, identification of geologic structures and mineral
deposits, and more. The different sensors of the Landsat satellites
are capable of resolving objects between 15 and 60 metres (50 and
200 ft) in size. Even sharper images are yielded by the French SPOT
satellite (launched in 1986); its sensors can show objects that are
larger than 10 metres (33 ft). Satellite imagery is relayed by electronic signals to receiving stations, where computers convert them
into photo-like images for use in long-term scientific research
and in current-condition mapping programs. In December 2007,
Canada RADARSAT-2 was launched. This commercial radar satellite will be used for marine surveillance, ice monitoring, disaster
management, environmental monitoring, resource management,
and mapping in Canada and around the world. Its ability to monitor human rights abuses is also being explored (Figure 2.23).
The Canada Centre for Remote Sensing provides these and other
geographic databases to public and private decision makers, and
others too (www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca).
Geographic Information
Systems (GIS)
Geographic information systems (GIS) extend the use of digitized data and computer manipulation to investigate and display
spatial information. A GIS can be envisioned as a set of discrete
informational overlays linked by reference to a basic locational grid
of latitude and longitude (Figure 2.24). The system then permits the
separate display of the spatial information contained in the database. It allows the user to overlay maps of different themes, analyze
the relations revealed, and compute spatial relationships. It shows
aspects of spatial associations otherwise difficult to display on conventional maps, such as flows, interactions, and three-dimensional
characteristics. In short, a GIS database, as a structured set of
spatial information, has become a powerful tool for automating
geographical analysis and synthesis. A GIS data set may contain the
great amount of place-specific information collected and published
by Statistics Canada, including population distribution, race, ethnicity, income, housing, employment, industry, farming, and so on.
It may also hold environmental information downloaded from satellite imagery or taken from NTS (national topographic system) maps
(Figure 2.14) and other governmental and private sources.
GIS makes it possible for a map user not only to see where
something is located but to combine other pieces of information in
order to increase the level of analysis and information generated.
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Terrain Models
Network
• Street centre lines
• Drainage network
Utilities
•
•
•
•
Sanitary sewer lines
Water lines
Telephone
Gas/electric
Lots/Ownership
• Lot lines
• Property lines
Zones/Districts
•
•
•
•
•
Comprehensive plan
Municipal zoning
Voting precincts
School districts
Census tracts/blocks
Base Mapping
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Road pavement
Buildings/structures
Fences/parking lots
Drainage
Wooded areas
Spot elevation
Contour lines
Recreational facilities
FIGURE 2.24 A model of a geographic information system. A GIS
FIGURE 2.23 Porta Farm, Zimbabwe in 2002 and 2006. In May 2005,
the Government of Zimbabwe began Operation Murambatsvina, which
in English translates to Operation Restore Order or Drive Out Trash.
According to the Government, the intent was to crackdown against
illegal housing (e.g. squatter settlements) and black market activities,
and reduce the risk of the spread of infectious disease in these areas.
However, since this initiative coincided with the results of the March
election which saw many of the urban poor voting for the Opposition
Party, it has argued that the government’s main reason for commencing
Operation Murambatsvina was to punish the urban poor for voting for
the opposition party. The U.N. estimates the homes of around 700,000
people were destroyed. Over 2.4 million people across Zimbabwe
have been affected by the program. Some of this devastation is shown
above. In 2002, Porta Farm was home to between 6,000 and 10,000
people who lived in more than 850 homes and other buildings. By
2006, the area had been levelled. Satellite images like these are now
being used more frequently to document destruction in many dangerous
parts of the world. Amnesty International initiated a project that monitors
12 vulnerable villages in Darfur region of Sudan that uses images
produced from commercial satellites that have rented satellites. Find out
more at www.eyesondarfur.org.
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incorporates three primary components: data storage capability,
computer graphics programs, and statistical packages. In this
example, the different layers of information are to be used in different
combinations for city planning purposes. Different data sets, all selected
for applicability to the questions asked, may be developed and used
in human geography, economic geography, transportation planning,
industrial location work, and similar applications.
Reprinted by permission of Shaoli Huang.
The key to the GIS is geocoding—the process of assigning absolute
location coordinates, such as latitude and longitude, to human and
physical features of the earth. For instance, a marketing geographer might combine information on where people buy certain items
(think about the last time you were asked for your postal code after
buying something at a store) with census information about income
and demographics in order to target new products or store locations.
An urban geographer might use similar information to determine
where affordable housing and social service offices might be best
located. GIS allows geographers to determine the relationship
between factors, and is becoming increasingly accessible to the public. Google Maps and Google Earth are the simplest and most easily
available form of a GIS increasingly used by the general public.
A Canadian geographer, Roger Tomlinson (Figure 2.25), has
been identified as the “father” of Geographic Information Systems
(GIS). According to him, the strength of the term GIS comes from its
Some Key Themes in the Study of Human Geography
1/23/09 5:44:52 PM
use GIS to provide viewers with up-to-date weather forecasts
and maps. Geocaching is an outdoor “treasure-hunting” activity in which the participants use a GPS receiver to hide and find
containers (called “geocaches” or “caches”) in local or far-away
places. A typical cache is a small waterproof container containing
a logbook and “treasure,” usually small toys or trinkets. The first
time geocaching is reported to have occurred was on May 3, 2000.
On that date, to celebrate improved access by the public to more
accurate location information, a bucket of trinkets in the woods
outside Portland, Oregon and its location was announced on the
web (USENET newsgroup sci.geo.satellite-nav). The rule is to
take something, leave something, and sign the logbook. According
to geocaching.com, there are 513,240 active caches worldwide
covering all seven continents.
Systems, Maps, and Models
FIGURE 2.25 Roger Tomlinson, the “inventor” of GIS. He was awarded
an Order of Canada for his work, which he pioneered the use of
worldwide to collect, manage, and manipulate geographical data,
changing the face of geography as a discipline. His work with GIS focused
on the development of major international GIS programs, ranging
widely in geographic scope and content, but with a special emphasis on
environmental protection, natural resources management, national parks,
and forests.
fundamentals: “the word ‘geography’ is not going to go away. It has
been in use for hundreds (some would say thousands) of years . . . It
is clear to me that the overall process is that of earth description; in
short, it is geography. It has been demonstrated beyond any refutation that geography matters in human decision making.”
GIS is now being combined with satellite-enabled global
positioning systems (GPS) in cars, cell phones, iPhones, and BlackBerries. This software allows people to find out not only where they
are located, but also provides them with directions about how to get
to where they want to be. GPS is a satellite-based navigation system,
called NAVSTAR, originally developed for military purposes starting in 1978, and is maintained and controlled by the United States
Department of Defence. Made fully operational in 1995, it utilizes
a set of at least 24 satellites which transmit precise microwave
signals to the GPS receiver and allows it to determine its location
(within a few metres), speed, direction, and time. The NAVSTAR
system is often referred to as the GPS, (at least in Canada and the
United States) because it was generally available first. The Russians
have developed their own system (GLONASS). The Europeans are
working on a system—the Galileo positioning system. India and
China are considering the development of their own systems.
GIS and GPS are inspiring people to explore their world
and re-invigorating people to read and make maps. TV stations
The content of area is interrelated and constitutes a spatial system
that, in common with all systems, functions as a unit because its
component parts are interdependent. Only rarely do individual
elements of area operate in isolation, and to treat them as if they
do is to lose touch with spatial reality. The systems of geographic
concern are those in which the functionally important variables
are spatial: location, distance, direction, density, and the other
basic concepts we have reviewed. The systems that they define are
not the same as regions, though spatial systems may be the basis
for regional identification.
Systems have components, and the analysis of the role of
components helps reveal the operation of the system as a whole.
To conduct that analysis, individual system elements must be
isolated for separate identification and, perhaps, manipulated to
see their function within the structure of the system or subsystem.
Maps and models are the devices geographers use to achieve that
isolation and separate study.
Maps, as we have seen, are effective to the degree that they
can segregate at an appropriate level of generalization those system
elements selected for examination. By compressing, simplifying,
and abstracting reality, maps record in manageable dimension the
real-world conditions of interest. A model is a simplified abstraction of reality, structured to clarify causal relationships. Maps
are a kind of model. They represent reality in an idealized form
so that certain aspects of its properties may be seen more clearly.
They are a special form of model, of course. Their abstractions
are rendered visually and at a reduced scale so they may be displayed, for example, on the pages of this book.
The complexities of spatial systems analysis—and the opportunities for quantitative analysis of systems made possible by
computers and sophisticated statistical techniques—have led
geographers to use other kinds of models in their work. Model
building is the technique social scientists use to simplify complex
situations, to eliminate (as does the map) unimportant details, and
to isolate for special study and analysis the role of one or more
interacting elements in a total system. With this introduction to
geography from the perspective of the “World in Spatial Terms,”
we are able to continue our exploration of geography from three
other important themes in the next chapter.
The World in Spatial Terms—Geographic Research and Maps
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Want to Learn More?
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning:
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/
kb/dedind.php
Atlas of Canada, Natural Resources Canada:
http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/
index.html
2006 Census of Canada:
www2.statcan.ca/ccr_r000_e.htm
UTM
Maps
Map Projections: http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/
site/english/learningresources/carto_corner/
map_projections.html
U.N. Maps: www.un.org/Depts/
Cartographic/english/htmain.htm
Remote Sensing, Canada Centre for Remote
Sensing: www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca
GIS
Natural Resources Canada: http://maps.
nrcan.gc.ca/cartospecs/ChapBorder&Grid/
ChapBorder&GridEF50/
BorGriIntro010704E50.htm
Geocaching: www.geocaching.org
Environment Canada: http://www.emanrese.ca/eman/ecotools/gisarea/intro.html
The Guide to GIS: http://www.gis.com/
Global Positioning Systems, Canadian Space
Agency: http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/
resources/publications/success16.asp
Parks Canada: http://www.pc.gc.ca/docs/pc/
guide/geocache/index_e.asp
Summary
The research process is generally characterized by four main steps
and five common purposes. In order to be rigorous, researchers
use a mix of data sources (primary and/or secondary; quantitative and/or qualitative) and/or forms of analysis. The census
of Canada is a very reliable secondary source of data and is
valuable because data can be tracked over space and time through
a range of geographic scales. Maps are an important source of
geographic data and a way to present results. All maps are an
imperfect rendering of the three-dimensional earth and its parts,
on a two-dimensional surface. In that rendering, some or all of
the characteristics of the global grid are distorted, but convenience and data manageability are gained. Spatial information
may be depicted in a number of ways, each designed to simplify
and clarify the infinite complexity of the real-world. GIS allows
for the creation, storage, analysis, and visualization of data in
both two and three dimensions, and is emerging as a technique all
geographers should have some familiarity with. GIS is becoming
increasingly more accessible to the general public. Geographers
use verbal and mathematical models for the same purpose, to
abstract and to analyze.
K EY WOR DS
azimuthal projection 41
conformal projection 40
conic projection 43
cylindrical projection 43
deductive research 32
developable surface 39
equal-area (equivalent)
projection 40
equidistant projection 40
56
fel7005x_ch02_029-057.indd 56
geocaching 55
geocoding 54
geographic information systems
(GIS) 53
geometrical (perspective)
projection 39
gnomonic projection 39
global positioning system
(GPS) 55
graticule 38
inductive research 32
map 37
mental map 48
mathematical projection 38
model 55
neogeography 51
orthographic projection 39
primary data 33
projection 37
qualitative data 36
quantitative data 36
remote sensing 53
scale 44
secondary data 33
spatial system 55
stereographic projection 39
social mapping 51
Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) 45
Some Key Themes in the Study of Human Geography
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FOR R EVIEW
1. What are the major subjects of the
Census of Canada?
2. List at least four properties of the globe
grid. Why are globe grid properties apt
to be distorted on maps?
3. What does prime meridian mean? What
happens to the length of a degree of
longitude as it approaches the poles?
4. What different ways of displaying
statistical data on maps can you name
and describe?
5. Look at the maps of Canada in
Figure 2.11. Which do you think is
the “best” map? What criteria should
be applied in determining which is
“best”?
6. Using Google Maps. Go to http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v⫽Cd5eu-4kCoA
to find a short clip on how to use the
Google Map interface. To see some
of the power of Google maps, go to
http://maps.google.com/. Zoom in on
your university/college town. When
can begin to see a reasonable level of
detail in the street pattern, go to the box
“Find Businesses.” Type in a general
or specific business (e.g., coffee, pizza,
insurance; Starbucks, Tim Horton’s,
Pizza, Pizza, Dominos). How would
you describe the pattern of this business
relative to accessibility to customers?
Press the “Satellite” icon and zoom in
on your residence or home. What time
of day was this image taken? How can
you tell? Google Maps provides highresolution satellite images for most
urban areas in Canada. Compare the
level of detail provided within your
university town to a nearby rural area.
census consolidated subdivision, census
division, and economic region. Some
problems with using census data
include the delay in obtaining data
once it is collected, although this
should become shorter as more
data are collected online. Averaging
of data, particularly when populations
are small, detracts from the precision
of data while protecting the
confidentiality of respondents.
3. Why do geographers use maps,
and how do maps show spatial
information? pp. 37–51.
Maps are tools geographers use to
identify and delimit regions and to
analyze their content. They permit the
study of areas and areal features too
extensive to be completely viewed or
understood on the earth’s surface itself.
Thematic (single category) maps may
be with qualitative or quantitative. Their
data may be shown in graduated circle,
dot distribution, isometric, chloropleth,
statistical, or cartogram form.
4. In what ways in addition to maps
may spatial data be visualized or
analyzed? p. 51–55.
Informally, we all create “mental
maps” reflecting highly personalized
impressions and information about
the spatial arrangement of things (for
example buildings, streets, landscape
features). More formally, geographers
recognize the content of area as forming
a spatial system to which techniques
of spatial systems analysis and model
building are applicable.
FOCUS FOLLOW-UP
1. What are the sources of information,
primary and secondary, which
geographers use? pp. 31–37.
Geographers use a wide range of
sources to obtain information. Common
primary data sources include surveys,
interviews, field observations, and
participant observation. Popular
secondary data sources include the
census, and reliable surveys completed
by government agencies, nongovernment organizations, and the
private sector.
2. How is the Census of Canada spatially
organized and what are some
problems in using this data source?
pp. 34–35.
The census geography ranges
from city block, dissemination area,
ONLINE LEAR NING CENTR E
The World Wide Web has a tremendous
number and variety of sites pertaining
to geography. To access Web sites,
Internet exercises, self-quizzes, videos,
and additional study tools relevant to
this chapter’s content, visit the Human
Geography Online Learning Centre at
www.mcgrawhill.ca/olc/fellmann.
The World in Spatial Terms—Geographic Research and Maps
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