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THE HOLOCAUST [Type text] Dear Students, You will shortly be visiting the Jewish Holocaust Museum and Research Centre, or you may have already visited. The Holocaust is vast topic. Thousands of books have been written about it, and many continue to be written every year. There are numerous websites which contain thousands of pages of information about the Holocaust. There have been hundreds of films and documentaries about the Holocaust. The amount of information available is overwhelming. Some of you already know about the Holocaust, whilst for others your visit may be your first opportunity to learn about this tragedy. To help prepare you, and so that you all can make the most of your visit, or to reinforce what you learned during your visit, the following questions and answers about the Holocaust are provided. If you are viewing this on a computer you will see that there are website links for you to access. I hope that your visit to the Jewish Holocaust Centre will add to your knowledge and understanding. Zvi Civins Director of Education, the Jewish Holocaust Museum and Research Centre [email protected] [Type text] 1. What was “The Holocaust”? According to the Merriam Webster dictionary, holocaust literally means burnt whole, from holwhole + kaustos, burnt. The dictionary includes these definitions: 1: a sacrifice consumed by fire; 2: a thorough destruction involving extensive loss of life especially through fire, as in "a nuclear holocaust”. When the word is capitalized, and preceded by ‘the’, as in The Holocaust, it refers to the attempted genocide, unique and unprecedented, of European Jews during World War II by Nazi Germany and its collaborators, which resulted in the deaths of approximately six million Jewish men, women and children. (The Hebrew term Shoah, meaning a complete sacrifice, is also used.) Genocide was first coined in 1944, and refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of a racial, political, or cultural group. 2. Who are Jews, and what is Judaism? Judaism and Jews possess characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture. Judaism is the religion of the Jewish people. Its core belief is ethical monotheism. However, while many Jews are religious, one doesn’t have to practice the religion to still be a member of the Jewish people. Jews are members of an ethnic group, born into a Jewish family (strictly speaking, to a Jewish mother), or who have converted to the religion of Judaism. Jews trace back their national and ethnic roots to the period of the Bible, and are regarded as being descendants of Abraham. Jews are mistakenly called a “race”, as the concept of race is much disputed. Although one is born a Jew, one can also become a Jew by converting. Thus, the Jewish people is comprised of individuals from what are commonly referred to as different “races”, such as of African descent, Asian, or other. [Type text] Judaism also is regarded as a culture. Jews share certain traditions, beliefs and the language, Hebrew, though not all Jews can actually speak Hebrew. Jews trace their historical roots to the land of ancient Israel. After 2000 years of being stateless, in 1948 the modern independent State of Israel was born. Today, approximately 13 million Jews live throughout the world. Approximately five and a half million live in Israel, six million live in the U.S.A. and the remainder in communities outside of Israel and the U.S.A. 3. What is anti-Semitism? Anti-Semitism means hostility toward or discrimination against Jews as a religious, ethnic, or racial group. The degree of hostility may vary, and the reasons for anti-Semitism may also vary. While historically anti-Semitism had a religious basis, it had a different basis during the Holocaust. The word Semite or "Semitic" is an adjective derived from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the Bible (Genesis 5.32, 6.10, 10.21). It may refer to any of various ancient and modern peoples originating in southwestern Asia, including the Akkadians, Canaanites, Phoenicians, Hebrews, and Arabs. Anti-Semitic , is always used to specifically mean "anti-Jewish". It was first used in modern times in 1879 when German political agitator Wilhelm Marr used the phrase Judenhass (hatred of Jews) in his book "The Victory of Judaism over Germanicism. Observed from a non-religious perspective." In his next book, "The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism", published in 1880, Marr developed his ideas further and coined the related German word Antisemitismus anti-Semitism. Anti-Semitism has existed for over two thousand years. The Holocaust is arguably the most terrible example of anti-Semitism, but there have been other tragedies that the Jews have experienced which are attributable to anti-Semitism. 4. What was life like for the Jews of Europe before the Holocaust? [Type text] Jews lived throughout Europe ever since the time of the Roman Empire, some two thousand years ago. In the twentieth century, Jews were integrated into many European countries. While many Jews were traditionally observant, orthodox Jews, many were also quite secular, that is, not very religious at all. Jews served in the German, French and other European armies in World War One. Jews were doctors, lawyers, merchants, writers, architects, farmers and more. In 1933, the Jewish population of Europe was about 9.5 million United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. This number represented more than 60 percent of the world's Jewish population at that time, estimated at 15.3 million. The majority of Jews in prewar Europe resided in Eastern Europe. The largest Jewish communities in this area were in Poland, with about 3,300,000 Jews (10% of the population); the Soviet Union, with 2,525,000; Romania, with 980,000; and the three Baltic states, with a combined Jewish population of about 255,000 (95,000 in Latvia, 155,000 in Lithuania, and 5,000 in Estonia). In prewar central Europe, the largest Jewish community was in Germany, with about 525,000 members (1% of the population). This was followed by Hungary with 445,000, Czechoslovakia with 357,000 and Austria with 250,000. In Western Europe the largest Jewish communities were in Great Britain, with 300,000 Jews; France, with 220,000; and the Netherlands, with 160,000. In southern Europe, Greece had the largest Jewish population, with about 73,000 Jews. There were also significant Jewish communities in Yugoslavia (70,000), Italy (48,000), and Bulgaria (50,000). Poland was the centre of Jewish life in Europe. More Jews lived in Poland prior to the Holocaust than anywhere else in the world, and their society was a vibrant, varied one. Poland was the centre of Jewish religious life, with numerous yeshivot, institutions dedicated to Jewish learning and study. Many more Polish Jews were traditional, but not orthodox Jews. Some were Zionists who supported the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in ancient Palestine. There were those who were not Zionist, but who were involved in the Bund, a Jewish, secular socialist workers party. [Type text] Map: [Type text] The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 5. Who were Adolf Hitler and the Nazis? Adolf Hitler was an Austrian who became the leader, or Fuehrer, of Germany. He fought for Germany in World War One. Following the war, he became active in a small political party known as the German Workers’ Party. This party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (in German, Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterparte, or NSDAP, commonly known as the Nazi Party). Nationalism, race and racism- particularly anti-Semitism- were cornerstones of Nazi political ideology. The political and national ideology is stated in the party’s 25 Points. One of the key goals of Germany was to rebuild itself following its defeat in World War One by regaining territory it had lost in the war, and to expand its borders beyond that through annexation of lands which included ethnic German speaking populations, such as in Austria and Sudetenland. This need for more ‘living space’, and for the natural resources these lands would provide, was called in German, ‘lebensraum’. Hitler tried to take control through a putsch, or violent overthrow of the government, in 1923 (the Beer Hall Putsch). This failed, and Hitler was imprisoned. While in prison he wrote Mein Kampf, (My Struggle), which clearly articulated his hatred of Jews. Hitler and the Nazi party gradually rose to power following a number of elections and political maneuverings. In January, 1933, Hitler was named Chancellor of Germany. On the night of February 27th, the Reichstag (German parliament) building was set on fire. It was claimed that a communist had started the fire, and the event was used by the Nazis to get rid of potential opponents. The Enabling Act was passed in March 1933, which gave the government (and thus effectively the Nazi Party) legislative powers and also authorized it to deviate from the provisions of the constitution for four years. With these powers, Hitler removed the remaining opposition and turned the Weimar Republic, which had been established in Germany after World War One, into the "Third Reich". Germany eventually became a one party state. 6. Why were Jews targeted by Hitler? [Type text] There is no simple answer to this question. As he had written in Mein Kampf and elsewhere, Hitler blamed Jews for the loss of World War One; he found the Jews to be physically repulsive; he blamed them for the Great Depression; he accused them of being capitalists as well as communists. He also accused Jews of seeking to dominate society; he accused Jews of ‘defiling’ other races by raping women. On the one hand, he disliked the fact that Jews retained their traditional ways of life, and stood apart from the society in which they lived. On the other, he claimed they blended in too much. Hitler used the Jews of Germany as a scapegoat, and used them as a means of gaining more political power for himself and the Nazi party. He and many Nazis were clearly influenced by the writings of Charles Darwin. Darwin explained evolution in terms of “survival of the fittest”, that is, a species survives because it has best adapted to fit the environment in which it lives. However, the Nazis interpreted this phrase to mean that it is the destiny of powerful, i.e., ‘fittest’ races to subdue and eliminate weaker races. The Nazis were also influenced by the philosopher, Nietzsche, who wrote about the Übermensch, the superior, “ideal race” which was, according to Hitler and the Nazis, the Aryan race: blond haired, blue eyed people, also known as the ‘herrenvolk’. The most inferior, dangerous group was the Jews. In fact, in his and the Nazis’ view, Jews were not even human at all. Eventually, Hitler and the Nazis believed it to be their duty to rid the world of the Jews, much like one would get rid of pests and vermin, or viruses and diseases. Thus, Jews were ultimately targeted for genocide, their complete extermination. [Type text] 7. When did the Holocaust start? When did it finish? There is no precise date which defines the beginning or end of the Holocaust. World War Two officially commenced with the German invasion of Poland, September 1, 1939. The war in Europe ended on May 8, 1945; the war against the Japanese, in the Pacific, ended on August 15, 1945, with the formal signing of the surrender documents taking place on September 2, 1945. However, the persecution of the Jews (and other minorities) which would eventually come to be known as “the Holocaust”, although occurring in Europe, where the war was waged, and perpetrated by Nazi Germany, which waged war against the Allies, and occurring more or less around the same time as the war, was a distinct series of events in its own right. Some would say that the Holocaust began when Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, in January 1933. Others have said that it began in September 1935, with the passing of the Nuremberg laws, which stripped German Jews of all rights and protection as citizens. Still others say that it was November 9, 1938, with the nationwide riots initiated by the Nazi party and destruction of Jewish property known as “Kristallnacht, The Night of Broken Glass”, which signifies the start of the Holocaust. Others might say that the Holocaust began in earnest with the start of World War Two, in September 1939. When did the Holocaust end? Some say that with “liberation” of the concentration camps the Holocaust ended. However, liberation took many months: the first camp liberated was Majdanek, in July 1944; Auschwitz was liberated January 27, 1945; others later that year. Even after liberation and Germany’s surrender, there was still the challenge of resettling the hundreds of thousands of displaced people and survivors of the camps, and this took a number of years. Therefore, there are no precise dates for the beginning and end of the Holocaust. [Type text] 8. Did Jews try to escape? At first, German Jews were not convinced that Hitler would actually carry out his threats. After all, anti-Semitism was not a new phenomenon, and it is only with the benefit of hindsight that we can see the tragedy unfolding. For Germany’s Jews, it was not so clear or obvious that a tragedy that would eventually be known as the Holocaust was actually on the horizon. Jews had lived in Germany for centuries and many were quite patriotic. Jews had fought for Germany in World War One. So, despite the anti-Semitism that was very real, the response of the Jews of Germany was not uniform, and not all tried to leave Germany. As their situation became more and more difficult once Hitler came to power, German Jews tried to emigrate. However, this was very difficult. The world was suffering from the aftermath of the Great Depression. Unemployment was very high and thus most, if not all countries did not want to accept refugees or migrants, who would only add to their economic problems. Visas and travel permits were very hard to come by. Great Britain did not allow many Jews to enter the British Mandate of Palestine; America also was unwilling to accept refugees. At the Evian Conference in July 1938, the world’s powers attempted to deal with the refugee crisis in general, but did not specifically address the Jews who were trying to escape Nazi Germany. This conference was a failure, as no solution to the refugees was found. Only one small Central American country, the Dominican Republic, offered to help Jewish refugees. 9. What actually happened during the Holocaust? The Holocaust is often described in terms of a number of ‘stages’, with the final stage commonly referred to as ‘The Final Solution’. However, these ‘stages’ did not occur in distinct periods of time, and one stage didn’t begin when one was finished. There was considerable overlap. Nevertheless, this is a useful way to view and learn about what happened during the Holocaust. Commencing with Hitler becoming the Chancellor in 1933 and then Fuehrer (leader), German Jews were increasingly persecuted economically, socially and politically. However, since the Holocaust affected millions of more Jews throughout Europe, the first stage is usually regarded [Type text] as beginning when Jews outside of Germany began to suffer persecution at the hands of Nazi Germany, following the outbreak of World War Two. This included identification and ghettoization of Jews, commencing in 1939. With the outbreak of the war and the conquest of Poland, Nazi Germany found itself in control of 3.2 million Polish Jews. These Jews were forced to wear distinct badges identifying them as such. They were forcibly transferred into ghettos in cities or large towns and used as forced labourers. Life in ghettos was very difficult, with many Jews dying of disease and malnutrition, since the ghettos were terribly overcrowded and food and medicine were scarce. Jews were also murdered by shooting, and many more were deported. There were mass killings as well. The Nazis had four squads of ‘special action forces’ known as ‘Einsatzgruppen’ . These squads moved through Poland and Eastern Europe, with the main goal of finding, rounding up and murdering Jews who were living in small villages and throughout the countryside. Communists were also murdered by the Einsatzgruppen. Mass shootings occurred in many places, usually in forests, where Jews were forced to strip before being shot. “The final solution” was the establishment of extermination camps, camps designed for one primary purpose: to murder all of Europe’s Jews. There were six such ‘death camps’, or extermination camps (although the largest, the Auschwitz complex, also included labour subcamps). There were many other labour camps, where Jews and others were literally worked to death as slave labourers by the Nazis, and transit camps as well. 10. What were ghettos? The ghettos the Nazis established were areas in which Jews were forced to live. They were often separated by fences and gates from the surrounding city, and were usually in the poorer parts of major cities and towns. They were established as Nazi Germany conquered Poland and Eastern Europe. Jews were forced to relocate from the countryside, or wherever they lived, to these ghettos. Many ghettos had small workshops or factories where Jews worked producing various goods needed by Nazi Germany, particularly for the war effort. [Type text] The first ‘ghetto’ was established in Venice, Italy, in the 1500s for Italian Jews (the word is derived from ‘ghetto nouvo’ the ‘new foundry’ area of Venice where a foundry had been). In 1555, a Papal Bull was issued which gave official sanction to the ghettoization of Jews. Unlike the Nazi ghettos, however, Jews in the 1500s were able to live and work, and practice their religion, although they had to return to the ghetto in the evening. It was hoped that life in the ghetto would encourage Jews to eventually convert to Christianity. At this time Jews were not considered inherently ‘evil’, as the Nazis would later view them, and a Jew who converted to Christianity was welcomed by Christians. The Nazis, of course, viewed Jews as inherently evil, and eventually attempted to annihilate them. Conversion to Christianity would not save them from their fate. Map: The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum [Type text] Life in ghettos was very difficult. Many died due to the incredibly overcrowded conditions which led to disease and malnutrition. Many others were simply shot or murdered by the Nazis. Jews who survived the ghettos were eventually deported to the various concentration camps where they either continued to work under appalling conditions, or where they were murdered, often within hours of their arrival. 11. What were the concentration camps? Concentration camps were detention centres, some small, others vast, which included transit camps, labour camps and extermination camps. The first concentration camp was Dachau, in Germany, established in 1933 for Hitler’s political opposition. However, as stated, with the outbreak of World War Two, Nazi Germany conquered Poland and Eastern Europe, France and most of Western Europe, too. Millions of Jews were now under German domination. As Nazi ideology ultimately called for the genocide of the Jews, concentration camps were built in which Jews, along with other minority groups, were imprisoned, used as slave labourers, and murdered. The six ‘death camps’ , those camps which had the primary purpose of murdering Jews, were located in Poland. (The largest, Auschwitz, included labour camps as well as the death camp known as Auschwitz II, or Auschwitz-Birkenau). Many thousands of other camps were located throughout Europe. [Type text] Map: The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Jews were murdered by gassing in gas vans, gas chambers, shootings and beatings. Other minorities who suffered in such camps were Poles, prisoners of war, Sinti and Roma (‘gypsies’), homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and communists, amongst others. 12. Did Jews resist? Jewish resistance to the Nazis and their plan of genocide took different forms. There was spiritual resistance: Jews would try to continue observing the Jewish religious traditions despite the difficultly and risks this involved. To teach Judaism secretly; to observe a Jewish holy day; to pray: all are examples of spiritual resistance. Other forms of ‘passive’ resistance included maintaining Jewish schools, newspapers, theatre groups and other forms of cultural life. There was also armed resistance, in which Jews fought the Nazis and their allies. They often fought in groups known as partisans, where young men and women would fight side by side. However, the obstacles to armed resistance were significant. It was extremely difficult to obtain weapons or explosives. Other underground resistance movements were naturally reluctant to [Type text] give any of their own weapons to others, including Jews, even though both were fighting a common enemy. Most Jews had little experience with weapons and warfare by the time such resistance was most needed. As well, most Jews were weak from malnutrition and disease. Nevertheless, there were numerous examples of armed resistance. Probably the best known example was the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising . The Nazis had planned to liquidate the ghetto in April, 1943 and did not expect this task to take long at all. However, Jewish fighters in the ghetto fought the Nazis for almost a month. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was one of many such revolts and acts of armed resistance, whether in ghettos or concentration camps. 13. What did the world do about the Holocaust? Did anyone try to help Jews? The Allies fought Nazi Germany in an effort to defeat Nazi Germany and win World War Two. Many world leaders believed that the best way of helping Jews and responding to the Holocaust was by fighting and defeating Nazi Germany. However, there is still a huge controversy as to whether the Allies did, in fact, do enough to stop the Holocaust whilst trying to win World War Two. For example: Why didn’t the Allies bomb Auschwitz? is frequently asked. Answers vary. Some historians contend that the Nazis hid the true extent of their actions and, by the time the world knew about the true extent of the deaths and suffering, many had already died. Others believe that helping Jews would jeopardize the war effort itself. Many individuals and groups did help Jews. There are many incidents when individuals hid Jews, at great risk to their own lives. Others issued them with visas and other important identification papers. Certain countries, most notably Denmark, went to great lengths and succeeded to protect its Jews. [Type text] 14. How many Jews died? How do we know this? The accepted number of Jewish victims of the Holocaust is approximately six million. This number was reached only after the end of the war, by comparing pre-war population figures throughout Europe with the number of survivors. Nazi figures and records were also used to help determine the final figure. 15. Were Jews the only targets of the Nazis? Jews were the primary focus of the Nazis, and the only group targeted for complete annihilation. Other minorities were also targeted, but not for genocidal extermination: homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, communists, Freemasons and the Sinti and Roma people (often referred to as ‘gypsies’.) The Sinti and Roma suffered enormous losses, with some estimates as high as 25% of their pre-war population. 16. What happened to survivors of the Holocaust? Holocaust survivors endured years of suffering even after the Holocaust and the war had ended. Many were the sole survivors of their entire family, and to begin a new life was a huge challenge. To help the survivors, new camps called D.P. (Displaced Persons) Camps were established to provide temporary housing and medical care. There were still immigration quotas in place for many countries, and it was not a simple matter for survivors to emigrate. Nor was it possible for survivors to simply ‘return home’, as their property had either been destroyed or confiscated. Anti-Semitism was still very prevalent, and thus it was very difficult for the survivors. Many Jews wanted to immigrate to Palestine, to what would become the State of Israel in 1948. However, the British, who then still governed Palestine according to the British Mandate, did not allow survivors to enter. Some succeeded in breaking through the blockade the British had set up to prevent their entry. Following the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, many survivors went there. [Type text] Eventually, survivors did manage to build new lives in other countries such as the United States, Australia, Canada, and elsewhere. 17. Why should we learn about the Holocaust? There are numerous reasons for learning about the Holocaust. As the Jewish Holocaust Centre and Museum’s mission statement reads: “The Jewish Holocaust Museum and Research Centre is an institution dedicated to the memory of the six million Jews who were murdered by the Nazis and their collaborators between 1933 and 1945. We consider the finest memorial to all victims of racist policies to be an educational program which aims to combat anti-Semitism, racism and prejudice in the community and foster understanding between people.” Thus, reasons for learning about the Holocaust are: To learn how an ideology can, and did result, in the deaths of millions of innocent victims. To help ensure that we protect and preserve the tolerant, democratic society in which we live. To ensure that we treat each other fairly and respectfully, regardless of our colour, ethnic origins, or beliefs. To understand the dangers of racism. Hopefully, the lessons you have learned as a result of your visit to the Centre will be of value to you in the years to come. [Type text] GLOSSARY • The Holocaust From the Greek word ‘burnt whole,’ (complete destruction) it is used to describe the destruction of European Jewish people under the Nazis. The Hebrew word is Shoah. • Anti –Semitism Prejudice and discrimination against Jewish people. • Aryan A Nazi racial term used to describe certain northern Europeans who they claimed were a ‘super- race.’ • Nazi A term used to describe a German political party (Nationalist Socialist German Workers’ Party) • Propaganda Brainwashing the public in an attempt to persuade them to follow an ideology or policy. • Scapegoat Someone who is blamed for the mistakes and crimes of others. • Stereotype A generalization used to describe the characteristics of a whole group of people without considering individual differences. • Ghetto A section of town where Jews were segregated from others and kept in overcrowded, slum - like environments without any basic rights. • Nuremberg A German town well known for Nazi rallies from 1933 onwards. The 1935 anti-Jewish laws became known as ‘The Nuremberg Laws.’ In 1945 - 6, an international military tribunal tried 22 major Nazi war criminals there. These were known as ‘The Nuremberg Trials.’ • Pogrom An organized attack on Jewish people. It comes from the Russian term meaning, ‘like thunder, devastation.’ • Deportation The forced removal and transportation of Jewish people from their homes to labour and death camps. • Concentration Camps [Type text] There were over 10,000 concentration camps (labour camps) in which people were enslaved and forced to work for the Nazi war machine. Conditions were so brutal that few survived. • • Gestapo The Nazi secret police, which had enormous power to imprison torture and kill people without trial. • S.S. Initially Hitler’s bodyguards, who later became the controlling organization of all police forces. They held administrative roles in occupied territories and camps. They had their own military forces and controlled huge industrial projects. • Genocide The systematic extermination of a people and their culture. • ‘The Final Solution’ This was the term used by the Nazis for the genocide of the Jewish people of Europe. • Death Marches As the Eastern Front collapsed and as the Soviets advanced (1944-5), the S.S. marched Jews on long treks, often for several months retreating into Germany and Austria. Over 250,000 people died of hunger and exhaustion or were shot if they walked too slowly or fell down. • Auschwitz-Birkenau A town in southwest Poland where the Nazis built a complex of 3 major camps and 36 sub-camps. The complex comprised labour camps, concentration camps and the death camp at Birkenau. • Kristallnacht On 9 November 1938, a so-called ‘spontaneous attack’ was mounted throughout Germany and Austria against Jewish people and their property. It was called ‘Kristallnacht,’ Night of the Broken Glass. Police and firemen stood by as 92 Jews were murdered. Between 20 and 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration camps. 400 synagogues and 7000 shops were looted, set ablaze and destroyed. In 1939 the Jewish population was forced to pay 1 billion marks to the German government for damage caused by the German mob. • Death Camps 6 Death camps were built exclusively for the murder of Jews. They were: AuschwitzBirkenau, Belzec, Chelmno, Majdanek, Sobibor and Treblinka. [Type text] Statistics of The Holocaust % Number of Jews Estimated Killed Alive After The Holocaust Country Initial Jewish Estimated Population Killed POLAND 3,300,000 91% 3,000,000 300,000 USSR* 3,020,000 36% 1,100,000 1,920,000 HUNGARY 800,000 74% 596,000 204,000 GERMANY 566,000 36% 200,000 366,000 FRANCE 350,000 22% 77,320 272,680 ROMANIA 342,000 84% 287,000 55,000 AUSTRIA 185,000 35% 65,000 120,000 LITHUANIA 168,000 85% 143,000 25,000 NETHERLANDS 140,000 71% 100,000 40,000 BOHEMIA/ MORAVIA 118,310 60% 71,150 47,160 LATVIA 95,000 84% 80,000 15,000 SLOVAKIA 88,950 80% 71,000 17,950 YUGOSLAVIA 78,000 81% 63,300 14,700 GREECE 77,380 87% 67,000 10,380 BELGIUM 65,700 45% 28,900 36,800 ITALY 44,500 17% 7,680 36,820 BULGARIA ** 50,000 0% 0 50,000 DENMARK 7,800 .8% 60 7,740 ESTONIA 4,500 44% 2,000 2,500 LUXEMBOURG 3,500 55% 1,950 1,550 FINLAND ** 2,000 .03% 7 1,993 NORWAY 1,700 45% 762 938 TOTAL 9,508,340 63% 5,962,129 3,546,211 *Killings occurred in western area of occupied USSR by the Nazis. Therefore the percentage of people murdered in this area was very much higher. **Although both countries were Nazi allies, they refused to participate in the murder of Jews. [Type text] Websites United States Holocaust Memorial Museum http://www.ushmm.org/ Yad Vashem http://www.yadvashem.org/ Jewish Virtual Library http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/ Museum of Tolerance http://www.museumoftolerance.com/site/c.juLVJ8MRKtH/b.1580483/k.BE32/Home.htm A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust fttp://fcit.usf.edu/Holocaust/default.htm Books The War Against The Jews, Lucy Dawidowicz (Bantam 1986) The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939-1945 Saul Friedlander (Harper Perennial 2008) The Destruction of the European Jews, Raul Hilberg (Holmes & Meier 1985) Atlas of the Holocaust, Martin Gilbert (Michael Joseph Ltd. 1982) [Type text]