Download Health and environmental impacts of pyrethroid insecticides: What

Health and environmental impacts
of pyrethroid insecticides:
What we know, what we don’t know and what
we should do about it
Executive summary
and
Scientific Literature Review
Author:
Louise Hénault-Ethier, MSc1
Scientific advisors:
Nicolas Soumis, PhD2 and Maryse Bouchard, PhD3
1
PhD student at Institut des Sciences de l’Environnement, Département des Sciences de la Terre,
UQAM; 2 Independent Consultant for Équiterre; 4Full professor, Department of Environmental and
Occupational Health, Université de Montréal.
Report prepared for Équiterre, Maison du développement durable, 50 Sainte-Catherine Street West,
Office 340, Montreal (Quebec) H2X 3V4, CANADA
2016.01.18
0
Citation :
Hénault-Ethier, L. 2015. Health and environmental impacts of pyrethroid insecticides: What we know,
what we don’t know and what we should do about it. Executive Summary and Scientific Literature
Review. Prepared for Équiterre. Montreal, Canada. 68pp. http://www.equiterre.org/publication/revue-delitterature-sur-les-impacts-des-insecticides-pyrethrinoides-sur-la-sante-et-len
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Table of content
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. 4
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................. 7
History and registration........................................................................................................................... 7
Physico-chemical characteristics ............................................................................................................ 7
Mode of action ........................................................................................................................................ 8
Domestic uses ......................................................................................................................................... 8
Agricultural uses ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Exposure ................................................................................................................................................. 9
Acceptable exposure ............................................................................................................................... 9
Enhanced sensitivity of children ........................................................................................................... 10
Poisoning symptoms ............................................................................................................................. 10
Environmental occurrence and persistence ........................................................................................... 11
Toxicity to non-target organisms .......................................................................................................... 12
Cumulative risk assessment .................................................................................................................. 12
Registration review ............................................................................................................................... 13
Scientific Literature Review................................................................................................................... 14
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 14
Chemistry: Classes, co-formulants ....................................................................................................... 19
Mode of action ...................................................................................................................................... 20
Domestic uses ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Agricultural uses ................................................................................................................................... 24
Physico-chemistry ................................................................................................................................. 26
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Exposure .................................................................................................................................................. 28
Toxicokinetics ....................................................................................................................................... 30
Occupational exposure .......................................................................................................................... 31
Domestic exposure ................................................................................................................................ 32
Acceptable daily intake ......................................................................................................................... 32
Enhanced sensitivity of children ........................................................................................................... 33
Poisoning symptoms................................................................................................................................ 34
Acute toxicity ........................................................................................................................................ 34
Chronic toxicity and Sub-lethal effects................................................................................................. 35
Developmental neurotoxicity ................................................................................................................ 36
Epidemiological studies of children...................................................................................................... 38
Reproductive toxicity ............................................................................................................................ 39
Endocrine effects .................................................................................................................................. 39
Cancer ................................................................................................................................................... 40
Environmental effects of pyrethroids.................................................................................................... 46
Environmental occurrence .................................................................................................................... 46
Degradation and persistence ................................................................................................................. 47
Non-targeted organisms ........................................................................................................................ 48
Terrestrial .......................................................................................................................................... 48
Aquatic .............................................................................................................................................. 49
Mixtures and synergism ......................................................................................................................... 51
Cumulative risk assessment .................................................................................................................. 51
Best practices ........................................................................................................................................... 52
Registrations and bans .......................................................................................................................... 52
Managing resistance.............................................................................................................................. 53
Alternatives to pyrethroids .................................................................................................................... 54
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................... 55
Policy Recommendations based on new knowledge, data gaps and international benchmarking ....... 56
References ................................................................................................................................................ 59
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Typical structure of pyrethroids illustrated in Cypermethrin ................................................... 19
Figure 2: Mode of action of pyrethroids on neurones.. ............................................................................ 20
List of Tables
Table 1: Pyrethroid formulations registered by Health Canada classified by active substances. ............ 15
Table 2: Various aggregated environmental and health consumption risks assigned to various pyrethroid
active ingredients based on a simulation intended to eradicate the Colorado Potato Beetle from
a potato field. ............................................................................................................................. 17
Table 3: Various aggregated health risks based on food consumption risks attributed to different
pyrethroid active ingredients registered in Canada .................................................................... 18
Table 4: Incident reports by active substance based on Health Canada database. ................................... 23
Table 5: Contamination of fresh fruits and vegetables produced in Canada or Imported based on the
Canadian Food Inspection Agency 2014 report......................................................................... 25
Table 6: Physico-chemical properties of selected pyrethroids. ................................................................ 27
Table 7: Classification, Acute and Chronic toxicity of pyrethroids with references doses determined by
Health Canada’s Pesticide Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA), the US Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), the World Health Organization (WHO) or Australia’s Health
Ministry, based on a compilation by Quebec’s SAgE Pesticide.. .............................................. 29
Table 8: Carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, endocrine disruption potential, reproductive toxicity,
developmental toxicity and neurotoxicity of some Pyrethroids registered in Canada............... 41
Table 9: Long-term effects of various pyrethroid active substances. ...................................................... 45
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Abstract
Although regulatory agencies still consider registered pesticides to be an essential pest management tool
whose benefits counterweight health and environmental risks, history has shown that no pesticide,
particularly insecticides, is harmless. Banning DDT led to the use of alternate insecticides, such as
organophosphates, of varying degrees of toxicity. Now, organophosphates are gradually being replaced
because updated regulatory assessment protocols have uncovered novel potential toxicity. However, the
common trend of replacing organophosphates with putatively safer pyrethroids may not be a benign
alternative. Pyrethroids rapidly immobilize and kill insects by affecting their nervous system. While
lethal doses for humans are quite substantial, sub-lethal neurotoxic effects may be expected in humans.
Regulatory science may adapt slowly to new findings from fundamental science laboratories. Recently,
independent research has suggested certain pyrethroids have a potential for neurotoxicity,
carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity and endocrine disruption; these have sometimes been considered
and refuted during national regulatory registration assessment reviews and evaluations by international
authorities.
The enhanced sensitivity of children to pesticide is a widely accepted fact and children may be subject to
greater exposure to pyrethroids than adults. However, developmental neurotoxic data gaps exist in
pyrethroid regulatory assessments and Canadian and US academic research increasingly supports
possible correlations between sub-lethal neurotoxicity in children and pyrethroid exposure. For instance,
a Canadian study revealed that pyrethroids were significantly associated with behavioural problems in
children. Furthermore, pyrethroid and organophosphorus exposure during pregnancy were associated
with the increase risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Developmental Delays and an in utero exposure
to a common pyrethroid synergist, piperonyl butoxide, was statistically related to mental development
delays in three-year-old children. A better understanding of behavioural endpoints and strengthening our
knowledge on developmental neurotoxicity mechanisms is critical in the light of this recent
epidemiological evidence. Already, a mechanism linking pesticides to autism has been described.
Meanwhile, we should apply the precautionary principle on all uses which may lead to direct and
indirect children exposure.
Emerging evidence also suggests that pyrethroids might have reproductive toxicity. A US study of
males, corroborated by a Chinese study, revealed that pyrethroid exposure (measured as metabolite
concentrations in the urine) is correlated with a decrease in sperm count, decreased mobility of sperm,
an increase of abnormal morphology as well as an increase in DNA damage which may result in
decreased fertility and pregnancy. In mice reduced sperm counts were related to decreased testosterone
levels with cis-Permethrin exposure. Pyrethroids may alter hormones in males (antiandrogenic activity)
and females (estrogenic and lutropic activities). Our societies have been facing a secular trend of
decreasing testosterone and semen quality in males, consequently seemingly subtle associations found in
epidemiological studies may result in large changes in human reproductive capacity or in other
endocrine-mediated diseases and this is the cause for great public concern.
At the turn of the millennium, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) concluded that animal carcinogenesis evidence provided no clear indication
of carcinogenicity for humans, while the US Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
considered some pyrethroids to be possible human carcinogens. In the face of new evidence, including
mutagenesis in hamster and human cell cultures, IARC assigned a high priority to reviewing Permethrin
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carcinogenicity in the 2015 to 2019 period. Associations between some pyrethroids and breast,
testicular, prostate and thyroid cancers have been suggested, based on pyrethroids endocrine disruption
potential.
Although pyrethroids have been observed in Canadian surface waters in agricultural areas, sometimes at
concentrations above the legal thresholds intended to protect aquatic life, we know very little about
groundwater and urban water contamination. Permethrin has recently been observed in Quebec
groundwaters (the synergist piperonyl butoxide has also been observed in 24% of the 2014 samples).
Urban water contamination has been shown to be substantial in US cities. Since pyrethroids are not
among the 25 pesticides for which Quebec’s environmental legislation require drinking water supplies to
be tested, we know very little about our exposure via drinking water. Furthermore, contamination of
fruits and vegetables has been found in Canada, though most food conform to the maximal residues
guidelines. A US study suggests that the risks of contamination of food frequently consumed by children
should be better quantified. While several Quebec municipalities have banned the use of pesticide for
aesthetic purposes within their jurisdictions, residents may still purchase and apply pyrethroids in and
around their houses with very few restrictions. The majority of registered pyrethroid formulations are
actually designed for domestic use, in settings where the public is little informed of the potential health
and environmental consequences of such application.
The Pesticide Management Code of Quebec already restricts pyrethroids from daycares and schools. As
this code is being reviewed, new discoveries concerning pyrethroid toxicity for children should be
integrated in the risk assessment to restrict pyrethroids to other sites children visit. While a cluster of
pyrethroids is currently reviewed for registration in Canada, transparency and easy permanent public
access to information should be improved. It is noteworthy that Americans have easier access to
pesticide registration documents, from early Data Call-In to the final decision, in addition to
instantaneous access to all comments submitted by the public and interest groups via the regulations.gov
website. Meanwhile, Canadians do not have such easy and transparent access to pyrethroid documents:
many documents are not cohesively archived grouped by pesticide chemical family, they do not have a
permanent docket number or permalink on Health Canada’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency
website to facilitate consultation, and numerous documents are only accessible by submitting a personal
request with a lengthy processing time.
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Executive Summary1
History and registration
Pyrethroids comprise several active substances used for their insecticidal properties. Pyrethrins were the
first groups of pyrethroids isolated from chrysanthemum flowers. To increase activity and persistence,
synthetic pyrethroids were created, starting with Allethrins in 1949. Today, pyrethroids dominate the
worldwide insecticide markets. Some 614 products are registered in Canada and over 3500 products in
the US. Pyrethroids are used in domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, veterinary and medical
settings. They are used against agricultural pests (e.g., aphids and weevils), crawling or flying domestic
pests (cockroaches, wasps, ants and spiders), animal parasites (fleas and ticks), human parasites (head
lice) and for public health concerns (mosquitoes). Contrary to general pesticide use in Quebec, sales of
pyrethroids increased from 2004 to 2010, reaching more than 12 tonnes of active ingredients for all
sectors together. During that same period, domestic sales nearly doubled, reaching 2780 kg of active
ingredients (kg a.i.) in 2010 while sales to exterminators were at 6210 kg a.i. in 2010. Cypermethrin and
Permethrin are among the most widely sold pyrethroids in the Province of Quebec, with more than 1000
kg per year each. Pyrethroid use has risen in the past few years because they are heavily used to replace
the more toxic organophosphates.
Physico-chemical characteristics
Pyrethrins names can often be recognized by the suffix –thrin. Common Canadian pyrethroids include
Allethrins, Cyfluthrin, Cypermethrin, Deltamethrin, d-Phenothrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Permethrin,
Pyrethrins, Resmethrin and Tetramethrin. They have been divided into two major groups, based on the
absence (type I) or presence (type II) of a cyano group (formed with carbon and nitrogen) in the first
position attached to a functional group (called alpha) on the molecule. Each active molecule may be sold
as a mixture of different arrangements of the same atoms (called isomers). Along with the active
ingredients, the composition of formulations sold on the market also includes co-formulants (called
adjuvants or synergists). Common synergists include piperonyl butoxide and MGK-264, each has its
own intrinsic toxicity and physico-chemical characteristics which may enhance the pyrethroid
molecule’s toxicity.
Pyrethroids are more soluble in fats than in water, though they may be washed off from surfaces by rain.
Their volatility is low, and in air, they are primarily associated with dust particles. Natural Pyrethrins are
rapidly degraded by sunlight (photodegradation) and in the presence of humidity (hydrolysis). Synthetic
pyrethroids, however, are more stable, though this family of pesticides is generally considered to
degrade rapidly in the environment, compared to other insecticides.
References for this executive summary can be found in the full-length technical report. The observations, conclusions and
recommendations displayed in this literature review were those expressed by the primary science authors quoted. The sole purpose of
providing commercial product examples is so that the public can recognize common household or professionnal use products, by referring
to brand names they may know. Other brands and products are registered by the PMRA. No specific claims regarding products brands are
made in this review.
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Mode of action
Pyrethroid insecticides interfere with signal propagation in neurons, which is why they are called
neurotoxic. Specifically, they act on the sodium channels which are located along the cell membrane on
the neuron tail (axon). By blocking open gates, they may create repetitive firing and depolarization that
lead to symptoms like tremors, involuntary movements and salivation.
Domestic uses
Due to our modern lifestyle, we stay indoors for long hours; because the majority of homes have at some
point been treated with pesticides, this exposes us to a cocktail of chemical pollutants. There are 478
pesticide products registered for domestic use in Canada, with familiar names like Raid and OFF!
Products are sold in a variety of forms, including powders, sprays and coils. By far, pressurized cans and
aerosol bombs are the modes of application resulting in the greatest number of poisoning reports.
Permethrin, Cypermethrin and Piperonyl Butoxide are commonly detected in house dust. Unfortunately,
in trying to eradicate domestic pests like cockroaches which may cause asthma in humans, we use
pyrethroids—which may also cause asthma. Besides health issues associated with children exposure,
when treating head lice with pyrethroids may lead to development of resistance among the lice targeted,
making further eradication more difficult and more heavily dependent on higher doses and mixtures of
insecticides. Flea treatment of pets with pyrethroid shampoos have been linked with poisoning in
children. All the while, less toxic alternatives, such as careful combing and monitoring may suffice to
control head lice problems. Pyrethroid sprays are also dangerous especially when used indoor since
limited air circulation may lead to greater inhalation exposure. More information on how pyrethroids
enter the body following domestic uses is detailed in the exposure section. Alternatives to synthetic
pesticides are preferable. If pesticide use is unavoidable, it should be limited to the minimum
requirement, always following the manufacturer’s recommendation on labels. Rooms should be well
ventilated after treatment and before re-entry; unused products should be locked safely away from
children.
Agricultural uses
The environmental and health risk index associated with Quebec’s agricultural production has decreased
over the past decade. Agricultural workers are commonly exposed to pyrethroids, and this may represent
a cause for concern, especially when good agricultural practices are not followed. Pyrethroids are
commonly used in animal rearing and on food production. Several vegetables (sweet corn, potatoes,
carrots, lettuces, onions, green onions and members of the cabbage family) and fruits (apples,
strawberries and other berries) may be treated with pyrethroids registered in Canada, and several
imported produce may be treated with pyrethroids not registered in Canada. Agricultural uses will leave
residues on food, which will lead to exposure via ingestion of contaminated food. While pesticide
residues on food are regulated and mostly compliant with tolerated residue levels, not all food items
available on the market comply with these regulations.
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Exposure
Pyrethroids mainly enter the body through ingestion, commonly via contaminated food or water, but
also through ingestion of soil or dust particles, especially in children. Absorption through the skin when
exposed to products during application or when touching treated surfaces is slower but it is also possible
because pyrethroids are fat soluble and cells, such as those of the skin, are composed of a lipid bi-layer.
Hence, using flea shampoo leads to limited absorption by the skin. Finally, breathing fine droplets or
airborne dust particles may also occur, especially when using pyrethroids in an enclosed space. Once
pyrethroids have entered the body, they are transformed through degradation into products called
metabolites prior to excretion in the urine. Metabolites common to several pyrethroids include cis- or
trans-DCCA (dichlorovinyl-dimethyl-cyclopropane carboxylic acid), 20 different pyrethroids may
transform into 3BPA (3-phenoxybenzoic acid), while Cyfluthrin may also become 4F3PBA (also known
as 4-fluoro-3-phenoxybenzoic acid). Hence, identifying which pyrethroid exposure corresponds to
which metabolite detected in the body is difficult. Furthermore, metabolites may only be detectable in
the blood or urine for a few hours or a few days. This is why proving a direct link between pyrethroid
exposure and clinical symptoms of toxicity is so difficult.
Workers manufacturing, packaging, handling or applying pesticides are particularly prone to skin
exposure. However, not all workplace poisoning with pyrethroids is related to such direct manipulation
of pesticides. For instance, inhalation may occur when re-entering incorrectly ventilated work places and
skin exposure may occur via contact with treated surfaces, something known to occur among flight
attendants working in disinsected airplanes. Since the 1930s, pyrethroids have been used, pre-flight or
even during a flight, to prevent the transport of disease vectors or harmful pests to other countries.
Although this practice ceased in the US in 1979, it is still commonly used in other countries.
Acceptable exposure
Pyrethroid dietary exposure may be reduced by washing food because much of the pesticide does not get
through the skin of fruits and vegetables. However, simple dipping in water is insufficient, and better
removal is achieved via peeling and cooking. To prevent unwanted health side effects, pyrethroids
residue on food and in water is regulated. Food tolerances set by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency vary from 0.01 to 75 ppm, depending on the pyrethroid molecule. An Acceptable
Daily Intake may also be calculated based on the average human body weight. These range from 0.002
to 0.07 mg/kg body weight per day depending on the legislation and the pyrethroid molecule. According
to the World Health Organization, water concentration of Permethrin should not exceed 20 μg/l in
drinking water. However, the Quebec Regulation on drinking water does not include any pyrethroids
among the 25 targeted pesticides for which regular testing at water purification plants is required.
Drinking water contamination risks are unmonitored in Quebec despite documented surface water
contamination in agricultural areas and groundwater contamination.
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Enhanced sensitivity of children
Children may be more sensitive than adults to pyrethroids because they have a lower body weight but
breathe and eat proportionally more than adults, and they often play on the ground, exhibiting hand-tomouth behaviour. Their detoxification systems may not be as mature and their rapid development may
lead to windows of particular sensitivity, for instance, during brain development. Normally, children are
primarily exposed to pyrethroids in food; however when their homes have been recently treated, dermal
absorption may be more important. Pyrethroids may be found in 5% of food regularly consumed by
children, but not all food is systematically tested, nor is it tested on an annual basis. Unstructured eating
habits of children may enhance their exposure, for example when food is dropped on treated surfaces
and then eaten. A Montreal-based study revealed that children, compared to adults, excreted more of a
pyrethroid metabolite most common in domestic or commercial extermination applications, even though
home treatments with pyrethroids were seldom reported. Furthermore, children are more prone to head
lice infestations, hence more susceptible to being treated with pyrethroid shampoo. Online forums
contain numerous questions and testimonies of parents using dog shampoo to treat head lice infestations
in children at a lower cost. Such uses are not evaluated in the registration of the products, are beyond the
instruction label guidelines and should be prevented; however, since inappropriate use is in response to
financial and health issues, simple recommendations to read and follow the label may not suffice.
Poisoning symptoms
Short-term skin exposure to pyrethroid may lead to abnormal facial sensations (paresthesia). Ingestion
may cause sore throat, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain, with or without mouth ulcers, increased
secretions and swallowing difficulty. Most patients recover within 12-48 hours. Doses required to
induce death range from approximately 55 mg/kg of body for Bifenthrin or lambda-Cyhalothrin to
> 10,000 mg/kg body weight (extremely high dose) with D-Phenothrin. Hence, death following
exposure is uncommon, though high doses will lead to trembling, convulsions and coma.
The effects of longer-term exposure are not well characterized for pyrethroids. Most of the data on
pyrethroids toxicity was gathered from animal studies, with only few epidemiological studies in humans.
Sub-lethal effects of long-term exposure in animals include perturbations in behaviour or development,
reproduction, cancer and hormonal balance. In humans, non-specific symptoms like nausea, dizziness,
respiratory pain, skin rashes, memory loss or immune system disruptions are difficult to link to one
cause and may be confounded with other syndromes (e.g., Chronic Fatigue Syndrome).
Because pyrethroids are generally rapidly metabolized and excreted, only transient (non-permanent)
effects may be apparent in humans. The main mode of action of pyrethroids is an effect on the nervous
system and there is animal evidence of developmental neurotoxicity. For instance, Cyfluthrin was shown
to affect the growth, survival and function of specific brain and spinal cells (called astrocytes).
Nevertheless, regulatory agencies estimate that evidence is equivocal and advanced neurotoxicity studies
are only mandatory for the registration of pesticides strongly suspected to have an impact on the nervous
system. In lieu of conducting specific neurodevelopmental toxicity tests, registrants may cite results
obtained on similar active ingredients, but not all active ingredients may lead to the same effects.
Furthermore, common regulatory protocols may not be sensitive enough to detect certain toxic effects,
while academic research using novel protocols may reveal previously unsuspected or unacknowledged
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toxicity. Newborns may also be more sensitive than adults, and neurobehavioral changes to exposed
youth may persist in adulthood. An association between pre-natal exposure to pyrethroids and
neurodevelopmental toxicity has been suggested, whereby concentrations in air samples of the common
synergist piperonyl butoxide is associated with poorer mental development in three-year-old children.
Several other studies suggest an association between pesticides and impaired neurodevelopment in
children and between pesticide exposure and Autism Spectrum Disorder or pervasive Developmental
Delays. According to recent research, exposure to pyrethroids is common in American and Canadian
children and seems associated with behavioural and cognitive difficulties. Specifically, children who had
ten times the urinary concentration of the metabolite cis-DCCA as the average were twice as likely to
exhibit behavioral problems according to parental observations. Highly exposed children had a higher
likelihood of having learning disability and attention deficit disorder combined.
Recent research involving animal testing and epidemiological studies in humans shows potential adverse
effects on human fertility, such as alterations of the male reproductive system, decreased sperm count,
and mobility and DNA damage, which all led to lower fertility and pregnancy rates. Pyrethroids have
been shown to alter hormones (endocrine disruptors), for example, by decreasing concentrations of
testosterone (an important male hormone) and interfering with luteinizing hormone (involved in the
production of sperm and ova) or altering thyroid function. In vitro studies on Cypermethrin and
Fenvalerate show that pyrethroids may alter female and male hormones (estrogenic and antiandrogenic
activity). The World Health Organization recognizes that tumours have been induced in rodents exposed
to pyrethroids during their whole life, however, in 2001 the WHO concluded that there were no clear
indication of carcinogenicity relevant for human health risk assessments. Permethrin was shown to be
mutagenic in human and hamster cell cultures.
Environmental occurrence and persistence
When pyrethroids are used, sprays may drift with the wind, rain may wash the insecticides into surface
water and pesticides may travel further in groundwater and sewer systems. Since pyrethroids have high
affinity for particles, they tend to sink into sediment rather than stay dissolved in the water column, but
nothing prevents eventual redissolution. Even if only 1% of applied doses reach open water bodies, this
may be sufficient to harm aquatic life. In Quebec, stream contamination (Lambda-cyhalothrin,
Permethrin and Cypermethrin) near vegetable production and orchards regions has been documented. In
these follow-up studies, peak concentrations of Permethrin exceeded both the acute and chronic toxicity
criteria for aquatic life by 32 and 350 times, and concentrations above said criteria were surpassed in 1433% of the samples. Unfortunately, pyrethroids in ground water are not routinely monitored in the
province. A 2015 report on groundwaters in the lower Saint-François region detected Permethrin in 6%
of the tested wells in 2014. In the US, pyrethroids have also been detected in surface waters and
sediments of agricultural regions, with even higher concentrations in urban areas. While research has
revealed the presence of multiple pyrethroids in US waters (Cyhalothrin, Cypermethrin, Permethrin,
Resmethrin, etc.), Bifenthrin is the most abundant. However, due to budgetary constraints, Permethrin is
the only pyrethroid routinely surveyed in surface and groundwater.
In the environment, sunlight (photodegradation), chemical reactions in water (hydrolysis) and the action
of microbes (biodegradation) will eventually break down pyrethroids, with factors like temperature, pH,
presence of oxygen, and adsorption to soil or sediment particles affecting the time it takes until complete
degradation. For instance, cold will slow decomposition, and will also increase toxicity in animals.
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However, a compound which would break down outdoors in a matter of days may remain active for
years inside buildings, where it is protected from the elements. On average, it may take 30-100 days to
decompose most pyrethroids in soil exposed to oxygen, but inside a grain elevator or subway tunnel, it
may take up to a year, and certain formulations intended to have residual effects (like those protecting
wood from termites) may persist up to 5 years. In general, pyrethroids will break down faster in alkaline
environments, so washing treated surface with alkaline water may help to cleanse surfaces following
indoor treatments.
Toxicity to non-target organisms
Though mammals may be sensitive to long-term exposure to pyrethroids, slow absorption through the
skin, rapid metabolism and excretion of metabolites may protect them to some extent. Birds are
considered moderately to be affected by pyrethroids; however this does not take into account the indirect
effects of reduced insects available for dietary intake in treated areas. Reptiles, fish and frogs have all
been shown to be increasingly affected by pyrethroids at lower temperatures, however reptiles are rarely
studied in registration eligibility decisions. Obviously, insecticides will affect insects, not only targeted
pests, but untargeted ones as well. Bees may be particularly at risk from pyrethroid insecticides
(generally considered toxic to highly toxic). If direct spraying does not harm them, secondary contact as
they forage on wild or crop flowers exposes bees to “cocktails” of up to nine active substances. Seventyfive percent of human food crops relies on pollination, most often by bees, and this worldwide service
was valued at 153 billion euros (CAD $214 billion) annually in 2005. Massive bee colony losses have
been documented in the US and Europe and pesticides are one of the several factors causing this serious
and complex threat. Earthworms, which play a critical role in organic matter cycling may also be
exposed to long-term risks of pyrethroid exposure. All tested pyrethroids are toxic to fish, sometimes
highly toxic. Unfortunately, important data gaps in toxicity assessment of pyrethroids to crustaceans,
mollusks, marine and estuarine fish and benthic organisms exist. Concentrations used to kill mosquitoes
or blackflies larvae in surface water bodies may suffice to harm sunfish and lake trout, though such uses
are not documented in Canada. Sub-lethal effects may include inhibition of olfaction which can affect
salmon, rainbowfish or sunfish reproduction, since they rely on pheromones to synchronize egg
spawning by females and fertilization by males.
Cumulative risk assessment
Water and sediment in the US and Canada have been shown to contain a mixture of pesticides, including
several pyrethroids. Pesticides may lead to cumulative or antagonistic interactions which are difficult to
quantify and predict. Nevertheless, legislation requires assessment of interactions in cocktails of
pesticides, but this type of research can hardly test all possible permutations of the thousands of
chemicals we are exposed to on a daily basis. Research has shown that a mixture of organophosphorus
and pyrethroids may increase toxicity by 140 to170 times in fish because of effects on the detoxification
capabilities of animals under multiple exposure. Pyrethroids and neonicotinoids have been found to cooccur in Quebec surface waters, and in laboratory conditions both pesticides were shown to
synergistically affect bees. Household dust may also contain quite a cocktail of pesticides, with 64% of
kitchen floor wipe samples containing six pesticides together. Mixtures may occur randomly, but may
also be voluntary, for instance with organophosphorus and pyrethroids being used together to manage
increasing insect pest resistance. These two classes together are known to increase laboratory animal
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sensitivity, and epidemiological evidence associates their combined presence to decreased sperm count
in man. Further research on the effect of mixtures is required.
Registration review
Several pyrethroids are currently undergoing registration review in Canada and the United States.
Decisions should be taken before 2016, and registrations may be harmonized between the two North
American neighbours. In Canada, the Pesticide Management Regulatory Office of Health Canada is
responsible for registration oversight. Though federal laws supersede all others, provincial governments
also play a role in pesticide management. For instance Quebec’s environmental ministry (ministère du
Développement durable, de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques)
oversees the Pesticides Act and the Environment Quality Act which mandate record keeping for
pesticide sales, delivery of authorization certificates, training and licensing of pesticide applicators and
retailers, among other requirements. Drinking water regulations under the Environment Protection Act
requirements include the regular monitoring of pesticide concentrations in drinking water, however,
pyrethroids are not currently targeted. In 2003, Quebec put forward a Pesticide Management Code
(Code de gestion des pesticides) designed to reduce the health and environmental impacts of pesticide
use. The Code did not restrict the use of pyrethroids, except in places used by children (daycares,
elementary and secondary schools). In 2015, the government plans to review this Code, hence the
importance of bringing new pyrethroid health and environmental issues to its attention, in the hope of
further minimizing their impact on our wilderness and population. Beyond federal and provincial
government jurisdictions, some 131 Quebec municipalities have placed further restrictions, for example
on the uses of pesticides for aesthetic purposes within their boundaries. For instance, the city of
Montreal requires the use of low impact pesticides outdoors, a regulation bound to fines where
unapproved use is reported. However, this regulation only applies to outdoor uses of pesticides.
Several alternatives to pyrethroids do exist. In order to manage growing insect resistance to pyrethroids,
we should seek less toxic alternatives like physical actions (heating or freezing), biological actions, low
impact pesticides or complex natural plant extracts. Low impact pesticides like diatomaceous earth rely
on its dehydration potential of the targeted insects, like cockroaches. Biological insect control has been
proven efficient against a wide variety of agricultural pests without any reliance on synthetic pesticides.
A US survey revealed that a majority of people would prefer non-pesticidal alternatives to eliminate
insect pests in their homes. It is possible to eradicate bed bugs with advanced detection means (i.e.
sniffer dogs) coupled to a heat treatment (offered by professional exterminators). It is possible to
eradicate head lice with combing and manual nit picking following a strict time schedule. However, it is
not always easy to properly train people and motivate them to make behavioural changes, i.e. a Pyrethrin
shampoo appears so easy to apply for many who have not been instructed in potential lice resistance or
consequences for treated children. Hence, studies on potentially safer alternatives to pesticides need to
expand. For instance, essential oils may have great potential, but we need a good characterization of
their efficiency and potential impacts, since even natural substances are not without risk: Remember that
pyrethroids origins stem from a natural flower extract, and unmodified natural molecules bear some risk,
a baseline which is often compounded via chemical optimization.
13
Scientific Literature Review
Introduction
Pyrethroids comprise a family of broad spectrum insecticides that have been used for more than 50
years. Pyrethroid insecticides are widely used because they are believed to be relatively safe for humans,
their insecticidal potency is elevated at low dosages and they exhibit a rapid immobilization effect.1
Pyrethroids are used against a wide range of insects considered pests, such as potato beetles and cotton
boll weevil (Coleoptera), flies and mosquitoes (Diptera), aphids (Homoptera) and bed bugs
(Heteroptera), ants and wasps (Hymenoptera), butterflies and moths like the cotton boll-worm
(Ledipodtera), grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera), thrips (Thysanoptera) and head lice
(Phthiraptera). Pyrethroids are extensively used in domestic, agricultural, public health (i.e. against
public disease vectors like mosquitoes), medical and veterinary applications (see Table 1).
The extract of chrysanthemum flowers (Chrysantemum cinerariaefolium and C. cineum) called
pyrethrum contains several active substances, one of which is Pyrethrin. This botanical extract was
originally used in order to control body lice during the Napoleonic Wars.2, 3 While pure Pyrethrins are
moderately toxic to mammals, commercial preparations are considerably less toxic.3, 4 Pyrethrins
currently represents 80% of the total market of botanical insecticides.3, 5 But because pyrethrum is
unstable in sunlight (UV), its components were long ago chemically modified to enhance their stability,
and that is when the synthetic pyrethroids (a man-made version of Pyrethrins) were born. The natural
origin of this family of insecticides is not a guarantee of its safety. The first molecule synthesized in
1949 was called Allethrin,6 but the first commercialization came about in 1978 with Fenvalerate.1
Though more than 1000 pyrethroid molecules have been synthesized, approximately 40 are currently
included in the pyrethroid class, and only a dozen of them are commonly used, with Permethrin being
the most commonly used active ingredient worldwide and in the US.1, 7 Now over 3,500 pyrethroids
products are registered in the United States.8 Worldwide, Pyrethrins and pyrethroids sales were less than
500 tonnes per year in 1976,9 then ranked second behind organophosphorus in the insecticide market in
1995 with 23% of worldwide sales,10 and now account for 17% of global insecticide sales with a market
value of $7 billion.11 In Canada, 744 pyrethroid formulations are registered for domestic, commercial,
agricultural or industrial uses under Health Canada’s Pest Management Regulatory Agency (PMRA),
with 588 dedicated to domestic uses (representing 79% of all formulations) and only 4 with restricted
uses (restricted products are not available to the general public and can only be used under certain
circumstances by specifically trained individuals).12 To appreciate the importance of the current
registration review process, the current pyrethroid cluster pesticide registration review targets active
substances which are present in 614 formulations, including 478 domestic products.
14
restricted
domestic
Active
Substances
total
Table 1: Pyrethroid formulations registered by Health Canada classified by active substances. Asterisks (*) identify pyrethroids
under current review. Information compiled from Health Canada website on 2015.02.23: http://pr-rp.hc-sc.gc.ca/ls-re/index-fra.php. The
sole purpose of providing commercial product examples is so that the public can recognize common household or professionnal use
products, by referring to brand names they may know. Other brands and products are registered by the PMRA. No specific claims
regarding products brands are made in this review.
Examples of
commercial product names
Examples of applications
(which fruits, vegetables, crops, plants, animals or places)
Numbers
744 588
4
Percentage (%)
100 79
1
Allethrins*
150 128
0 Raid or OFF! Mosquito coils, Raid home insect killer freezing establishments, bottling plants, breweries, restaurants), food
Cyfluthrin*
9
4
Used in grain mills, food processing plants (bakeries, canneries,
services, storage and food transport vehicles.
0 insect bug killer
Tempo, Raid Spider Blaster, and & roach, crawling
CyLence is used against horn flies, lice on beef cows and lactating
cows.
Cypermethrin*
7
0
0 Ripcord 400EC agricultural insecticide
Row crops (Wheat, Barley, Canola, Corn), Vegetables (Sunflowers,
Asparagus, Celery, Crucifers like cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli and
Brussels sprouts, Carrots, Lettuces, Onions, Potatoes, Rutabagas,
Turnip, Tomatoes). Fruits (Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, Grapes,
Strawberries). Eliminator in eartags against facial flies of bovids and
lactating cows.
Deltamethrin*
1
0
0 Insecticide deltaguard SC
Lawns and flowers (no food)
d-Phenothrin
(Sumithrin)*
125 110
Lambdacyhalothrin*
18
0
Knockdown flying insect killer 1, Raid max house &
garden multi-bug killer, Raid outdoor and nest
destroyer 2, Wilson One Shot Garden Kille, Schultz
0 House plant Insect Spray, Green Earth Homecare
bed bug travel spray, C-I-L Wasp and Hornet Long
Shot, X-Pire, Hartz Ultraguard flea & Tick treatment
for dogs, WalMart Great Value Bed Bug Killer,
Syngenta Technical Insecticide, Matador, BASF
0 residual effect insecticide, Silencer emulsifiable
concentrate insecticide
Not used on crops, allowed on house plants, away from food
preparation area.
All industrial crops including fruits, nuts, potatoes, oleaginous
cultures, cereals, alfalfa, pasture, corn, legumes.
Permethrin*
381 313
Ambush, Pounce, KG insecticide against fleas and
ticks for cats or dogs, Raid for ants, cockroaches,
earwigs; Hagen anti-fleas carpet protector, spider
4 killers; Horse flies sprays; Wasps and Hornets
destructor; OFF outdoor mosquito repellant, Ortho
home max defense ants eliminator; Raid fumigant;
Eco-Guard; Knock Down, etc.
Pyrethrins*
25 14
0 Knock Down flying insects, Doctor Lethal eco choice Lettuces, Mustard leaves, Cabbage, Turnip, Peppers, Radishes,
Resmethrin*
19 15
0 fleas and ticks; K-G vaporiser IV against wasps and gardens and greenhouses, but no mention of crops for this active
Tetramethrin*
0
0
0
Bifenthrin
3
0
0 Capture 240 EC
Fenvalerate
0
0
0 formulations including Bovaid ear tags.
Flucythrinate
0
0
0 previously approved in Canada (historical products) lactating cows.
Fluvalinate
0
0
0
Tefluthrin
2
0
0 Syngenta Force 3.0G Insecticide
Asparagus, Beets, Carrots, Cereals, Colza, Cucumbers, Ginseng,
Lettuces, Lentils, Linseed, Corn, Peas, Peppers, Potatoes,
Sunflowers, Mushrooms, Peanuts, Chinese cabbage, Pak-Choi,
Radishes, Horseradish, Snap beans, Tomatoes, Tobacco, Turnip,
Apples, Pears, Nectarines, Grapes, Blueberries, etc.
Asparagus, Beans, Broccoli, Celery, Cranberries, Eggplants,
Potatoes, Spinach, Tomatoes
Schultz fungus gnats destructor; PPP shampoo for
Wilson fungus gnats, destructor spray on house plants, in small
hornets; Buzz-up? Wasps and hornets,
substance.
Raspberries and Potatoes.
No longer registered in Canada, historically three
No longer approved in Canada, 2 formulations
For the control of horn and face flies in beefs and lactating cows.
For the control of stable, domestic, horn and face flies in beefs and
including Guardian Insecticide Cattle ear tag
-
Field, sweet and seed corn only. Corn forage, grain cobs and other
plant portions may be fed to livestock.
15
Let us explore the volume of pesticide sales and specifically pyrethroids in a province like Quebec,
Canada. Quebec sales of pesticides are on a decreasing trend with 4.6% fewer kilograms of active
ingredients sold since 1992, the first record tracking year. However, contrary to overall pesticide trends,
sales of pyrethroids have increased from 2004 to 2010, reaching 12,139 kg (all sectors together:
domestic, agricultural, pest management, etc.). The environmental risk for the use of pyrethroid
insecticides is increasing according to the latest Quebec report (data from 2011).13 The use of adjuvants
is also on the rise in the province, but they only account for 3.4% of all pesticides sales by weight (it is
impossible to know if formulations contain an increasing amount of adjuvants relative to their active
ingredient content, as formulations are secret proprietary information not disclosed in sales reports).13 In
Quebec, domestic sales of pyrethroids nearly doubled in half a decade (from 1482 kg a.i. in 2004 to
2780 kg a.i. in 2010) and extermination sales were at 6210 kg a.i. in 2010. 13 While domestic uses have
increased, agricultural uses had decreased by a third (3036 kg a.i. in 2004 to 2011 kg a.i. in 2010).13
Quebec agricultural use of pyrethroids involves animal rearing and other agriculture-related situations
(not restricted to plant culture). Pyrethroids are not commonly used in landscaping nor for industrial
purposes, but it is the first class of pesticide used by the extermination sector in the province.
Cypermethrin alone is responsible for 1.9% of Quebec’s pesticides Environmental Risk Index (IRE) in
2010. Along with Cypermethrin, Permethrin is also one of the most widely sold pyrethroid in the
province, with sales ranging from 1,001-10,000kg a.i. in 2010. Pyrethroids with sales below 1000 kg
include, in alphabetical order: Cyfluthrin, Cyhalothrin-lambda, Deltamethrin, d-cis, -trans-Allethrin, dtrans-Allethrin, Fluvalinate, d-Phenothrin, Pyrethrins, Resmethrin, Tefluthrin and Tetramethrin and its
active derivatives. Allethrins (other than the specific isomers mentioned above). No sales of Fenvalerate
and Flucythrinate were reported in 2010. All of the above pyrethroids are part of Health Canada’s
cluster scheduled to undergo re-evaluation before 2016, except Fluvalinate, Tefluthrin, Fenvalerate and
Flucythrinate (http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/cps-spc/pubs/pest/_decisions/rev2011-05/index-eng.php).
Throughout the world, there is a trend to replace the more toxic organophosphorus insecticides with
pyrethroids, due to a phase-out of organophosphorus pesticides for residential use14-16; but this trend is
also observed in agricultural regions.17 Pyrethroids are the pesticide most frequently associated with
human acute poisoning despite their generally acclaimed lower toxicity, but fortunately few of the
reported cases resulted in major effects or death, for example only 2% of cases reported in the US state
of Oregon.14
The various pyrethroids active substances registered in Canada have different potential environmental
and health impacts. Aggregated indices of potential impacts have been created by various organizations
to help users and consumers assess the relative risk of applying or consuming pesticides. The human and
environmental impact indices were created by the Ministère de l'Agriculture, des Pêcheries et de
l'Alimentation du Québec (Quebec Ministry of agriculture, fisheries and food), with the Ministère du
Développement durable, de l'Environnement et Parcs (Ministry of sustainable development,
environment and parks) as well as the Institut national de santé publique du Québec (Quebec National
institute for public health).18 A description of the methodology appears in Samuel et al.18 To quantify the
risk associated with a particular pesticide use, farmers, agronomists and other users are encouraged to
consult the database.19 Based on specific cultivation and pest scenarios, appropriate registered products
can be located, and their environmental and health impacts may be compared. As an example, Table 2
shows a summary of the pyrethroids which can be used to fight a Colorado Potato Beetle infestation in a
potato field. Note that the other classes of pesticides recommended for this scenario were not considered
16
in this pyrethroid-focused summary. These indices represent potential risk for users of the pesticide and
due to its presence in the environment, however because food is a major pathway for pesticide intake,
indices focusing on this specific risk have also been developed.
Table 2: Various aggregated environmental and health consumption risks assigned to various
pyrethroid active ingredients based on a simulation intended to eradicate the Colorado Potato Beetle
from a potato field.
Active
Substances
Cypermethrin*
Deltamethrin*
D-Phenothrin
(Sumithrin)*
Lambdacyhalothrin*
Permethrin*
Environmental Impact Index
Human health risk index
124-127
15
183-211
56
48-96
81
130
212
While some Canadians may chose organic foods to circumvent potential failures of the pesticide
registration system, many more chose to consume conventionally grown fruits and vegetables. To
answer the need for ethical information on consumers’ risks, various tools were created. A well-known
American tool created by the Environmental Working Group two decades ago is an annual publication
of the Dirty Dozen (Plus) and Clean Fifteen, helping consumers to rapidly identify the worst and best
fruits and vegetables found on the market, among 48 common varieties.20 This index is derived from the
reports from the US Department of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration on food
contaminated by pesticides residues.
To circumvent two methodological flaws identified in the EWG method,21 Soumis22 developed a novel
index in 2015 which is adapted from the Indice de Risque Toxicologique created by the Quebec national
institute for public health mentioned above. The adapted Toxicological Risk Index, is abbreviated TRI'.
First, it considers the relative importance of the toxicological risk for each substance, instead of relying
solely on the average concentration of each active substance. Secondly, it decreases the systematic
disadvantage imposed on food items which contained multiple pesticide residues simultaneously, by
introducing the relative toxicity of individual pesticides and not simply summing the number of
pesticides present. Together with the detection frequency for each pesticide within a food sample and the
frequency that food items are contaminated with more than the maximal residual limit, we obtain an
adapted Toxicological Risk Index associated with the consumption of fruits and vegetables. Food
produced by organic farming, food from imprecise origin and uncommon varieties, and food items
insufficiently tested (fewer than three specimens) were left out. A total of 179 products, 45 from Canada
and 134 from 23 different countries were quantified. From this list, all food items, even the “most
contaminated ones” are a priori edible based on current maximal residue limits, and even when these
limits are surpassed, the consumer is still protected by safety margins because residue limits are well
below admissible daily doses of the pesticides, and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency neither
washes nor peels fruits and vegetables prior to testing, leading to a precautionary worst-case scenario
portraits for the consumers. Finally, this list is not an absolute ranking, but a relative one.
17
The TRI' index was further refined to specifically address pyrethroids. In order to do this among 179
food produce found on the Canadian markets as per the Canadian Food Inspection service report,23 fruits
and vegetables which scored positive for detection of pyrethroids which are registered in Canada for
direct use on crops (row crops, fruits and vegetables) or which may enter the human food chain
indirectly (registered for use on lactating cows or cattle, or for use in areas where human food is
transported, stored, transformed, prepared or served). Finally, from this sub-set of pyrethroids, only
those which appeared in the SAgE Pesticides database were retained.19 Use of only this database had the
objective to reduce the variability in the source data values to facilitate chronic risk weighting based on
the Environmental and Human Health Risk Indices described above.18 Consequently, the calculated
values presented in
Table 3 may not necessarily equate with those presented in Soumis’ earlier report.18 The higher the risk
according to the TRI', the greater the risk associated with the consumption of a particular pyrethroid.
However, because the TRI' is an index, it does not correspond to a real measurable quantity, and hence
does not have any units. Furthermore, due to the mathematical methodology used to establish their
values, a linear relationship (proportionality) cannot be used to compare different values, i.e., a
substance with a TRI' of 1000 is not necessarily ten times more toxic than another substance with a TRI'
of 100. The best way to compare these substances is to rank them.
Table 3: Various aggregated health risks based on food consumption risks attributed to
different pyrethroid active ingredients registered in Canada, as per Soumis.22 ND
indicates unquantified TRI' due to absence of toxicology data in the SAgE Pesticide
database despite the possibility of encountering the pesticides in fruits and vegetables.
Active
Substances
Adapted Toxicological Risk Index from food consumption
(TRI')
Allethrins*
289
Cyfluthrin*
169
Cypermethrin*
196
Deltamethrin*
16
D-Phenothrin (Sumithrin)*
36
Lambda-cyhalothrin*
16
Permethrin*
552
Pyrethrins*
210
Resmethrin*
812
Tetramethrin*
ND
Bifenthrin
ND
Fenvalerate
ND
Esfenvalerate
ND
Flucythrinate
ND
Fluvalinate
16
Tefluthrin
324
Etofenprox
ND
* Products currently included in the Canadian PMRA pyrethroid registration review cluster.
18
Chemistry: Classes, co-formulants
The botanical Pyrethrins are composed of a mixture of six ingredients with insecticidal activity:
Pyrethrin 1 and 2, Cinerin 1 and 2 and Jasmolin 1 and 2.8 Although pyrethroids have evolved
considerably over the past few decades, synthetic pyrethroids retain a common structure, composed of a
chrysanthemic acid linked to an aromatic alcohol by an ester linkage (Figure 1).24 Newly synthesized
molecules tend to be more active, but are also used at lower doses. Synthetic pyrethroids can often (but
not always) be recognized by the suffix –thrin; they include Allethrins stereoisomers, Bifenthrin, BetaCyfluthrin, Cyfluthrin, Cypermethrin, Cyphenothrin, Deltamethrin, Esfenvalerate, Fenpropathrin, TauFluvalinate, Lambda-Cyhalothrin, Gamma Cyhalothrin, Imiprothrin, 1RS cis-Permethrin, Permethrin,
Prallethrin, Resmethrin, Sumithrin (D-Phenothrin), Tefluthrin, Tetramethrin, Tralomethrin, and ZetaCypermethrin.8 Synthetic pyrethroids can be divided in two broad classes, based on the absence (type I)
or presence (type II) of an α-cyano group which enhances toxicity. Different spatial organization of the
same chemical formula (termed isomers) can be sold as a mixture of the different isomers or separately,
depending on the commercial formulation.25, 26 The different isomers can be more or less toxic, but
generally the stereoisomer most toxic to insects (desirable attribute of insecticides) is also the most toxic
to mammals (undesirable side effect).25, 26
Similarly to all other pesticides, pyrethroids are used as commercial formulations which consist of
mixtures of the active ingredient (the pyrethroid itself), with co-formulants, also called adjuvants,
synergists or inert ingredients. But so-called inerts are not necessarily devoid of intrinsic toxicity; this is
why the US Environmental Protection Agency requested that formulators voluntarily changes the term
inert to other ingredient on pesticide labels.2 Synergists implies enhancement of the toxicity of
pyrethroids. Piperonyl butoxide and MGK-264 are common sygergists8 and both represent some risk of
toxicity. Piperonyl butoxide, for instance, can be present at concentrations ten times higher than the
pyrethroids themselves in a commercial formulation, and their role is to inhibit natural detoxification by
an enzyme (Cyt P450) in order to extend the useful life and hence the activity of the active principle. As
such, it can synergistically increase human sensitivity not only to pyrethroids, but also to other
environmental toxicants. MGK-264 is the short name for N-Octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide. Used
in pyrethroid formulations, it is intended to act as a synergist and not to have instrinsic insecticidal
properties alone. However, there are potential endocrine dusruption evidence for MGK-264 in the
literature.27 Many human epidemiological studies reporting pyrethroid toxicity are limited by the
difficulty in differentiating the effect of the active ingredient, or pyrethroid, with that of the additives
used in the commercial preparation.14
Figure 1: Typical structure of pyrethroids illustrated in Cypermethrin.24
19
Mode of action
The majority of insecticides sold in the US are neurotoxic, either inhibiting neurotransmitters or
affecting voltage-gated sodium channels.28 Pyrethroids are insecticides which act by interfering with the
nerve transmission influx.25,6 Simply put, pyrethroids interfere with sodium (Na) channels in the tail
(axon) of neurons (see Figure 2). Sodium channels are common across a wide variety of animals. By
blocking these gates open, they elongate the time of the nerve impulse. This leads to muscular paralysis
and death.1 At higher concentration, pyrethroids may also interfere with chloride channels. Other
proposed mechanisms, likely representing secondary modes of action, include antagonism with gammaaminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, modulation of nicotinic cholinergic transmission, increase of
noradrenaline release and action on calcium channels.1, 25
Figure 2: Mode of action of pyrethroids on neurones. The top diagram shows the normal functioning of sodium channels which
open, allowing sodium to pass, but then close after the action potential. This single action potential propagates through the nerve
tail (axon) and triggers muscle contraction. Upon exposure to pyrethroids, the sodium channels malfunction, and may remain
opened instead of returning to a closed state after initiation of the action potential. This will lead to repetitive firing (in type I
pyrethroids) or depolarization (in type II pyrethroids) leading to tremors or involuntary movements (choreoathetosis) depending
on the type of pyrethroid. Note that the T (fine tremors) and CS (choreoathetosis and salivation) syndromes are not as clearly
differentiated as initially characterized in the pyrethroid literature, and mixed symptoms may occur.
20
Domestic uses
Pyrethroids are commonly used as a treatment for vector borne diseases (e.g., mosquito carrying malaria
plasmodium) and against residential pests and parasites (e.g., fleas, ticks, head lice, cockroaches, etc.).2,
29
As mentioned above, Quebec domestic sales of pyrethroids nearly doubled in half a decade (from
1482 kg a.i. in 2004 to 2780 kg a.i. in 2010) and extermination sales were at 6210 kg a.i. in 2010.13
Among the pyrethroid formulations available to consumers, the vast majority (79%) are available for
domestic use, i.e., for the members of the general public, who are not required to have any specific
training in pesticide handling and application, and who are expected to carefully follow label
instructions.
Modern life is characterized by long hours spent indoors, and because indoor use of pesticide is
common, this results in high exposure levels. For instance, in the US, it is estimated that citizens spend
90% of their times indoor and that 74% of homes are treated with pesticides.30 Favoured choices of pest
management in urban dwellings include traps (41%), sprays (34%), smoke bombs (27%) and nonvolatile gels (25%).30 Most US households have measurable levels of insecticides (as detected in floor
wipe samples); the most commonly detected is Permethrin (89%).31 Cypermethrin (46%) and piperonyl
butoxide (52%) are also commonly detected.31, 32 Urban multiunit dwelling are often plagued with pests
problems, for which control with excessive, restricted or banned pesticides has been documented. An
example of restricted pesticide misuse is application of a Cyfluthrin-based pyrethroid wettable powder
by residents, without following recommended dilutions on the label, compounded by the fact that this
insecticide is normally restricted to professional pest managers.31 Banned organophosphorus pesticides
residential use has also been documented in questionnaires and quantified by sampling.32 Urban
multiunit housings are expected, and observed, to have high loads of pyrethroids.31 Domestic pests may
create health consequences, but so do treatments with pesticides. For example both cockroaches and
insecticides used against them are associated with asthma problems.30 Exposure to pyrethroid
(Permethrin) was associated with non-atopic asthma in farm women and maternal exposure to pesticides
(predominantly assumed to be organophosphates and pyrethroids) is associated with allergic asthma in
children.33
Lice are treated with pyrethroid formulations often used on the scalp, with a high proportion of children
receiving treatment due to contamination in daycare and schools. Natural Pyrethrins were introduced on
the worldwide market in 1948 to control the head louse, synergized Pyrethrins (piperonyl butoxide)
were introduced in the US in the 1980s, and finally synthetic pyrethroids were authorized in the US in
1986 (1% Permethrin) and launched worldwide in 1992 (Phenothrin and Permethrin).34 When head lice
treatment fails to exterminate the undesirable insect from children’s heads, parents are often told that
reinfestation occurred or that they failed to appropriately use the product or to follow through
correctly.34 However, head lice resistance to pyrethroids was first documented over a decade ago, and
this resistance leads to the use of increased concentrations of pyrethroids, alternating between various
families of pesticides, and requires the introduction of new insecticidal molecules.35 Beyond this
documented drug resistance, some specialists even question the global effectiveness of pediculicides
(insecticides targeting lice).34
In homes, pyrethroids may be used in vaporizers or as powders to eradicate several crawling and flying
insects like cockroaches, ants and wasps. Indoor uses in confined spaces may lead to exposure by
breathing during application (inhalation). After application, children who play on the floor and exhibit
21
hand-to-mouth behaviour may further be exposed via their skin (dermal) and digestive tract (ingestion).
In a treated home, floors, sofas and carpet fabrics are important reservoirs for pyrethroids, and may lead
to exposure of occupants.30 In addition, some commercial formulations of pyrethroids (with each
product containing a different assemblage of pyrethroids active ingredients and co-formulants to target
different pests) may have a repulsive effect on cockroaches (they augment locomotor activity). This may
render eradication via less toxic alternatives more difficult because the exposed insects then migrate
from their usual kitchens and bathrooms habitats to unusual zones such as bedrooms. Permethrin was
detected in all (100%) urban public housing units surveyed in Boston (Mass., USA), while
Cypermethrin and Cyfluthrin had a prevalence of more than 90% and 71%, respectively.30 Finally, flea
treatment of pets often relies on pyrethroids in shampoos and collars. These have been linked to
poisoning in children.29 Misuse of pyrethroids in domestic settings (e.g., using Cyfluthrin wettable
powder without mixing with water) has been documented and leads to greater than necessary
exposure.30 Exposure to pyrethroids in homes and other treated areas varies with the age of residents,
income, but can also be affected by how pesticides are applied, such as whether or not recommended
guidelines are followed.
The poison control centres receive initial contacts in case of pesticide incidents and accidents, but we
could not obtain a compilation of incident reports from the Quebec or National association. The Quebec
government does not compile statistics on pesticides incidents or accidents. The Canadian government
(Health Canada) compiles incident reports on various pesticides, and the last report, published in 2013,
contains a section related to pyrethroid.36 This report analyzed trends from 2007 to 2011 for the 2,420
incidents related to pyrethroids. The majority of Canadian incidents surveyed were considered minor in
nature, but pyrethroid-related incidents nevertheless accounted for more than a third of all human
incidents and more than half of all domestic animal incidents reported to the PMRA. Lambdacyhalothrin was involved in 15 incidents reported since 2007, 11 of which were classified as Canadian.
The number of incidents associated with this active ingredient increased from 2007 to 2011. The
increase in pyrethroid-related incidents led to a recommendation to review label warnings to make sure
that they are clear to the consumers and consistent. Reported symptoms include respiratory (e.g.,
irritation of the throat), dermal (e.g., skin rash), neurological (e.g., headache), and gastrointestinal (i.e.,
nausea). The majority of incidents occurred during application or following contact with a treated area.
Domestic product application in homes, leading to single short-term human exposure, with insecticide
sprays, predominate in the reports. On the other hand, animal incidents occurred with flea and ticks
control products directly applied on animals. Few reported cases involved a violation of the label
instructions. In fact, even when the label instructions are respected, inhalation and dermal exposure to
domestic insecticide sprays occurred. Despite the label instructions, which are intended to reduce risk,
incidents may occur at a rate higher than what would be expected based on sales reports. In order to
reduce the number of incidents, potential poisoning symptoms and more precise instructions for the
consumers will be listed on the labels. A list of incident reports associated with different active
substances can be found in Table 4. Each incident report may be consulted online by accessing the
Health Canada portal.37
22
Table 4: Incident reports by active substance based on Health Canada database.37 Data compilation on 2015.04.16.
Active
Substances
Current
Applications
Registered
Products
Current
re-evaluation
Allethrins*
Incident
reports
NA
Cyfluthrin*
0
9
1
91
Cypermethrin*
1
7
1
32
Deltamethrin*
D-Phenothrin
(Sumithrin)*
Lambdacyhalothrin*
Permethrin*
4
8
1
52
10
126
1
264
8
18
1
122
17
377
1
3659
Pyrethrins*
17
521
1
1201
Resmethrin*
0
19
0
13
Tetramethrin*
0
145
1
121
Bifenthrin
2
3
0
2
Fenvalerate
NA
Esfenvalerate
NA
Flucythrinate
NA
Fluvalinate
1
2
0
20
Tefluthrin
3
2
0
4
Etofenprox
0
2
0
483
23
Agricultural uses
While pyrethroids are commonly used to control several insects affecting agricultural production, their
main agricultural uses are for animal rearing. Between 1997 and 2010, the environmental (IRE) and
health risk index (IRS) of pyrethroids have decreased in Quebec agriculture from 7.4 to 2.6%, and from
2.6 to 0.9%, respectively.13 However, the environmental risk index had increased in the report for the
year 2011.13 The use of pyrethroids in animal husbandry increased marginally from 1,683 kg a.i. sold in
2004 to 1767 kg a.i. sold in 2010.
Table 1, above, lists common crops treated with pyrethroids against various insect pests in Canada, and
similar product uses are listed elsewhere for the US.2 In Quebec, pyrethroids may be applied to several
vegetables (sweet corn, potatoes, carrots, lettuces, onions, green onions and members of the cabbage
family) and fruits (apples, strawberries and other berries).38 Until resistance is found in certain insect
pests, pyrethroids are commonly the first choice in conventional growing systems.39 Agricultural uses
are linked to exposure of workers, especially when good agricultural practices are not followed. Faulty
practices for pyrethroids were documented in other countries, such as China in the late 1980’s,40 but
inappropriate use and distribution of general pesticides has also been documented more recently in
Quebec, where a 2010 report found pesticides not registered by Pest Management Regulatory Agency of
Canada on sale.13 Among specialized workers, use of pyrethroids before it has been approved by Health
Canada and uses outside approval limits is known to occur in Quebec.39 Agricultural use will leave
traces of residues on food, and this leads to exposure via ingestion.41, 42 As long as pesticides are used
according to the recommended practices (within approval limitations and according to good agricultural
practices), this leads to human pesticide exposure which has been deemed safe by Health Canada. Any
abusive or non-intentional misuse exposes us to residue levels of for which the safety is not attested
(further discussed below).
The most recent data from Health Canada’s National program for the surveillance of chemical residuals
from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency reveals that the vast majority of fruits and vegetables
produced in Canada (97.64%) or imported (94.30%) and found on the Canadian market conform to
maximum residue limits (MRL). However, most of them are contaminated by at least one pesticide
residue.23 As would be expected, imported fruits and vegetables are more likely to be contaminated than
Canadian-grown food, and part of this is explained by the greater number of registered products used
outside of the country compared to within Canada. With respect to pyrethroid contamination, no
Canadian nor imported dairy products, eggs or meat were found to be contaminated. Less than 1% of
Canadian and imported honey samples contained Permethrin. For honey, Tau-Fluvalinate was not found
even though it is used in apiaries and flowering crops pollinated by bees.43, 44 Fruits and vegetables
samples which had a pyrethroid residue above the maximum residue limit are listed in Table 5.
24
Table 5: Contamination of fresh fruits and vegetables produced in Canada (C) or Imported (I) based on the Canadian Food
Inspection Agency 2014 report.23 Non-conformity is the opposite (100% - X) of the conformity value given in the source report, and
it represents the percentage food samples having a pyrethroid residue level above the maximum allowed. Only the pyrethroids are
listed in for the non-conform residues detected, so other pesticides were commonly detected along with the pyrethroids, but only
the pyrethroids (which are the focus of the current review were listed here). Readers are encouraged to consult the original report
for details.
Source
C
C
C
C
C
C
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Food product
Dill
Cabbage
Herbs
Asian vegetables
Beets
Potatoes
Basil
Dill
Mint
Herbs
Peas
Spinach
Asian vegetables
Cabbage
Kohlrabi
Peppers
Lettuce
Parsley
Rapini
Strawberries
Blackberries
Starfruit
Artichoke
Various vegetables
Orange
Yellow or green beans
Apricot
Nectarine
Grapefruit
Eggplant
Peaches
Cherries
Lemon
% Non-conformity
33
33
30
28.5
2.5
2.5
75
47
50
40
39.5
39.5
36
21
19
16
15.5
15
14.5
12
11
10
10
8
8
8
7
7
6.5
6
6
5.5
5
Non-conform pesticide residue
Cypermethrin, Permethrin
Deltamethrin
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Permethrin
Cyfluthrin
Permethrin
Bifenthrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Cypermethrin, Deltamethrin
Cyfluthrin
Lambda-cyhalothrin
Piperonyl Butoxide
Cypermethrin
Cyfluthrin, Lambda-Cyhalothrin, Cypermethrin
Cypermethrin, Permethrin
Cypermethrin
Permethrin
Bifenthrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Cypermethrin
Cypermethrin
Permethrin
Permethrin
Bifenthrin, Fenpropathrin, Piperonyl Butoxide
Bifenthrin
Esfenvalerate, Fenvalerate
Esfenvalerate, Permethrin
Cypermethrin
Lambda-Cyhalothrin
Fenvalerate
Fenpropathrin
Fenpropathrin
Fenpropathrin
Lambda-Cyhalothrin
Bifenthrin
Fenpropathrin, Permethrin
Piperonyl Butoxide
25
Physico-chemistry
Pyrethroids are more soluble in fats than in water, though they may be washed off from surfaces by rain.
Their volatility is low, and in air, they are primarily associated with dust particles. Natural Pyrethrins are
rapidly degraded by sunlight (photodegradation) and in presence of humidity (hydrolysis). Synthetic
pyrethroids, however, are more stable, though this family of pesticides is generally considered to
degrade rapidly in the environment compared to other insecticides.
General physico-chemical properties of various pyrethroids are presented in Table 6. Briefly,
hydrophobicity is measured as the logarithm of the octanol vs. water partition coefficient (or Kow) and
represents how much of a substance will dissolve in organic solvents compared to water. The variation
is nearly four orders of magnitude from the most hydrophilic, Esfenvalerate (Kow = 4), to the most
lipophilic, Tralomethrin (Kow = 7.6). Since Kow serves as a predictor of environmental fate (adsorption to
sediments, bioaccumulation, etc.) and animal toxicity (absorption, distribution, storage, degradation and
excretion), it is apparent that pyrethroids, as a family of chemicals, have a wide range of properties.
Similarly, the organic carbon vs. water partition coefficient (or KOC), gives an approximation of how
much the chemical will adsorb and desorb from organic matter in the environment.45 Here, not all
pyrethroids are characterized, but a much lower range of variability has been observed. Normally, lower
values ( 2.7) represent compounds which are very mobile in the environment because of their water
solubility; larger values characterize compounds have a tendency to strongly adsorb to soil organic
matter, which minimizes environmental movement, and this appears to be the case for pyrethroids (at
least under controlled laboratory conditions). The partition coefficient measures the relative affinity of
the pyrethroids with organic solvents or organic carbon. In contrast, solubility is simply how much of a
compound will dissolve in water, generally under fixed parameters of temperature and pH. Pyrethroids
like Bifenthrin (0.1 mg/l) are two orders of magnitude more water soluble than Cyfluthrin, Deltamethrin,
Esfenvalerate or Fluvalinate ( 0.002 mg/l).
When a pure chemical is in equilibrium with its liquid or solid form, vapour pressure is a relative
measure which indicates the relative volatility of a substance (via the pressure exerted by the gaseous
phase). Greater vapour pressure (i.e., Bifenthrin = 1.8 x 10-4 mm Hg at 25C) means higher volatility;
however, pyrethroids are generally recognized for their low volatility (as much as seven orders of
magnitude lower than Bifenthrin in the case of Tralomethrin (3.6 x 10-11 mm Hg). Henry’s Law
Constant then puts vapour pressure, molecular weight of the compound and water solubility in relation
to estimate exposure via the aerial pathway. On the extreme ends of the pyrethroids family spectrum, is
Bifenthrin, which is the most likely to lead to significant aerial exposure and Tralomethrin which is the
least likely (with four orders of magnitudes separating the extrema).
Finally, pyrethroids may degrade differently depending on the environmental compartments (soil or
water) where they end up, and environmental conditions (aerobic or anaerobic). The measurement is
days for half-life (t1/2), which means the number of days required to disintegrate half of the original
product concentration. For example, if Cyfluthrin ends up in a soil which is well supplied with oxygen,
microbes may break it down rapidly, with t1/2 as little as 11.5 days. On the contrary, should Bifenthrin be
spilled in a poorly aerated soil, it may remain there for years (t1/2 = 425 days). Notice the important
variability for compounds like Cypermethrin (t1/2 =1.9-619) indicating that changing environmental
conditions may lead to radically different persistence in the environment and remember that the longer
26
an active chemical stays in the environment, the higher the chances of environmental and human
toxicity. To summarize persistence, pyrethroids are generally considered to have a low environmental
persistence, but keep in mind that this varies with the active ingredient of interest and with
environmental conditions.
Table 6: Physico-chemical properties of selected pyrethroids.8, 17, 19
Henry's
Law
Constant
(atmm3/mol at
25⁰C)
Soil
aerobic
half-life
(days)
Log
Kow
Log
Koc
Solubility
(mg/l)
Vapour
Pressure
(mm Hg at
25⁰C)
>5
3.13
4.6
1.2 x 10-6
6.1 x 10-7
17-43
Bifenthrin
6
5.4
0.1
1.8 x 10-4
<1.0 x 10-3
96.3
425
>30
Cyfluthrin
5.9
5.1
0.002
2.03 x 10-9
9.5 x 10-7
11.5
33.6
1.8-183
Cyhalothrin
6.9
5.5
0.003
1.5 x 10-9
1.8 x 10-7
42.6
Cypermethrin
6.6
5.5
0.004
3.07 x 10-9
4.2 x 10-7
27.6
Deltamethrin
6.1
5.7
<0.002
1.5 x 10-8
1.2 x 10-4
>26
Esfenvalerate
4
5.4
0.0002
5.5 x 10-6
4.1 x 10-7
38.6
90.4
>30
Fenpropathrin
6
0.014
1.8 x 10-10
1.8 x 10-4
Fluvalinate
4.3
5.0
0.002
5.7 x 10-7
3.05 x 10-5
8-15
84-88
22.4
Permethrin
6.5
5.4
0.0055
2.2 x 10-8
1.4 x 10-6
39.5
197
>30-242
D-Phenothrin
(Sumithrin)
6.01
5.15
<0.0097
1.43 x 10-7*
1.43 x 10-7
18.625.8
173.3
36.1
Pyrethrins
4.305.90
4.094.57
0.00020.009**
2 x 10-5 –
4 x 10-7
-
10.5
86.1
0.6-0.7 at pH 9;
>>> at pH 7
Resmethrin
5.4
2.713.50
1.13 x 10-8
<8.9 x 10-7
198
682
37
Tetramethrin
4.6
3.093.47
1.83
7.08 x 10-6
1.7 x 10-6
<0.040.13
-
0.89-1.06
Tralomethrin
7.6
0.08
3.6 x 10-11
3.9 x 10-15
Active
ingredient
Allethrins
Soil
anaerobic
half-life
(days)
Hydrolysis halflife (days)
4.3 at pH 9;
>>> at pH 7
8.7->30
55
1.9-619
17
*at 21⁰C
** at 20⁰C
27
Exposure
Unsurprisingly, the method employed to apply pyrethroids will influence the likeliness of
contamination: Pressurized cans and aerosol bombs are, by far, the modes of application resulting in the
most reports of contamination (according to a study made in the northwestern US29 but likely similar in
the rest of North America). In order to better understand the risk of exposure in different groups,
exposure is generally assessed separately for workers, children and the general public.46 However,
assessing the exact exposure of short-lived (non-persistent) pesticides like pyrethroids is challenging, in
part because body fluid samples (i.e., urine or blood in biomonitoring studies) only allow an estimate of
current levels of pyrethroids in the body (tracking history is difficult). Also, questionnaires often target
work exposure but neglect environmental exposure, and often overlook the mode of application of a
pesticide or the wearing of personal protection equipment. Combining samples and questionnaires is
thus essential.46
The following sections detail how pyrethroids are absorbed, metabolized and excreted from the body
(toxicokinetics) and distinguish occupational from domestic exposure. To set a reference frame for the
reader, Acceptable Daily Intake and food tolerances of pyrethroids is discussed. Finally, since children
are particularly sensitive to pesticides in general, including pyrethroids, a special section focuses on their
enhanced exposure and metabolic sensitivity. Pertinent toxicological information is summarized in
Table 7.
28
Table 7: Classification, Acute and Chronic toxicity of pyrethroids with references doses determined by Health Canada’s Pesticide Management Regulatory Agency
(PMRA), the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the World Health Organization (WHO) or Australia’s Health Ministry, based on a compilation by Quebec’s
SAgE Pesticide. Substances currently in the pyrethroid registration review cluster of Environment Canada are marked with an asterisk.
Classification
EPA
Allethrins*
III
Acute toxicity
WHO
II
LD50
LD50
LC50
oral
mg/kg
cutaneous
mg/kg
inhalation
mg/L
709
(rats)
>3000
(rabbits)
2.51
Acute toxicity reference dose
Cutaneous
irritation
Ocular
irritation
Cutaneous
sensitization
Cholinesterase
Inhibitor
very little or
not at all
Slightly
No
No
PMRA
EPA
target
population
Acute toxicity summary
Acceptable
daily intake
Chronic toxicity reference dose
WHO
oral
cutaneous
inhalation
mg/kg/day
PMRA
EPA
WHO
Australia
mg/kg/day
mg/kg/day
mg/kg/day
mg/kg/day
mg/kg/day
mg/kg/day
-
0.03
General
population
-
Moderate
Low
Low
-
0.008
-
-
0.04
Moderate
Low
Low (US EPA) to
high (EU)
-
0.024
0.04
0.01
Cyfluthrin*
I
Ib
>16.2
(rats)
>5000
(rats)
>0.468
(rats)
very little or
not at all
Slightly
No
No
-
0.02
General
population and
children
Cypermethrin*
II
III
247
(rats)
>4920
(rabbits)
2.50
(rats)
very little or
not at all
Slightly
Yes
No
-
0.023-0.07
General
population and
children
0.04
Moderate
Low
Low
-
Refer to Acute a
0.02
0.05
0.001-0.01
For newborns
and children For general
population
0.05
Low-Moderate
Low
Low
-
0.001-0.01
For newborns and children - For
general population
0.01
0.01
-
Low
Low
Low
NDb
0.007
0.07
0.02
0.02
High
Moderate
Moderate
0.005
0.001
0.02
0.02
1.5
Low
Low
Low
-
0.25
0.05
0.05
0.2
Low
Low
Low
-
0.044
0.04
-
-
Low
Low
Low
-
0.035
0.1
0.02
Deltamethrin*
D-Phenothrin
(sumithrin)*
II
III
II
U
>135
(rats)
>5000
(rats)
>2000
(rabbits)
>5000
(rats)
2.2
(rats)
>2.1
(rats)
very little or
not at all
very little or
not at all
Slightly
Slightly
No
No
No
No
-
NDb
0.03-NA
Women of
childbearing
age; none for
other groupsc
Lambdacyhalothrin*
II
II
54 (rats)
632
(rats)
0.065
(rats)
very little or
not at all
Permethrin*
III
II
2280
(rast)
>2000 (rabbits)
>5.32
(rats)
Pyrethrins*
III
II
700
(rats)
>2000
(rabbits)
Resmethrin*
III
III
4639
(rats)
Tetramethrin*
III
U
Fluvalinate
II
Tefluthrin
I
Slightly
General
population
Possible
No
0.025
0.005
very little or very little or
not at all
not at all
No
No
-
0.25
2.5
(rats)
very little or
not at all
No
No
-
0.07
>2000
(rabbits)
5.28
(rats)
very little or very little or
not at all
not at all
No
No
-
-
4600
(rats)
>2000
(rabbits)
>2.73
(rats)
very little or very little or
not at all
not at all
No
No
-
-
NDd
-
Low
Low
Low
-
NDd
III
261
(rats)
>2000
(rabbits)
>0.56
(rats)
very little or
not at all
No
No
-
0.005
General
population
including
infants and
children
-
Moderate
Moderate
Low
-
0.005
-
0.005
Ib
22
(rats)
177
(rats)
>0.04
(rats)
very little or Severely to
not at all
extremely
No
No
0.001e
0.05
-
High
High to
Moderate
High
0.0005f
0.005
-
0.005
Slightly
Slightly
General
population
Notes from the table:
a Due to reversibility of the most sensitive effects studied in neurotoxicity, it is assumed that danger does not increase with duration, consequently, the acute reference dose is
considered protective for long-term exposure.
b
c
Not determined because it is not used on food in Canada.
Women of childbearing age are 13-49 years old; None determined for other groups because no effect from single dose administration was concluded from animal studies.
d
Not determined because it is not used on food in the US, and water exposure is not expected.
e
An additional safety factor of ten was added to compensate for data gaps in acute and developmental neurotoxicity.
f
Safety factor of ten normalized uncertainty, ten for interpolation between species and ten to account for data gaps in acute and developmental neurotoxicity studies (total = 1000).
29
Toxicokinetics
Entry of pyrethroids in the human body (absorption) can occur through the intestinal tract (ingestion),
the skin (dermal contact) and the lungs (respiration of particles).1, 25 Skin absorption is generally slow.1
Following absorption, pyrethroids are distributed rapidly throughout the body including in fatty tissues
(adipose tissue), stomach, intestine, liver, kidney and the nervous system.1 Pyrethroids will be degraded
in the body via two principal routes (oxidation and hydrolysis, followed by conjugation with amino
acids, sugars or sulphate) and this will transform this originally fat-loving compound (lipophilic) into
water soluble products (hydrophilic) which can then be excreted in the urine, but also in the feces.1, 2, 25,
46
This process typically occurs in the liver through the action of enzymes like cytochrome P450
monooxygenase and hydrolases. The transformation of pyrethroids in the body (metabolism) is
generally considered to reduce their toxicity.1, 25 However, some studies suggest that metabolism of
pyrethroids may in fact bioactivate the product by creating breakdown intermediate products (called
metabolites) which are more toxic than the original parent molecule, and this new hypothesis deserves
further attention.26 The concentration of intact pyrethroids in the urine and blood plasma is much lower
than that of the metabolites (breakdown products),46 though non-metabolized pyrethroids have been
detected in occupational workers1, 47 and in the breast milk of occupationally exposed women.1
Pyrethroids are rapidly metabolized in the body with the metabolites, with half-lives varying from two
hours to a few days, being excreted in the urine.48, 49
Quantifying pyrethroids and metabolites (breakdown products) concentrations in body fluids can be
done in laboratories, using gas or liquid chromatography techniques with relatively good detection
limits, as low as 0.08 μg/l urine.50 Interest in pyrethroid metabolites only arose about a decade ago,
coinciding with increased agricultural and residential use of pyrethroids.46 However, so far few studies
have quantified pyrethroid metabolites46 in the general population, pregnant women, infants, children
and flight attendants (work-related exposure of airline crew members due to the disinsection [insect
eradication] of planes flying internationally required under certain legislations).50 Different pyrethroid
parent compounds can be metabolized into common degradates. For example, cis- and trans- isomers of
Permethrin, Cypermethrin and Cyfluthrin will transform into cis- or trans-DCCA (dichlorovinyldimethyl-cyclopropane carboxylic acid), but Cyfluthrin may also transform into 4F3PBA (3-(4'hydroxyphenoxy) benzoic acid) and 20 different pyrethroids may transform into 3BPA (3phenoxybenzoic acid).15, 49 This makes it hard when relying strictly on blood or urine sampling to track
which parent compound can be linked with observed human health effects. In addition, pyrethroids are
rapidly metabolized in the body and do not tend to bioaccumulate,1 but with continuous exposure to
stable dietary or environmental doses, urinary metabolites may reach a pseudo-steady-state whose
analysis may allow a better understanding of chronic toxicity.16 For instance, because of airplane
mandatory insect control protocols, regular international air travellers may regularly be exposed to
wave-like short-term build-up of pyrethroids, despite rapid metabolism, and this may lead to a steadystate concentration in their body.50 Development of pesticide biomarkers allowing longer-term
quantification of exposure, such as metabolites found in hair or meconium (the earliest stool of infants)
should continue.46 For now, biomarker studies allowing snapshots of rapidly metabolizing pyrethroids
should not stand alone in toxicity assessments or regulatory decisions, as they may not always represent
everyday exposure.46 In 2008, the first pyrethroid exposure study was conducted, in Montreal, with the
use of questionnaires and urinary metabolite sampling and analysis. The results indicate that exposure
levels of Montrealers are similar to those in the United States, but some individuals had higher exposure
levels than an earlier study in Germany.51
30
Occupational exposure
Occupational studies generally follow pesticide sprayers, farmers, sheep dippers (workers controlling
parasites on livestock) and workers in the chemical, manufacturing and packaging sector.46 However,
pesticide application or related handling may only be secondary components of work-related pyrethroid
poisoning cases reported: the majority of pyrethroid poisoning cases occurred during normal workrelated activities not related to pesticide application,29 for example flight attendants working in a
previously treated airplane.50 Occupational exposure occurs mainly via skin absorption.6, 47 Inhalation
exposure is less common unless use occurs in confined spaces,6 but despite this generally reported
statement, inhalation exposure was the most common form of exposure in a study monitoring
pyrethroids-related illnesses covering the states of Washington and Oregon.29 To protect workers,
maximum air concentrations of 5 mg/m3 of Pyrethrins for 8-hour shifts and 40-hour work weeks should
be respected, according to the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration.7
To protect people, fauna and flora from non-native disease vectors and harmful pests, some countries
have required airplanes disinsection since the 1930s.50 Disinsection has not been required in the US
since 1979, but is still required in Australia, New Zealand, Barbados, Cooks Islands, Fiji, Panama and
certain other countries.50 Currently used insecticides in airplanes include 2% solutions of pyrethroids
such as Permethrin (for residual treatment, pre-embarkation and pre-flight) as well as D-Phenothrin (top
of descent, upon arrival). Treatment in airplanes is done by maintenance staff or professional
exterminators prior to takeoff or after landing but, in flight, is done by flight attendants.50 The World
Health Organization determined that this practice caused no risk to human health, if carried out
according to recommendations, however, new and unquantified general exposure risks have been
recognized since production of the WHO report,50 including suppression of immune system, damage to
lymph node and spleen, developmental neurotoxicity, chronic symptoms and kidney poisoning, as well
as gynecomastia (development of male breasts).50, 52 Though pyrethroids are not very volatile, inhalation
exposure by flight attendants may not be ruled out (even of flight attendants not personally responsible
for spraying the pesticides in the airplane), but exposure may also occur via contact with contaminated
seats, carpets and food trays leading to skin contact and unintentional ingestion.50 Flight attendants
working on disinsected planes were found to have significantly higher urinary levels of pyrethroid
metabolites (3-PBA, cis- and trans-Cl2CA) in pre, post- and 24-h-post flight samples than those on
planes which did not report having been disinsected.50 Interestingly, none of the flight attendants
followed in the study sprayed pyrethroids themselves, but the average work shift was 15 hours, leaving
ample time for indirect exposure via contaminated surfaces.50 The type of metabolites observed in urine
was consistent with the type of pyrethroids used on aircraft.50
In a Chinese cotton grower survey, 68% of participants reported wiping off sweat with hand or sleeve,
leading to secondary pyrethroid exposure. If there was leakage or a blockage in the spray nozzle during
field application, 65% of workers cleared the nozzle with their mouth or hand. Pyrethroid preparation
was often conducted using the packaged product lid instead of a measuring cup with a handle. The
occurrence of hand contamination reached 92% of the workers, with 69.8% not aware of pyrethroid
toxicity, wearing unsatisfactory personal protection equipment (no masks nor gloves, bare upper
extremities, only open sandals during spraying). Most did not comply with basic safe handling
recommendations (spray every other row, while walking backward or against the wind, and not eating or
smoking in the field). Shoes and trousers were contaminated in 93.1% and 65% of the workers
respectively, with body contamination reaching nearly 30% of the total skin surface. Sloppy handling
yields the greatest risks of contamination.47, 40 No Canadian studies of this type could be located.
31
Domestic exposure
Daily exposure of the general population to pyrethroids occurs mainly via contaminated food
(originating from agricultural uses), contaminated waters (from general environmental contamination,
usually a minor route), breathing contaminated air (right after spraying occurred, otherwise a minor
route) or by skin contact.2 In the northwestern US, the majority of pyrethroid-related incidents reported
to local authorities occurred during normal outdoor or indoor living activities, which had nothing to do
with pesticide handling; pesticide application or general pesticide handling came in only second.29
Dermal exposure occurs upon direct application against lice or scabies, or upon indirect contact with an
animal treated for fleas, or with flooring and upholstery treated against domestic pests.2 Involuntary
inhalation or ingestion of contaminated dust occurs in confined spaces treated against cockroaches, bed
bugs or other domestic invaders, due to hand-to-mouth behaviour, or via electronic vaporizers which
release pyrethroids in the air to control domestic insects.2, 53 Improper use of pyrethroids may also lead
to accidental exposure.2
Acceptable daily intake
Tolerances on foods vary from 0.01 to 75 parts per million depending on the pyrethroid molecule of
interest, according to EPA standards.7 Tolerance levels of pesticides on food items are set for raw
produces at the farm gate, however, they do not consider potential contamination of food in homes nor
do they account for multiple pesticide exposure mixtures.42 Concentrations of pyrethroids in water are
also regulated; for example, the WHO recommends that Permethrin concentration should not exceed
20 μg/l in drinking water. However, the Quebec Regulation on drinking water does not include
pyrethroids among the 25 targeted pesticides for which regular testing at water purification plants is
required.54 Furthermore, only 26% of water purification plants in Quebec are equipped with systems
such as ozonation or activated charcoal which are known to further remove pesticides. Hence, to avoid
unmonitored hazards, it is essential to ensure no pyrethroid contamination reaches our surface and
ground water supplies.55
Because humans are bound to consume pesticides via dietary intake and in order to correctly assess and
mitigate this risk, the World Health Organization calculates Acceptable Daily Intake of different
pesticides based on the available regulatory testing results and published literature. A human can be
exposed to the Acceptable Daily Intake for his or her whole life without appreciable risk predicted by
the facts known at a given time.1 The WHO Acceptable Daily Intake of pyrethroids varies from 0.002 to
0.07 mg/kg body weight per day depending on the molecule,1 while the US Acceptable Daily Intake
ranges vary from 0.005 to 0.05 mg/kg body weight per day.2 The daily average intake of Permethrin (US
top seller) is estimated at 3.2 μg/day, which is three orders of magnitude lower than the WHO
Acceptable Daily Intake for a 70 kg adult male,2 although this does not consider the enhanced sensitivity
of children and multiple exposures pathways.
32
Enhanced sensitivity of children
Children are particularly sensitive to pyrethroids and pesticides in general for several reasons. They have
a lower body weight but proportionally higher food and respiratory intake, commonly play on the
ground and outdoors, exhibit hand-to-mouth behaviour, may have an immature detoxification system
and go through critical developmental windows, e.g., enhanced neuronal plasticity (rapid brain
development).15, 46, 56-58 Specifically, in the case of pyrethroids, the increased sensitivity of the young is
likely attributable to an incomplete maturation of the enzymes that detoxify pyrethroids, such as
carboxylesterases and cytochrome P450s.24 In addition, different pyrethroid receptors (voltage-gated
sodium channels) are expressed during embryonic development and adulthood, and the specific
sensitivity of these different channels (isomers) could explain the greater sensitivity of the young.24 The
skin of children might be more permeable to pyrethroids, and children may be exposed to higher internal
body concentrations than adults because exercise, flu and colds make them more prone to dehydration.2
Large studies following groups of children over time (prospective cohorts) have been conducted in the
United States and Canada. Even before birth, children are exposed to pyrethroids. In a Baltimore
hospital, Permethrin was measured in the umbilical cords of newborns, but the association with
developmental effects is inconclusive.33 In Poland, there was a small but significant decrease in birth
weight of babies exposed in utero during the first or second trimester (this study is considered midquality).33 A Health Canada study (Canadian Health Measures Survey) detected pyrethroids metabolites
in nearly 100% of surveyed children, a finding of concern.33 For the age cohorts of 6-11 and 12-19,
respectively, 3-BPA (metabolite of Permethrin, Deltamethrin, Cypermethrin, etc.) was found in 99% and
100% of children, Cis-DCCA (metabolite of cis-Permethrin, cis-Cypermethrin) was found in 97% and
99% of children, and 4-F-3-PBB (metabolite of Cyfluthrin & Flumethrin) was found in 42% and 51% of
children.33 Other researchers showed that dietary ingestion is more important than non-dietary ingestion
as the dominant exposure routes for children, except in homes with frequent pesticide applications
where dermal exposure is first, followed by dietary ingestion.41 The US Food Quality Protection Act has
long required monitoring and management of children’s dietary exposure to pesticides, but the
application of this legislation is still a challenge.42 Pyrethroids are found in 5% of fruits and vegetable
consumed by children, with concentrations of 93 ng/g of Bifenthrin in strawberries or 1133 ng/g in a
composite sample of lettuce-broccoli-mushrooms.42 In a worst-case scenario, assuming that 100% of
these food items on the market were as contaminated as the lettuce-broccoli-mushroom dish stated
above, and with the WHO Acceptable Daily Intake of 0.02 mg/kg bw/day,59 adults would approach the
safety limit if they ate one kilogram of highly contaminated food in one day. While eating such a
quantity may seem farfetched for an adult (whose average weight is assumed to be 60kg), remember that
a 3-yeard-old or an 11-year-old child may weigh 15kg or 35kg, hence 250g or 500g of a highly
contaminated meal would suffice to approach the safety margin of the Acceptable Daily Intake. Such
dietary exposure is greater than the US Department of Agriculture Pesticide Data Program assumptions
used to calculate exposure risk, which highlights the importance of measuring the actual concentration
in food eaten by children, taking into consideration that some food samples may have a higher risk of
being contaminated.42 The US Pesticide Data Program does not test all food eaten by children, nor does
it test all the food annually.42 In Canada, children food are also tested.60 However, the sampling is done
in a fashion which prevents statistical extrapolations. Pyrethroids were found in food, but the nature of
the food and the concentrations measured were not disclosed in the report, which simply stated that the
allowed tolerances were respected. Another information found in this report is that organic food destined
for children was less contaminated with pesticides than conventional food, although not completely
33
devoid of pesticides residues.
In addition, children’s unstructured eating habits and activities may lead a greater environmental
exposure than assessed by the US Environmental Protection Agency.61 Pyrethroids may be transferred
on food by crawling ants, with efficacy depending on food characteristics. For instance, there is less
transfer on bread and cookies, but more transfer on apple slices and bologna. As long as pyrethroids are
measurable in a children’s environment, unintentional transfer on food will take place.61
A Montreal-based study51 revealed that children, compared to adults, excreted more of a pyrethroid
metabolite (CDCA per kg of body weight) most common in domestic or commercial extermination
applications (Allethrins, Tetramethrin, Resmethrin, Phenothrin, Prallethrin) rather than agricultural uses.
However, application of pesticide in homes was seldom reported within the three weeks prior to urine
sampling (considering the short lifespan of pyrethroids metabolites within the body, this reveals
exposure to sources outside of the home during the course of the study). Furthermore, head lice
treatments significantly increased metabolite excretion in children, while certified organic diets
significantly decreased pyrethroid metabolite excretion in children.51 Hence, pyrethroid exposure in
children may be controlled by reducing pediculocide treatments or eating organic food, but other sources
of exposure outside of the home may nevertheless expose children in a large metropolitan region like
Montreal.
Poisoning symptoms
Acute toxicity
Pyrethroids are generally regarded as having one major mode of action (action on sodium channels),
which may lead to two distinct toxicity syndromes depending on the nature of the pyrethroid (at least in
historical records currently recognized by registration authorizations, a recent review suggest that this
type of classification is archaic and not truly supported by the literature).25 The two historic syndromes
include T (fine tremors) and CS (choreoathetosis and salivation) as characterized in rats, and have been
linked to type I and type II pyrethroids (with or without α-cyano group, through this is not consensual25
and mixed syndromes are known for some pyrethroids such as Esfenvalerate and Fenpropathrin).24
Choreoathetosis is the occurrence of involuntary movements which combine irregular muscle
contractions and twisting and writhing. Type I Pyrethrins appear to repetitively fire voltage-gated
sodium channels while type II pyrethroids appear to block the action potential of depolarizationdependent sodium channels.24
Acute toxicity via dermal exposure commonly leads to abnormal skin sensations (paresthesia),
especially in the face, presumably due to hyperactivity of skin (cutaneous) sensory nerve fibres.6
Ingestion exposure may lead to sore throat, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain, and there may be
mouth ulceration, increased secretions and/or difficulty to swallow (dysphagia).6 Effects appearing on
the body remote from the original contact point (systemic effects) generally start within an hour of
exposure and peak within 4-8 hours24 and most patients recover within 12-48 hours,24 though occurrence
of symptoms within 4 to 48 hours after exposure and recovery up to 6 days after is also cited in the
literature.6 Dizziness, headache and fatigue are common, and palpitations, chest tightness and blurred
vision less frequent.6 There are anecdotal reports of flight attendants experiencing irritation to the skin
34
and mucosa, sore throat, vomiting, abdominal pain, headaches, dizziness and nausea.50 Among 3,113
cotton farmers interviewed and followed 72h after spraying pyrethroids, 26.8% suffered from abnormal
facial sensations, dizziness, headaches, fatigue, nausea and loss of appetite.47 Despite extensive
worldwide use, there are relatively few reports of lethal human pyrethroid poisoning, although deaths
have been documented.6 In oral toxicity studies, it takes only approximately 55 mg/kg of body weight to
kill half of the exposed rats (LD50) with Bifenthrin or lambda-Cyhalothrin, but D-Phenothrin and
Etofenprox require nearly 200X that dose (> 10 000 mg/kg body weight).1 Via dermal toxicity, lambdaCyhalothrin and alpha-Cypermethrin appear as the most toxic (> 100 and 632 mg/kg body weight,
respectively).1 At high doses, trembling may occur and convulsions and coma are the principal lifethreatening features.6
Chronic toxicity and Sub-lethal effects
Chronic toxicity, which generally occurs via repetitive low doses exposure, is not well characterized for
pyrethroids. The US Environmental Protection Agency highlights that because pyrethroids are rapidly
metabolized and eliminated from the body, repeated doses (as in dietary studies) may not yield the same
toxicity effects as a single dose (gavage studies).24 Below lethal doses, pyrethroids generally only
exhibit transient effects in humans. Claims of cumulative or irreversible effects, and accumulation of
small doses in the body in the long term have been refuted.53 Nevertheless, long-term effect of
pyrethroids is unclear since most knowledge is gathered from animal studies, and only few
epidemiological studies have been conducted.46 Information on chronic toxicity of various pyrethroid
molecules can be found in Table 8 and Table 9.
In animals, sub-lethal effects of pyrethroids include perturbations of behaviour, development and
hormonal balance.46, 62 In mammals exposed to pyrethroids, motor, sexual, learning, anxiety and fear
behaviours may be altered. Thresholds for changes in motor activity were found well below doses that
produce overt signs of poisoning.62 Some pyrethroids alter several types of behaviour such as schedulecontrolled responses63 (defined as behaviours that can be controlled by reinforcement or punishment and
which are administered in a time-controlled manner), they may also decrease grip strength, produce
incoordination and may increase or decrease the startle response to a noise.62 Such behavioural
endpoints in test animals can be considered to capture the heterogeneity of pyrethroids-induced adverse
effects and should be taken into consideration in risk assessment which guides pesticide policy decisions
( e.g., registration, Acceptable Daily Intake, etc.).62
In humans, symptoms claimed following chronic domestic exposure include nausea, dizziness and
respiratory pain; delayed loss of weight and hair, skin rashes, loss of muscular response, memory and
immune response.64,53 However, these unspecific symptoms are difficult to link to one cause and they
may be confounded with or involved in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Sick-Building Syndrome, Gulf War
Syndrome and Multiple Chemical Sensitivity.53, 65 Only a few clinical, experimental and
epidemiological studies have been conducted on pyrethroids-induced illness, but this may be due to
vaguely defined diagnostic criteria.53 To complicate diagnosis further, different individuals may
experience different susceptibility to pyrethroids because of different detoxification capabilities.66
35
For now, there is no consensus on the specific low concentrations which may lead to hazard, and claims
vary from 100-500 μg of pyrethroids/kg of house dust, a threshold which is influenced by sampling
methods and the analytical limit of detection. Because very low concentrations of pyrethroids are
common in households,53, 67 it is critical to deepen our understanding of chronic low-dose toxicity of
pyrethroids.
Developmental neurotoxicity
Recent developments in pyrethroid toxicity research suggest production of neuronal death,
developmental neurotoxicity, and action mediated via pyrethroid metabolites,26 the latter will not be
further reviewed here. Concerning neuronal death, the regulatory tests conducted for the registration of
many pyrethroids in the 1970s and 1980s were not as specific as more recent research protocols and
only a few behavioural observations were made.26 While high doses may lead to neuronal death,
possibly as an indirect consequence of toxicity (i.e., seizures which cause oxygen deprivation and
neuronal death as opposed to direct neuronal death imposed by pyrethroids), it is not obvious how
repeated low doses affect the nervous system.26 New evidence for neuronal death in the literature,
although sometimes equivocal, calls for a review of the older regulatory tests.26
A 2005 report by the World Health Organization reviewed several developmental neurotoxicity effects
of pyrethroids on animals, including delayed reflex (surface-righting reflex), decreased learning
behaviour (shock-motivated visual discrimination in a Y maze) and changed neurotransmitters binding
in the brain (acetylcholinesterase in the hippocampus) following in utero exposure to Deltamethrin;
increased open-field immobility in male offspring exposed to Fenvalerate; decreased exploratory
behaviour in rats exposed in utero to Cyhalothrin; changed brain neurotransmitter receptors (muscarinic
cholinergic receptors) in neonates and adults treated in utero to Deltamethrin and Bioallethrin. Despite
the quoted effects, the WHO concluded that neurotoxicity observations bear unclear biological
significance, involve processes different in animals and humans, and lack standardization and
comparability-highlighting the need for further investigation on developmental neurotoxicity of
pyrethroids.1
Neurodevelopmental toxicity studies are not required for the registration of all pesticides and they may
only be required by regulatory agencies in cases where neurodevelopmental toxicity is strongly
suspected. In 2010, the US Environmental Protection Agency conducted a special review of the
neurodevelopmental toxicity of the pyrethroids. They came to the conclusion that the developmental
neurotoxicity protocols required for registration review of the pyrethroids did not adequately
characterize the susceptibility of young individuals. However, instead of requiring pyrethroid
manufacturers to conduct the missing developmental neurotoxicity tests for certain pyrethroids
(Bifenthrin, Cyfluthrin, Cyhalothrin, Cypermethrin, Fenpropathrin and Deltamethrin), the EPA
recommended that the registrants simply cite the existing literature reviews of other active substances
that had been tested, considering that different pyrethroids active ingredients to be comparable in terms
of developmental neurotoxicity.8, 24 Because certain behaviours typically studied in neurodevelopmental
regulatory protocols did not show a marked response to exposure to pyrethroids, the EPA suggested that
neurodevelopmental studies were not sensitive indicators of pyrethroid toxicity, meaning that such tests
would not be mandatory for registration.
36
Toxicity assessment protocols monitor certain behaviours or parameters of interest, but the optional
developmental neurotoxicity protocols study unique behaviours or parameters which are not assessed in
other toxicity assessment protocols. Those unique parameters include learning, memory, auditory startle
and brain morphometrics. The EPA concluded that these parameters were not influenced (with some
exceptions) by Pyrethrins, and thus it was not necessary to consider these indicators in pyrethroid
toxicity. Simply stated, the EPA considered that gross measurements required in all toxicological
assessments, like clinical signs of toxicity and body weight changes (of concern if they reach a threshold
of 5% or more), were more sensitive indicators of toxicity than neurological effects (such as auditory
startle response in rat pups) which are part of optional toxicity assessment protocols. The EPA
considered that the large variability between developmental neurotoxicity studies, where the standard
deviation of a recorded effect may be greater than the actual mean, led to inconclusive evidence and
inappropriate statistical interpretation.24 However, novel protocols to assess pyrethroid neurobehavioral
effects may be more sensitive than those commonly recorded in regulatory protocols, hence if standard
neurobehavioral endpoints are insensitive to pyrethroids,24 this may require the use of alternate
endpoints, a few of which are reviewed below. An endpoint is simply something to be looked for in a
toxicity study, it could be weight loss, change in a target organ and tissues or a behavioural change.
Contrary to the regulatory agency conclusions mentioned above, an important peer-reviewed literature
survey categorized pyrethroids as developmental neurotoxicants.68 While acute neurotoxicity of
pyrethroids to adult mammals is well characterized, information on developmental neurotoxicity is
limited.68 Pyrethroids may have an effect on Ca+ channels which are important in neuronal function
during development and for neurotransmitter release, gene expression, and electrical excitability in the
nervous system. However, proof of pyrethroid action on Ca+ channels is incomplete (only in vitro, lack
of concentration-response relationships, contradictory effects, some data not peer-reviewed).69 Many of
the developmental neurotoxicity studies suffer from inadequate study design, problematic statistical
analyses, use of formulated products, and/or inadequate controls. These factors confound interpretation
of results.68 An association between pre-natal exposure to pyrethroids and neurodevelopmental toxicity
has been suggested, whereby the concentration in air samples of the common synergist piperonyl
butoxide is associated with lower Mental Development Index scores.46 Also, the replacement of
organophosphorus insecticides with putatively safer pyrethroids may not be a perfectly safe alternative
with respect to neurotoxicity. For instance Cyfluthrin was found equivalently or more toxic than
Chlorpyrifos regarding growth, survival and function of primary human astrocytes. Astrocytes are starshaped cells located in the brain or spinal cord which play several roles including supporting the bloodbrain barrier, providing nutrients to neuronal cells, maintaining ionic balance and playing a role in
repairing scarred nervous tissue after a trauma; inflammatory activity of these astrocytes can also
mediate neurotoxicity.70 Newborn rats are at least one order of magnitude more sensitive to pyrethroids
than adults,68,24,26 but there is no information on how neurotoxicity fluctuates with age for most
pyrethroids.68 Young mice administered pyrethroids, at a dose which does not exhibit acute toxicity, saw
their behaviour and neurochemistry change, with the changes remaining into adulthood.71 A better
understanding of behavioural endpoints and the strengthening our knowledge on developmental
neurotoxicity is critical in the light of recent epidemiological evidence of sub-lethal effects on children
highly exposed to pyrethroids.15, 72
37
Epidemiological studies of children
Several studies suggest an association between pesticides and impaired neurodevelopment in children
(consult Reference28, and references therein), and between pesticide exposure and Autism Spectrum
Disorder (ASD)28, 73 or pervasive Developmental Delays (DD).28, 74 Young children suffering from DD
experience significant delays in reaching milestones in relation to cognitive or adaptive development
including communication, self-care, social relationships and/or motor skills; it affects 3.9% of US
children aged 3-10, and affects boys 1.7X more than girls.28 Autism appears before age 3 and is
characterized by deficits in social interaction, language, restricted or repetitive behavior, activities or
movements.28, 75 ASD is of lower severity than autism, and is generally linked with a language disorder
affecting 4-5 times more boys than girls; 1.1% of American children age 8 are affected, a 78% increase
since 2007.28, 76
Recent epidemiological research indicates widespread exposure of children to pyrethroids. As discussed
in the toxicokinetics section of the current review, urinary metabolites of pyrethroids represent a
snapshot of recent exposure. These metabolites were observed in 77% of 1,861 American children aged
6-15 between 1999-200272 and in as many as 97% of 779 Canadian children aged 6-11 between 2007
and 2009.15 Not only is childhood exposure common, it seems associated with behavioural and cognitive
difficulties. In 2007, an association between the pyrethroid Bifenthrin and ASD (p=0.049) was brought
to light.73 Pyrethroid metabolites are associated with high scores for total difficulties on Strengths and
Difficulties Questionnaire (significant association of cis-DCCA and non-significant association with
trans-DCCA metabolites).15 Specifically, children who had urinary concentrations of the metabolite cisDCCA ten times that of the average, were twice as likely to exhibit behavioral problems according to
parental observations, and this was stronger for girls.15 Also, a borderline significant association was
found between another metabolite of pyrethroids (3-PBA) and special education utilization/early
intervention (SEd).72 Finally, highly exposed children had higher odds of having learning disability and
attention deficit disorder combined.72
Even before birth, children are exposed to pyrethroids, though this may not affect fetal growth or
gestation time (no association was found with the metabolite 3PBA).77 According to the Childhood
Autism Risk from Genetics and the Environment (CHARGE) study, children of mothers residing near to
pyrethroid and organophosphorus insecticide application sites, just prior to conception or during the
third trimester were at greater risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Developmental Delay
(DD).28 Rather than exposure to the pyrethroid Permethrin itself, exposure to the common synergist,
piperonyl butoxide, in utero, was linked to mental development delays in children when they reached
the age of three.78 This novel finding was obtained from a study where case and control populations
were well defined, diagnostics were standardized, extensive information on covariates was available and
confounding variables were identified and controlled. However, the study suffered from certain
limitations including exclusion of institutional (schools, etc.), residential indoor uses, professional
pesticide applications and dietary sources since these were not mandatory in California pesticide
reporting. The mechanism linking pesticides to autism has been described by Shelton.28, 79
38
Reproductive toxicity
Earlier publications concluded that pyrethroids did not impair mating and fertility of laboratory animals,
neither did exposure to pyrethroids lead to pre-implantation losses at low doses.1 Humans exposed to
Pyrethrins or pyrethroids showed no birth defects.7 However, more recent research involving animal
testing and epidemiological studies in humans shows potential adverse effects on human fertility.
The few studies conducted in this domain support pyrethroid-induced alterations to the male
reproductive system.46 Most studies highlighting effects on sperm concentration, motility and
morphology were conducted on animals.46, 80 Three studies significantly link pyrethroid exposure
biomarkers and sperm parameters in humans, and four other studies show borderline or weak
associations, while five studies significantly link sperm DNA damage with biomarkers levels.46 In
American males, urinary pyrethroid metabolites are correlated with a decrease in sperm count, a
decrease mobility of sperm, an increase of abnormal morphology as well as an increase in DNA damage,
which may result in decreased fertility and pregnancy.16 These US findings are consistent with
independent observations from China.16 In a Finnish study which surveyed (via a questionnaire) 578
couples where the male was a greenhouse worker, the fecundability ratio was reduced in suggested
association with increased pyrethroid exposure, but with no other family of pesticides surveyed.33
Exposure of young mice to cis-Permethrin significantly reduced sperm counts in the testes (epididymis),
motility, testicular testosterone production, and plasma testosterone levels in a dose-dependent manner.81
As a secular trend of decreasing testosterone and decreasing semen quality is observed, and because so
many people are exposed to endocrine disrupting compounds, a seemingly subtle association in
epidemiological studies may result in large change in the reproductive capacity of human or other
endocrine-mediated diseases. This is the cause for great public concern.82
Endocrine effects
Endocrine effects are those which create an imbalance in normal hormonal signalling in animals. While
hormones are active in infinitesimal concentrations, most pyrethroid studies use doses that are higher
than normal occupational exposure, thus higher doses may potentially mask what would happen at
normal signalling concentrations.82 In vitro studies on Cypermethrin and Fenvalerate show that
pyrethroids may alter female and male hormones (estrogenic and antiandrogenic activity).81, 83-85
Experimental evidence that pyrethroids affect the male endocrine system and reproductive function
exist, but human data is limited.82 Six out of seven studies using biomarkers have reported evidence of
endocrine disruption.46 Pyrethroids have been shown to alter hormones (endocrine disruptors), for
example by decreasing concentrations of testosterone (important male hormone) and interfering with
luteinizing hormone (LH; involved in the production of sperm and ovules).81, 86 A significant positive
dose-dependent association between the pyrethroid metabolites 3PBA and cis/trans-DCCA in urine and
FSH concentrations has been observed.82,46 In addition, testosterone levels have been inversely
associated with pyrethroid metabolites, in a non-monotonic fashion. Monotonicity refers to the fact that
a linear dose-response relationship (more poison leads to enhanced poisoning symptoms), is often a
requirement to prove a toxicological relationship; however monotonicity is not always observed in
endocrine disruptors.46, 82 Furthermore, there is a negative dose-dependent association between
pyrethroids and inhibin B, as well as free androgen.82 FSH is a gonadotropin, secreted by the pituitary
gland and acting on seminiferous tubules to initiate spermatogenesis.82 Inhibin B is a protein hormone,
39
secreted by the Sertoli cells, which exerts a negative feedback on the anterior pituitary to inhibit FSH.82
FSH and inhibin B are the two hormones most associated with semen quality, where increased FSH
levels and decreased inhibin B levels, as observed with pyrethroids, both lead to poor semen.
Pyrethroids have been shown to alter thyroid function.87-89 The synergist MGK-264 is suspected to have
endocrine disruption potential.27 Based on the weight of evidence, the EPA did not recommend further
endocrine disruption potential because further results would not change the EPA regulatory standpoint
and endpoints for human health risk assessments.27 Evidence of potential interaction with the estrogen
pathway was observed in mammals (but not fish).27 No convincing evidence of interaction with the
androgen pathway was observed.27 A potential interaction with the thyroid pathway of mammals was
also observed (but not in amphibians).27
Cancer
Long-term pesticide exposure may lead to DNA damage and oxidative stress46 and also disrupt the
endocrine system, which may lead to cancer.82 The World Health Organization recognizes that tumours
have been induced in rodents which were exposed to pyrethroids during their whole life, however, in
2001 the WHO considered that were no clear indication of carcinogenicity relevant for human health
risk assessments.1 Animal evidence includes initiation (but not promotion or completion) of
carcinogenic activity in mice exposed to Deltamethrin on their skin, initiation, promotion and complete
carcinogenic activity in mice exposed to Permethrin on their skin, preputial gland adenomas and
carcinomas in rats exposed to D-Phenothrin in their diet, lung adenomas in mice exposed to Permethrin,
mammary adenocarcinomas in mice exposed to Cyhalothrin, urinary bladder haemangiomas in male
mice following Bifenthrin exposure, and follicular cell adenomas in the thyroid of female rats exposed
to Etofenprox. However, several of these findings were dismissed on the basis of non-statistical
significance, no difference with the history of the control population, absence of joint genotoxicity
(mutation of genes) or non-toxicological significance as assessed by groups of experts.1 Some
pyrethroids are considered possible human carcinogens in the US,2 though the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) considers them not classifiable (Deltamethrin, Fenvalerate, Permethrin) due
to inconsistent evidence in animals or absence of evidence in humans.7, 90 In a recent internal report,
however, the IARC reviewed its earlier statement on Permethrin, and in the face of new carcinogenicity
evidence, assigned a high priority for the revision of the carcinogenicity of this pesticide within the
window of 2015 to 2019.91
Since these earlier WHO and IARC publications, Permethrin has been shown to be mutagenic in human
and hamster cell cultures.81 Pyrethroids have been shown to be endocrine disrupting compounds (EDC;
see above), which may be associated with an increase in testicular, prostate and thyroid cancer.82 Some
pyrethroids may increase the levels of estrogens in breast cancer cells,85 suggesting potential
implications in human breast cancer.92 The common synergist MGK-264 may be associated to increased
thyroid follicular tumors in male rats.27
40
Table 8: Carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, endocrine disruption potential, reproductive toxicity, developmental toxicity and neurotoxicity of some Pyrethroids registered in
Canada. An asterisk (*) denotes pesticides included in the current Health Canada pyrethroids cluster review program.
Carcinogenicity
Genotoxicity
Endocrine
disruption
Reproductive toxicity
Developmental toxicity
Neurotoxicity
Allethrins*
Possible
None
Not very likely
Suspecteda
No effect reportedb
Yesc
Cyfluthrin*
Not likely
None
Not very likely
Suspectedd
No effect reportede
Yesf
Cypermethrin*
Possible
None
Not very likely
No effect reported
No effect reportedg
Yesh
Deltamethrin*
Not likely in
humans
None
Not very likely
No effect reportedi
No effect reportedj
Yesk
D-Phenothrin
(sumithrin)*
Not likely in
humans
None
Yesl
No effect reportedm
Suspected effects in animalsn
Yeso
Lambdacyhalothrin*
Not likely in
humans
None
Not very likely
No effect reported
No effect reported
Yesp
Permethrin*
Probable in
human
Insufficient or
nonexistent
data
No very likely
No effect reported
No effect reported
Yesq
Pyrethrins*
Possible
None
Insufficient or
inexistent datar
No effect reporteds
No effect reportedt
Yesu
Resmethrin*
Probable in
human
None
No effect reported
No effect reportedv
Suspected effects in animalsw
Yesx
Tetramethrin*
Probable in
human
None
Insufficient or
inexistent datay
No effect reportedz
No effect reportedaa
Yesbb
Fluvalinate
Not Likely in
Humans
None
None reportedcc
None reporteddd
No effect reportedee
Yesff
Tefluthrin
Possible
None
Not likelygg
None reportedhh
No effect reportedii
Yesjj
Active substance
Notes from the table:
a
On bi-generational rat study on esbiothrin, decreased viability of offspring, growth delays at a dose which would cause weight loss in adults. Not
confirmed with d-allethrin.
b
Rare anomalies considered genetic variations rather than skeletal malformations. Effects observed at maternal toxic doses.
41
c
At high doses, near lethal doses, allethrin isomers may cause hyperactivity, trembling and convulsions.
d
In bi-generation rat study, offspring has increased sensitivity compared to adults. At the lowest dose which had an effect (LOAEL), weight loss
was observed in both adults and offspring, accompanied with tremors in offspring. No specific toxicity on reproduction. In a tri-generation study,
no effect on animal appearance, behaviour, fertility or still-born offspring was observed. The only effect observed was decreased weight loss in
adults. However, decreased lactation and reduced viability index of offspring were observed on F3a and F3b with intermediate (150 ppm) or high
(450 ppm) exposure. The LOAEL was considered to be 50 ppm. This study considers increased susceptibility in the offspring compared to adults.
e
In rats, a decreased weight and skeletal anomalies were observed at maternally toxic doses. At the highest doses, abortion and fetus resorption
were observed in rabbits. Overall developmental toxicity is considered low.
f
Na-channels alterations (like other pyrethroid insecticides). Short-term rat study revealed neurotubule dilation with neurofilaments proliferation
and mitochondrial degeneration. These effects were caused by the treatments, but were reversible when exposition ceased. Two-week exposure
in rats led to tremors and excessive salivation. A small and recent hemorrhage was observed in male rats that died during the study. Sub-chronic
and chronic oral or inhalation exposure studies revealed behavioural changes, tremors, excessive salivation, abnormal locomotion and abnormal
postures in rats. A chicken study reported in the US EPA assessment suggested delayed neurotoxicity accompanied with a degenerescence of
nervous fibers. However, the European Union documentation does not reveal neurotoxicity in chicken.
g
No toxicity in rats and rabbits exposed in utero at the highest dose tested. However, a recent neurotoxicity study in rats suggests increased
sensitivity of fetus compared to adults; based on weight loss, the lowest dose where an effect was observable was lower in offspring than in
mothers.
h
Abnormal locomotion was observed in rats at high doses. Near lethal doses, histopathologic effects, like axon and sciatic nerves alterations, were
observed. Additional studies on developmental neurotoxicity are required.
i
In a multi-generation rat study, no increased sensitivity of offspring was observed compared to adults. Newborn may be more sensitive than
adults in post-natal exposure.
j
No adverse effects observed in rats and rabbits under standardized protocols according to US EPA and EU. Reproductive and developmental
toxicity under re-evaluation for the US EPA and California EPA.
k
No neuropathology observed in chicken or rats, but locomotor activity alterations observed in rats.
l
Effects related to endocrine disruption were observed (estrogenicity, angdrogenicity or thyroid effects).
m
Toxicity in offspring only observed at maternal toxic doses. In absence of maternal toxicity, second-generation offspring with reduced body mass
were observed. At higher doses where maternal toxicity was also observed, mortality was observed in second generation rats expose in utero.
However, this situation was considered to be of concern because decreased weight was only transient.
n
Rats and mouse fetuses did not demonstrate increased sensitivity compared to adults, however, this was observed in rabbits. Increased
occurrence of spina bifida was observed at doses below maternally toxic doses. At higher doses microphthalmia was also observed in offspring.
42
Hydrocephalia was also observed.
o
Alters biochemistry and physiology of Na-channels. Incontinence and piloerection were observed at higher doses, but were reversible.
p
Acute toxicity studies in rats revealed clinical signs of neurotoxicity such as decreased activity, ataxia, decreased stability, salivation, horripilation,
walking on tip toes, convex deviation of vertebrae, urinary incontinence and/or tremors at high doses. No sub-chronic effects observed at higher
doses, or in either sex.
q
No neuropathological changes observed in chicken in acute or sub-chronic toxicity studies. At higher doses, muscle contractions, overexcitability,
irritability and tremors were observed.
r
Thyroid hormone and histopathologic effects (thyroid hyperplasia, hypertrophia of follicular cells, follicular adenomas and carcinomas) were
observed in rats, but it is uncertain if this mode of action is pertinent in humans.
s
Offspring showed enhanced sensitivity compared to adults, for instance by exhibiting a reduced body mass which was not observed in parents.
t
Rats and rabbits fetuses did not exhibit enhanced sensitivity compared to their mother.
u
Pyrethrins are toxic to axons. Clinical signs of toxicity include tremors, salivation, exaggerated or absence of fright reflex, lower prehension
strength, increased locomotor activity, muscular contractions, spasms, etc. Neuropathological symptoms are also reported, including several types
of neuronal degeneration following oral or inhalation exposure.
v
No increased sensitivity in offspring compared to parents.
w
Rabbit fetuses exhibited increased sensitivity compared to their mothers. Skeletal variations appeared at doses non toxic for mothers. In rats,
maternal and fetal toxicity were observed at the same doses.
x
No acute and sub-chronic neurotoxicity studies available in rats, but increased sensitivity observed in rabbits. Some studies demonstrated
neurotoxic effects such as hypotonicity, ataxia, tremors, convulsions, dyspnea, sneezing, alteration of grooming behavior).
y
No specific endocrine studies in animals, but studies in dogs revealed absence of estrus activity, confirmed by the absence of corpus luteus
following histopathology, a result similar to that observed in rats. Chronic study in mice revealed lowered pituitary and thyroid/parathyroid gland
mass in males above a certain dose, without appreciable histopathologic changes in microscopic examination of tissues. Interstitial testicular cells
tumours observed may have a hormonal origin.
z
No increased sensitivity in offspring compared to parents.
aa
Rats and rabbits fetuses did not exhibit enhanced sensitivity compared to their mother though studies are considered inadequate due to the use
of carboxymethylcellulose as a vehicle, which could have affected bioavailability of tetramethrin. Further studies are required.
bb
Neurotoxicity studies of tetramethrin considered inadequate. Being a type I pyrethroid, tetramethrin is expected to lead to tremors (Tsyndrome). Inhalation studies revealed irregular respiration, slight salivation and overexcitability, tremors, ataxia and depression. Mice appeared
43
slightly more sensitive than rats, but there was no difference between males and females.
cc
None reported during registration
dd
Tremors and reduced birth weight reported in second generations, but at concentrations producing parental toxicity.
ee
Skeletal variations in rabbits not significantly higher than in control group, and effects observed at maternal toxic doses.
ff
Acute nerotoxicity study in rats (7 doses per day) revealed nervous fibers degenerescence. Subchronic studies did not report degeneration of
nerve fibres, but excessive grooming and protruding eyes.
gg
No evidence reported in chronic, developmental or reproductive toxicity studies on members of the pyrethroid family during registration.
hh
No increased sensitivity in youth compared to adults, i.e., toxicity in youth at parental toxic doses.
ii
Maternal toxic doses are lower than doses which produced toxicity in rabbits and rats fetuses. Bone ossification was observed at fetal toxic
doses.
jj
Strong effects included ataxia (neuromuscular incoordination), weight loss, smaller food intake in mice, rats, rabbits and dogs. In reproductive
toxicity study, nerotoxicity signs in young rats at doses where parents did not display signs of toxicity suggests enhanced sensitivity of the young. A
specific developmental neurotoxicity study is required.
44
Table 9: Long-term effects of various pyrethroid active substances.
Active
substance
Long-term effects
Allethrins*
Few studies. Decrease weight loss, enlarged liver and kidney >500ppm. Decreased enzymatic activity of ALAT and ASAT transaminases and alkaline phosphatase. Presence of macrophages containing
crystals in the liver of animals exposed to >500ppm. The only carcinogenic evidence is benign kidney tumours in rats treated with esbiothrine. Mouse carcinogenic studies used doses considered
inadequate. Potentially carcinogenic in humans, but insufficient data to confirm carcinogenicity in humans.
Cyfluthrin*
Long-term neurotoxicity in laboratory animals include locomotor and postural anomalies, tremors, reversible axonal degeneration squat legs, ataxia, etc. and decreased body mass. Some studies
suggested reduced offspring viability at maternal toxic doses.
Cypermethrin*
Deltamethrin*
Sub-chronic and long-term studies principally revealed hypersensitivity, stimulation of nervous system, altered locomotor activity, decreased body mass or weigh gain. No offspring effects at doses below
maternally toxic doses. Currently under re-evaluation by the US and California EPAs concerning reproductive and developmental toxicity.
D-Phenothrin
(sumithrin)*
Though oncogenesis was not witnessed in rats or mice under chronic exposure, at excessive doses tumours were observed in rats and hepatocellular adenomas were observed in mice, but considered not
statistically significant due to high occurrence of this pathology in the mice strain used. Preputial gland cancer observed in a study could not be replicated in a following study, even at higher doses. Minor
effects on body mass, liver, surrenal glands and circulatory system, depending on the species. Effects related to endocrine perturbations were observed (estrogenicity, angdrogenicity or thyroid effects).
Lambdacyhalothrin*
Permethrin*
In laboratory animals exposed to high doses, clinical signs such as overexcitability, tremors, body mass and liver effects were observed. Lung and liver tumours observed in mice, with equivocal
carcinogenicity in Long-Evans rats. No in vivo tests in mammals to assess DNA damage, mutagenicity and clastogenicity.
Pyrethrins*
Weight of evidence concludes carcinogenicity of Pyrethrins, including occurrence of benign tumours in livers of female rats. Thyroid tumours were observed in rats of both sexes, but they developed via a
mechanism not necessarily pertinent to humans. In laboratory animals, critical effects are (1) neurobehavioral after sub-chronic or chronic exposure; (2) thyroidian following chronic exposure in rats and
dogs; (3) hepatic following sub-chronic or chronic exposure in rats, dogs and mice. Inhalation exposure yields neurobehavioral effects, followed by histopathologic lesions of lungs and respiratory tract.
These effects and modes of action are likely to occur in humans. Animal studies did not reveal reproductive, developmental nor genetic toxicity.
Resmethrin*
Probably carcinogenic in humans as per very significant hepatocellular adenomas and carcinomas in male CD-1 mice and female Sprague-Dawley rats. Sub-chronic animal studies reported neurotoxicity,
anemia, thyroid follicular cells vacuolation and hepatocyte hypertrophy. Chronic studies demonstrated target organ toxicity on liver and decreased body mass. Rabbit fetuses demonstrated enhanced
sensitivity compared to their mothers. Estrogenic, endrogenic or thyroid toxicity potential were observed. No genotoxicity was reported.
Tetramethrin*
Animal carcinogenicity studies insufficient to evaluate human carcinogenic potential. Instertitial testicular cells adenomas were higher in treated rats, compared to controls, in two species of rats. Leydig
cells tumours develop spontaneously in older rats and do not progress into malignant tumours. It is believed that these tumours are of hormonal origin. Mice did not develop benign nor malignant tumours.
Hence, this carcinogenic potential in rats cannot be considered in establishing the carcinogenic potential in humans. At low chronic food exposure, mice displayed reduced pituitary, thyroid and parathyroid
weight. In rats, in addition to testicular effects mentioned above, reduced weight gain and increased liver weight were observed. There are no specific studies on endocrine disruption potential of
tetramethrin. However dog and rat studies revealed effects on estrus activity. Neurotoxicity studies were judged inadequate. No reproductive nor genotoxicity effects were reported.
Fluvalinate
No evidence of carcinogenesis in humans based on rats and mice studies. Dogs regularly fed Fluvalinate had reduced weight, increased liver weight, emesis (vomiting) and salivation. Rats had a reduced
weight in chronic studies and a reduced weight with an enlarged liver in sub-chronic studies. In mice, chronic nephritis (kidney inflammation). Chronic neurotoxicity clinical symptoms were noted: Abnormal
posture, hyperactivity, hypoactivity, excessive grooming and protruding eyes. No reproductive or developmental, or endocrine disruptions noted.
Tefluthrin
Chronic mice study revealed ataxia, changes in the uterus, and liver necrosis. Female rats exposed to high doses exhibited neoplastic lesions such as uterine adenocarcinoma. Although these effects are
not statistically significant compared to the control, they are beyond the ranges historically observed in control populations. This suggests tumour and cancer potential in mice and rats. No carcinogenesis
evidence in male mice and rats. Hence, this product was classified as non-carcinogenic by the US EPA and EU, but Canada added an extra safety factor in the calculation of the reference chronic dose.
No reproductive or developmental toxicity in animal studies. No genotoxicity. We do not know if the effects observed in long-term studies are linked with endocrine perturbations. Neurotoxicity studies are
considered unacceptable for Tefluthrin, but neurotoxic evidence was acquired from reproductive and chronic toxicity studies in rats. Pyrethroids are known neurotoxicants.
45
Environmental effects of pyrethroids
Environmental occurrence
Pyrethroids enter the environment via drift and deposition of sprays or leaching from agricultural and
domestic uses applications.38 In urban regions, pyrethroids are frequently used for golf course turf,
ornamentals, residential lawns, rights-of-way, and structural pest control.93 Since pyrethroids are
extremely toxic to fish, they are generally not directly sprayed into water, but can leach off from treated
areas2 and may be released with tailwater for example in rice paddies.17 Pyrethroids appear unaffected
by secondary treatment systems at municipal wastewater treatment facilities.94
The two most important factors affecting pyrethroid concentrations in surface water include use patterns
and precipitation.17 Agricultural runoffs may lead to higher concentration in the summer than in the
winter, but pyrethroids are nonetheless detected in surface waters following heavy winter rains.17
Modelling has shown that less than 1% of all pyrethroids applied in agricultural fields of a California
region were transported to the nearest bay. However, this was sufficient to yield concentrations
potentially toxic to benthic organisms (low ppb range).17 Since pyrethroids tend to bind strongly to
particles, their toxicity in sediments might be more important than that expressed by the dissolved water
concentrations.17,93, 95-97
Pyrethroids are not commonly detected in Quebec surface water bordering corn and soy fields,98 but
have been detected in surface water in regions of vegetable production (Lambda-cyhalothrin, Permethrin
and Cypermethrin)38 and orchards or potato growing.99 Sometimes, the concentrations of insecticides in
Quebec’s surface water are greater than the chronic criteria for aquatic life.38 For the pyrethroids,
specifically, Quebec’s chronic toxic criteria for aquatic life of Permethrin is 0.004 g/l (and the acute
toxicity criteria is 0.044g/l, for short-term exposure). This criterion has been surpassed in 14-33% of
samples from streams in orchards and potato growing regions, with the maximal peak concentration
exceeding the acute toxicity criteria by 32 times and consequently the aquatic chronic toxicity criteria by
350 times. Deltamethrin is more rarely detected, and the chronic toxicity criterion (0.0004 g/l) is lower
than the analytical capabilities of governmental laboratories (no acute toxicity criteria exists for this
molecule), meaning that in any sample where Deltamethrin can be detected, it is already in
concentrations exceeding the chronic toxicity criteria, a baseline established to protect crustaceans
which are the most sensitive organisms in the aquatic environment. Concentrations measured in streams
in three orchard and potato growing regions range from 0.04 g/l to 0.07 g/l, which is 100-175 times in
excess of the chronic toxicity criteria for aquatic life. Finally, a 2005 report does not mention ground
water contamination with pyrethroids in Quebec agricultural regions, though this may be due to the
absence of analysis for pyrethroids directly, since provincial surface water reports from those years did
not survey for pyrethroids either.100 A 2015 report on groundwaters showed that Permethrin had been
detected in 6% of groundwater samples obtained from the lower Saint-François region, with
concentrations ranging from 0.035-0.048 g/l.101 While this appears above the Quebec’s chronic toxic
criteria for aquatic life and in the range of the acute toxicity criteria, the original study focuses on
detection (i.e. not quantification of precise concentrations). Piperonyl Butoxide, commonly associated to
pyrethroids, was also detected in 24% of the samples with concentrations ranging from 0.0090.028 g/l.101
46
In the US, the first pyrethroid detected in surface water was Bifenthrin in 1996 (in San Francisco Bay,
California).93 Only Permethrin is monitored in the US National Water Quality Assessment (NAWQA)
program of surface and ground water due to budgetary and analytical constraints.102 Permethrin is
considered a high-use pesticide by the US Geological Survey, and it is tracked in the surface and ground
water quality monitoring program with an analytical detection limit of 0.003μg/l in water (GCMS) and
5 μg/kg dry weight in sediments.102 In California, several pyrethroids have been measured, often in high
concentrations, in agricultural streams sediments, and at even higher concentrations in urban streams.93
Recent research by the US Geological Survey shows that pyrethroids commonly occur in urban streams
sediments (45%) across the country, and that they may be contributing to sediment toxicity. Varying
types and concentrations of pyrethroids were detected in metropolitan areas, suggesting regional
differences in their use and environmental fate.93 Nearly half (45%) of the surveyed stream sediment
beds contained detectable concentrations of one or more pyrethroids (out of 14 measured pyrethroids, 5
were detected in the study, namely Bifenthrin, Cyhalothrin, Cypermethrin, Permethrin and Resmethrin).
Bifenthrin was the most commonly detected pyrethroid.
Degradation and persistence
The effect and persistence of pyrethroids is influenced by abiotic conditions, for instance, natural
Pyrethrins and synthetic pyrethroids are known to be more efficient insecticides at lower temperatures,
and this temperature effect may also affect non-target organisms.103 Pyrethroids are known to degrade
relatively rapidly in the environment by one or more biotic or abiotic processes, though adsorption to
sediments may render them unavailable to degraders.104 Plants, animal and microbial degradation or
photodegradation have all been demonstrated.104 The rate of soil degradation varies for the different
pyrethroids and is influenced by the nature of the soil, the climate and the abundance and diversity of
microbes present. Different bacterial genus, such as Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Stenotrophomonas,
Aeromonas, Erwinia, Bacillus, Achromobacter, Serratia and Yersinia have been found to degrade
different pyrethroids, some even being able to use the insecticide as a sole carbon source (see review in
104
). In direct sunlight, Cypermethrin is considered relatively stable with a half-life as long as eight
weeks, and may persist three months after indoor domestic treatments, or travel to untreated rooms via
the air.105 Hydrolysis and photolysis are known to be considerably slower indoors, with a rapid
degradation occurring within a few days, followed by much slower rates of degradation over a period of
two years.106 In areas where sunlight and air circulation is limited, for instance in grain elevators or
subway tunnels, most of the applied pyrethroids (D-Phenothrin) remain after one year.92 Cypermethrin
may persist more than 50 days in normal environmental water conditions and photodegradation may
require 100 days.107 Permethrin is also one of the pyrethroids most stable to UV light. When bound
(adsorbed) to soil particles, it may have a half-life of 43 days, and in formulations designed to kill
termites (termiticides), can persist up to 5 years.92 In general, pyrethroids are considered to have similar
physico-chemical properties that affect their transport and fate in the environment, and the average halflife in soils in presence of air (aerobic) varies between 30 to 100 days.17
47
Non-targeted organisms
Terrestrial
Mammals may have long-term risks and secondary poisoning risks for some pyrethroids (i.e.
Bifenthrin108). But generally, mammals are protected by poor dermal adsorption, rapid metabolism and
rapid excretion of pyrethroids metabolites.6
In birds, Bioallethrin appears to be the most toxic (680 mg/kg body weight), while Permethrin appears
as the least toxic (>13,500 mg/kg body weight).104 Pyrethroids are generally considered moderately
toxic to birds (LD50 >1000mg/kg), but the main threat to birds is the indirect impact on their food
supply: insects.92
Insects, however, are 2,250 times more susceptible to pyrethroids than mammals because of the
increased sensitivity of their sodium channels, smaller body size and lower body temperature.6 Field
risks have been identified for non-target arthropods for some pyrethroids, such as Bifenthrin.108 This
may be consequential for bees and biological agents (predators, parasitoids or parasites that are used
against commercially damaging pest insects in lieu of insecticides). Predator-prey relationships may also
be disturbed when, in some cases, predators are susceptible to lower doses than the targeted insect
pest.92
Bees are notably lacking detoxification enzymes and may be particularly at risk from pyrethroid
insecticides.109 Bees have not been tested with all pyrethroids, but in studied instances, toxicity varies
from toxic to highly toxic, except for Fluvalinate which appears non-toxic.104 Bees are commonly
exposed to various pesticides, and while some honey or wax may be uncontaminated, the pollen and the
honeybees themselves may be contaminated.110, 111 Very often, this exposure is composed of a cocktail
(54% of the time apiaries contain between two and four pesticides)110 and coincidentally occurring
pesticides may reach a maximum of nine active substances.111 Bees may be contaminated by pyrethroids
via direct contact with spray, treated crops or adjacent flowers, contact with contaminated foliage or
uptake of the chemical in the nectar or pollen.112 Pyrethroids such as Tau-Fluvalinate may reach apiaries
indirectly when they are used as insecticides, or be used directly in hives as acaricides, though it is not
recommended anymore in French apiaries because of developed mite resistance. Tau-fluvalinate has
been observed in 6.1% of pollen collected from French hives, with a mean concentration of 487.2 μg/kg
and a maximum of 2020.0 μg/kg,110 and other researchers observed a range of concentrations varying
from 5 to 260 μg/kg,43, 110 ranges higher than what would normally be lethal to bees (LD50 = 65.85).110
But pollen is not the most commonly contaminated compartment for Tau-Fluvalinate: 52.2% of wax
samples may be contaminated, with concentrations averaging 220.0 μg/kg111. Cypermethrin, also toxic
at low concentrations (LD50 = 0.06 μg/kg)n has been observed in concentrations ranging from 70-1900
μg/kg (113 in 110) though it is not found in all studies.110 Deltamethrin was also observed in bees (5.9% of
samples), wax, honey and finally pollen, where the highest concentrations were quantified (39.0 μg/kg).
However, not all pesticides are lethal at environmental concentrations, and small quantities which are
harder to detect may affect behaviour. The quality and quantity of pollen consumed by bees in their first
days of life affects the pesticide resistance for the rest of their lives.110
48
Insect pollination, mostly by bees, is necessary for 75% of crops directly used as human food,114, 115 with
fruit crops most vulnerable. The annual economic value of insect pollination was estimated at 153
billion Euros in 2005, representing 9.5% of the total economic value of agriculture worldwide.115, 116
Bees have been affected by massive colony losses in the US (59% from 1947 to 2005), the European
Union (25% between 1985 and 2005, documented in France, Belgium and the UK) and elsewhere
around the globe.109, 111, 115 Growing concern for the fate of domesticated and wild pollinators led to the
establishment of the special International Pollinator Initiative by the Convention on Biological Diversity
of the United Nations.115, 117 One of the issues leading to massive bee losses is a broadly defined
problem termed the Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) and is characterized by a rapid loss of adult
workers, with a noticeable absence of dead workers in or around the hive, and a delayed invasion of the
hive by pests and neighbouring bees.109 Though research shows that CCD is not random geographically
(with neighbouring hives more likely to be infected or exposed to a common detrimental environmental
factor), no one can precisely pinpoint the most likely cause, among which appears pesticides levels and
pathogen loads, as well as interaction between both.109 The general pollinator decline may be linked to
direct insecticide-related mortalities, direct application to agricultural sites, aerial drifting from semirural habitats to nesting and foraging sites, application of indirect herbicides and fertilizers (which
induce shifts in the availability of floral resources), climate change and habitat loss.115
But honeybees are not the only important pollinators, and pesticide risk assessment for honeybees may
not apply to bumblebees. For instance, early morning or evening application of pyrethroids to oilseed
rape, to avoid honeybee foraging hours, may increase the chance of affecting bumblebees which are
active at that time.112 Applications of Dimethoate or alpha-Cypermethrin to oilseed rape, or application
of lambda-Cyhalothrin to field beans has been linked with bumblebee losses in the UK.112 But sub-lethal
effects have also been evidenced in bumblebees exposed to pesticides.112 Canadian, US and EU
legislations require oral and acute tests on honeybees, but there is no obligation to study sub-lethal
effects and no obligation to study bumblebees.112
Long-term risks have also been identified for earthworms (i.e., Bifenthrin108) which are important in
organic matter cycling and indicators of soil health in several natural ecosystems.118
Reptiles are rarely considered in toxicity testing and risk assessment of pesticides, and in the case of
pyrethroid, this is of concern.119 Pyrethroids have long known to be more toxic at lower environmental
temperatures103 and this is particularly important in lizards whose metabolism (and detoxification
capacity) is influenced by environmental temperatures and whose neurons are more sensitive to
Pyrethrin stimulation at lower temperature. It appears incorrect to assess the toxicity of pyrethroids
based on mammals and birds responses, without specifically considering reptiles.119 Fish and frogs have
also been shown to be increasingly affected by pyrethroids at lower temperatures (see references in
document 120).
Aquatic
Aquatic organisms are also at risk from pyrethroids. However, the registration eligibility decision of
several pyrethroids lacks the critical toxicity tests that are normally minimally required by legislators.
All pyrethroids that have been tested on fish for acute toxicity are at least toxic, with Cypermethrin and
Tralomethrin being extremely toxic.104 However, chronic toxicity data is lacking for reptiles, amphibians
(terrestrial and aquatic phase), freshwater fish, freshwater crustaceans and mollusks for Allethrins, and
49
both chronic and acute toxicity data is lacking for marine and estuarine fish and crustaceans.121 In the
case of Cypermethrin, acute toxicity is better documented but data is lacking for chronic toxicity to
freshwater invertebrates, benthic organisms and estuarine and marine fish.122 Furthermore, the
estimation of transport to surface water resulting from indoor and outdoor use of some pyrethroids
(Allethrins) is not currently estimated since standard models used by the US EPA are designed to model
agricultural runoffs, not urban runoffs. Hence products which are registered for applications in ‘’cracks
and crevices’’, outdoor applications or pet shampoos which can certainly result in environmental
releases to surface waters are not currently quantified in registration eligibility decisions. Risks to
aquatic organisms is considered minimal based on the calculation involving spill of whole cans or
shampoo bottles content directly in surface water, but this does not represent any estimation of
simultaneous releases originating from normal use from urban environments, and such estimates would
not only be essential for each active substance, but also for all pyrethroids conjointly.121
Younger organisms (of daphnia, copepods, and carp) may be more sensitive than adults, and males may
be more sensitive than females.17 Nutritional status of aquatic species may also affect their likelihood of
being affected by pyrethroids.17 Aquatic organisms may suffer from reduced growth (mysid shrimp,
bluegill sunfish); fish may suffer from altered behaviour like rapid erratic swimming, loss of
equilibrium, jaw spasms, gulping respiration, lethargy and darkened pigmentation; and waterflea may
exhibit immobilization or decreased movement to stimulation.17 Reproduction in mysid shrimp, daphnia
and fish may be impaired.17 Immunity of fish and ability to resist infectious agents may also be
challenged when exposed to pyrethroids.17 Swimming performance tests, a direct measurement of how
well a fish can move and feed in the wild, reveals that fish may be affected by pyrethroids even at levels
generally considered to have no observable effects.17
The risks to aquatic vertebrates may lead to the conclusion that the use of some pyrethroids is
unacceptable.108 Bioaccumulation in fish has been documented (488X for Cypermethrin)122 but
uncertainty remains for other instances (e.g., Bifenthrin).108 Fish may be 100 times less sensitive than
crustaceans122, 123 but up to 1000 times more sensitive than mammals and birds.120 The aquatic
amphipod, Hyalella azteca, exhibited increased mortality when exposed to environmental sediments
collected from different regions of the US, and Bifenthrin was a likely contributor of this toxicity.93
Environmental concentrations observed in water is generally below lethal concentrations for many
fish,120 though the environmental concentrations value that killed half of a study population (LC50)
values of targeted mosquito or blackfly larvae is similar to that for bluegill sunfish and lake trout
(˂1ppb).92 However, sub-lethal concentrations of Cypermethrin akin to environmental water
concentrations, were shown to negatively affect reproduction in salmons. This occurs because
Cypermethrin exposure decreased or inhibited the olfactory response of male salmons to female
prostaglandins, which are important priming pheromones released in the females’ urine at the time of
spawning.120 Similar reduced reproductive output has been shown in other species of fish such as the
Australian crimson-spotted rainbowfish (Melanotaenia fluciatilis) and the bluegill sunfish (Lepomis
macrochirus).120
Although plants are not targeted by the primary mode of action of pyrethroid insecticides
(neurotoxicity), there is insufficient data to ascertain that secondary modes of action do not threaten
plant populations (e.g., Bifenthrin,108 Allethrins121 and Cypermethrin122).
50
Mixtures and synergism
Cumulative risk assessment
In the US, cumulative risk assessments have been required since the Food Quality Protection Act of
1996124 and was also present in the 2002 Canadian Pest Control Act.125 Authors strongly tied with the
industry have argued that a cumulative risk assessment for various pyrethroids or for pyrethroids and
other pesticides combined is inadvisable as effects on target sites are not cumulative, and sometimes
antagonistic.25 For instance, the relationship between pyrethroids and decreased sperm quality appear
statistically stronger when compared to individual metabolite concentrations, then when compared to the
sum of all metabolites, possibly indicating non-cumulative effects.16 Furthermore, a better understanding
of pyrethroid mode of action, for instance on calcium channels, is required in order to correctly assess
cumulative risk assessments.69 However, the USGS assumes that the toxicity of pyrethroids is additive
and thus sums toxic units to assess toxicity of pyrethroid mixtures.93 During a cumulative risk
assessment of Pyrethrins and pyrethroids in 2011, the US EPA considered that these insecticides do not
pose risk concerns for children or adults, and supported the registration of additional uses of these
pesticides.8 Though legally required, these cumulative risk assessments still require improvement.
Pyrethroids are known to co-occur in US sediments samples, with two-thirds of the samples analyzed
containing two types of pyrethroids simultaneously; the most common mixtures were Bifenthrin with
either Cyhalothrin or Permethrin.93 In aquatic ecosystems, mixtures of pyrethroids and
organophosphorus insecticides can affect fish, possibly because organophosphorus insecticides affect
the detoxicifation potential of fish.102 The synergistic effect could increase the toxicity by 140-170
times. Furthermore, pyrethroids have simultaneously been detected with neonicotinoids (another class of
potent insecticides undergoing bans and restrictions in several regions of the world) in Quebec surface
waters.99 Previous studies have shown that neonicotinoids and pyrethroids can have synergistic effects in
terrestrial insects such as bees, but that these effects may not be detected with the current short-term
(96h for Acute exposure) laboratory guidelines.126
Co-occurrence of pesticides such as pyrethroids and organophosphorus insecticides is also common in
households, with 100% of urban housing having more than two analytes in vacuum dust, and more than
three analytes in kitchen floor dust. More complex mixtures reaching more than 5 analytes occurred in
49% of vacuum dust and 56% of living room floor wipe samples, while more than 6 analytes cooccurred in more than 64% of kitchen floor wipe samples.30 It is known that organophosphorus
insecticides can increase a target’s sensitivity to pyrethroids, and so joint applications of pyrethroids and
organophosphorus insecticides are common, especially in the case of resistance to pyrethroids.127 An
epidemiological study suggests lower sperm counts in men exposed to organophosphorus and
pyrethroids, highlighting that more research attention is required for these types of mixtures.127
Pesticide mixtures do not only threaten humans, since significant concurrent detection of pyrethroids
and other pesticides is also observed in bees, for example Tau-Fluvalinate with Imidacloprid or Lindane
and Deltamethrin with 6-chloro-nicotinic acid or Coumaphos.111 It has been shown that some pesticides
mixtures may enhance the sensitivity of bees, for example, with Coupaphos increasing the susceptibility
to Tau-Fluvalinate.128
51
Best practices
Registrations and bans
Pyrethroids appeared on the market almost 50 years ago. Hence, several molecules have already been
the subject of periodic reregistration reviews in the US and Canada. The latest round of review in the
United States was completed by the EPA in 2008 for Pyrethrins, Allethrins, Cypermethrin, TauFluvalinate, Permethrin, Resmethrin, Sumithrin (D-Phenothrin), Tetramethrin as well as the synergists
MGK-264 (also known as N-octyl bicycloheptene dicarboximide) and piperonyl butoxide. However,
because pyrethroids have common modes of action and are often used as substitutes for one another, the
EPA thought it made sense to review all Pyrethrins and pyrethroids to manage their risk within a similar
timeframe. The registration review of different products was thus initiated from 2010 to 2012:8
 in 2010 (Cyphenothrin, Esfenvalerate, Allethrins stereoisomers, Deltamethrin, Tralomethrin,
Bifenthrin, Fenpropathrin and Cyfluthrin),
 in 2011 (gamma-Cyalothrin, lambda-Cyhalothrin, Tau-Fluvalinate, Permethrin, Imiprothrin and
the synergist piperonyl butoxide). and
 in 2012 (Pyrethrins and derivatives, Sumithrin (Phenothrin), Tetramethin, Cypermethrin,
Prallethrin, Resmethrin, Metofluthrin, Tefluthrin and the synergist MGK-264).
In Canada, only ten pyrethroids, Pyrethrins and synergists are to be considered together in a common
review initiated in 2011 to be completed in 2016129: Allethrins (d-cis, trans- and d-trans- isomers),
Cyfluthrin, Cypermethrion, Deltamethrin, D-Phenothrin (Sumithrin), Lambda-cyhalothrin, Permethrin,
Pyrethrins, Resmethrin, Tetramethrin and the sygergists piperonyl butoxide and MGK-264. Canadian
and US pesticide reviews are often coordinated since they share common markets and borders.
In Canada, the PMRA office integrated within the Health Canada Department is responsible for
registration oversight, and federal laws supersede any others. In the Province of Quebec, supplementary
legal and regulatory frameworks exist under environmental ministry responsibility (Ministère du
Développement durable, de l’Environnement et de la Lutte contre les changements climatiques). The
two main laws are the Pesticides Act and the Environmental Quality Act. Under the Pesticide Act, is a
regulation on licences and certificates to sell and use pesticides. One of its main objectives is to keep
track of pesticide sales and make sure applicators are properly trained through the delivery of
authorization certificates. A classification system ranges from restricted use pesticides (Class 1) down to
domestic use pesticides (Class 4 or 5 depending on the regulated level of environmental and human
health
risk).
Note
that
domestic
pyrethroids
generally
fall
in
Class
5
(http://www.mddelcc.gouv.qc.ca/pesticides/Classification-Pesticides.pdf).
There is also the Pesticides Management Code (Code de Gestion des Pesticides), in effect since 2003
designed to reduce the health and environmental impacts of pesticides use by setting guidelines for
certified distributors or applicators (stores, farmers, technicians, etc.) but also for the attention of the
general public for domestic use pesticides. In the case of daycares, elementary and high schools
pyrethroids are not to be used (http://www.mddelcc.gouv.qc.ca/pesticides/permis/codegestion/index.htm). The Canadian Environmental Protection Act contains legislation on impact
assessment, issuing certificates of authorization for any activities which may impact the environment
like pyrethroid applications, drinking water regulations monitoring several pesticides concentrations in
52
drinking water (pyrethroids are not targeted) and pesticide waste management. Details on these laws,
regulations and codes are available via the Quebec environmental ministry web site
(http://www.mddelcc.gouv.qc.ca/pesticides/cadrelegal.htm#loi).
Furthermore, some 131 Quebec municipalities have adopted regulations concerning pesticides uses in
their jurisdiction. The regulations cannot supersede federal (e.g., registration of active substances) and
provincial (e.g., certificates delivery) authority but may bring further restrictions, for example, on the
use of pesticides for aesthetic purposes (http://www.mddelcc.gouv.qc.ca/pesticides/Listemunicipalites.pdf). For instance, the City of Montreal banned pesticide use outdoors, except for low
impact pesticides which do not comprise the pyrethroids or when a temporary licence is granted for an
infestation.130 Offenders may be subjected to a fine. However, this regulation does not control indoor use
of pesticides such as the pyrethroids.
Bifenthrin was banned in the Netherlands in 2001, then throughout Europe in 2009 (2009/887/EC).108
The opinion of experts on pyrethroid toxicity followed the precautionary principle (necessity to prove
absence of harm) to determine the acceptability of a pesticide.53
Risk and benefits should be balanced in legislating on pyrethroids since developed countries may have
relatively benign pests to handle and could chose precaution, while other countries, such as those in
Africa, are plagued with malaria, which kills millions of people annually.53, 131
Managing resistance
In developing countries (e.g., (Gambia, Ghana and Kenya), insecticide-treated nets can decrease
childhood malaria morbidity by 50% and decrease overall mortality by 20-30%. Pyrethroids are the
insecticide of choice because of their high efficacy, rapid rate of knock-down, strong mosquito repellent
properties, low mammalian toxicity and cost-effective ratio (leading to high community acceptance).132
Pyrethroids may eventually lead to pest population resistance, much like the situation for DDT today,
highlighting the need for careful and localized use of pyrethroids if we want it to remain an effective
tool in the fight against malaria.133 That is why the WHO co-ordinates its efforts to minimize the
widespread mosquito resistance to pyrethroids.132 If nothing is done to control resistance, the public
health consequences would be devastating, according to the WHO. Nevertheless, use of pyrethroids in
cotton-growing and urban areas selects for pyrethroid resistance among the mosquito population, with
the rainy season increasing selection pressure even further.133 To control for the spread of the West Nile
virus in Quebec, several types of insecticides are used to target the larvae and adult populations.
Pyrethroids such as Resmethrin and Permethrin are used to control the adult stages of the mosquito,
alongside the organophosphorus Malathion, while the control of larvae maybe via the synthetic
hormonal mimic insecticide Methoprene or the selective biopesticides Bacillus thurigiensis var.
israelensis, or Bacillus sphaericus.134
The resistance of mites to pyrethroids appeared as early as the 1990’s in the scientific literature,44, 128, 135
despite the use of alternate substances (coumaphos, amitraz) to try to minimize the appearance of this
resistance. Today, no chemical treatment against mites which are parasites of bees is 100% effective.
However, natural substances, such as Thymol and oxalic acid, which have been around for hundreds of
years, exhibit no evolved resistance,128 suggesting possible alternatives to synthetic pyrethroids.
53
Alternatives to pyrethroids
When insect pests are not life-threatening, and when potential economic losses or personal comfort
health and comfort are at stake, several alternatives to pyrethroids exist. Alternative means of controlling
pest insects include physical options, biological treatments, low impact pesticides or essential oils and
finally behavioral changes.
Physical means of controlling insects exist. They include heat treatments (effective against bed bugs and
head lice) and cold treatments (freezing potentially contaminated objects or food, against bed bugs, head
lice or cockroaches). 136-141 Behavioral changes such as early and frequent monitoring, reducing
hospitability of your homes or preventing the arrival of the pests are all appropriate methods. Some
professional exterminators are now trained and offer physical control of home dwelling insects.
Biological insect control has been proven efficient against a wide variety of agricultural pests without
any reliance on synthetic pesticides. Integrated pest management practices may occasionally rely on
chemical pesticides when pest populations reach a potential economic damage threshold, but favour
prophylaxis, safer chemical alternatives (low-impact pesticides), and more spatially and temporally
targeted applications. The discovery of apparently less toxic synthetic pesticides, for instance the newly
US- registered flupyradifurone is expected to have a lower toxicity to honeybees than certain
pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, organophosphates and avermectin insecticides.142 Even at home, several
safer alternatives to pyrethroids exist to successfully eradicate head lice and cockroaches.137-139
For instance, combing is an acceptable alternative treatment against head lice because it is easy,
inexpensive, self-sufficient, non-toxic to the patient and for the environment, and serves both to
diagnose and treat head lice.34 Combing clean, wet hair with ordinary hair conditioner applied on days 1,
5, 9 and 13 proved to be four times more efficient than a double Phenothrin lotion treatment (1 week
apart) in a UK randomized trial.34 Obviously, the recommended combing protocols are not followed
correctly, this treatment is ineffective. Making the head an inhospitable environment to head louse
(using gels or shaving), unattractive or repellant (lavender, citronella or anise oils), or using compounds
that interfere with gas exchanges (oils) are alternative that merit further exploration to reduce our
dependency on pyrethroids.34 Logically, combing methods should be prioritized over chemical
treatments, but care should also be taken to avoid misinformation and gimmicky treatments which are
not licensed and have no clinical evidence to support their efficacy or assess their safety.34
Recommendations found on home remedy sites and popular online forums to use dog flea shampoo to
treat children with head lice are particularly worrisome.
Various types of essential oils are effective against a wide variety of insects,143 including some essential
oils that have repelling or feeding deterrent, or even lethal properties against cockroaches.143, 144
Contrary to common claims, there is a strong body of evidence for their effectiveness, though they are
not currently commonly used as alternatives to pyrethroid treatment of domestic insect pests.143 Because
they are commonly used in culinary preparations, essential oils may not need the stringent testing
requirements of other chemical pesticides (they are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the US
Food and Drug Administration), and furthermore, several essential oils have proven beneficial to human
health.3, 143 For example, a commercialized mixture of essential oils (EcoSMART Technologies Inc,.) to
treat pests led to no rat mortality at the highest US EPA required testing dose (2 g/kg).143 Furthermore,
the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) may be 1500 times less sensitive to eugenol (a monoterpene
contained in several plants, including cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves and basil) compared to botanical
54
pyrethrum (96 h LC50) and these compounds are not persistent in soil or water environments.143
Despite the fact that most families (84%) in a US urban public housing study on pyrethroids and
organophosphates had used pesticides in the year preceding the study, the vast majority (92%) also
manifested interest in non-pesticidal alternative treatments.30 Also, considering that pyrethroid
alternatives, even plant-based natural extracts, are not completely devoid of potential health and
environmental side effects, and considering that alternate treatments may be considered as gimmicks if
they are not backed by the scientific literature, further study of safer alternatives to pyrethroids appears
to be essential since many people long for change.
Conclusion
Pyrethroids are one of the most important types of pesticide sold, and the most important class easily
available to the general consumer market. However, their toxicity assessment is complex and several
critical data gaps exist. The current US and Canadian pesticide registration review for a group of
pyrethroids may bring answers to lesser characterized aspects of the environmental occurrence and
persistence of these pesticides, exposure and toxicological risks for fauna and humans. Of particular
interest is the review of the neurobehavioral toxicity of pyrethroids in children, for which animal,
epidemiological and mechanistic studies suggest an impact coupled to insufficient regulatory testing.
Another aspect of concern is the potential deleterious impact on human reproduction, via interference
with the endocrine system. Finally, carcinogenicity re-evaluation may also bring a novel perspective on
the putative relative safety of these products. Because of their extensive use on food and easy,
unsupervised access by the general population, we may be facing higher risks than currently
acknowledged. The precautionary principle should guide our action to prevent undesirable consequences
of extensive pyrethroid uses. Further research on alternatives to synthetic pyrethroids critically needs
supports from our governments and industries.
55
Policy Recommendations based on new knowledge, data gaps and international
benchmarking

Related to research and registration
o Further research on neuronal death, neuronal toxicity and bioactivation, with more precise
modern protocols, is necessary to ensure that older regulatory assessments of pyrethroids did
not overlook subtle effects of repeated low-dose exposure, which is common in our
environment. 26
o Further studies on the implications of varying meteorological and climatologic conditions on
pyrethroids efficiency and toxicity should be conducted, especially in the face of global warming,
since pyrethroids are known to be less efficient at higher temperatures.103 Better knowledge of
minimal time between application and forecasted rain is also important to improve risk
management measures. 97
o Many waters in the US have been designated as impaired in accordance with the US Clean Water
Act (they do not meet the total maximum daily loads water quality standards) by pesticides a
priori authorized by the US EPA. Pyrethroid insecticides are of particular concern since they have
been shown to cause toxicity to urban surface water sediment-dwelling organisms in California.
Better assessment of the potential risks to surface waters by the US EPA at the time of
registration could alleviate the financially demanding a posteriori evaluations that are required
to restore contaminated waters from regional water boards (e.g., San Francisco Bay Region
Water Quality Control Board). 145 In Canada (Quebec), insecticide concentrations may exceed
chronic criteria for aquatic life; this was the case between 14-33% of the surveyed samples from
agricultural regions for Permethrin. The acute toxicity criteria and chronic toxicity criteria were
exceeded by 32 and 350 times in most concentrated samples analyzed.38 Deltamethrin exceeded
chronic toxicity criteria 100-175 times in the most concentrated samples taken from streams in
orchard and potato growing areas of Quebec.38
o Due to the widespread use of pyrethroids and the widespread contamination of humans
(assessed via metabolite studies), a routine follow up of ground waters and drinking water
testing is recommended for Quebec.
o Critical data gaps concerning environmental fate and aquatic toxicity data should be filled. In
some instances ( e.g., Allethrins); none of the minimally required data sets are available for
registration eligibility decisions, and at best, only a few studies are available. Data is lacking for:
chronic aquatic toxicity for fresh, salt waters, and sediments; environmental fate of urban
runoffs for active substances including all isomers and degradates and data to support modeling
of urban runoffs.97
o Better environmental monitoring of pyrethroids in Quebec surface water is recommended as
currently, only few intensive agricultural regions are monitored (corn and soy, 98 orchards and
potato growing regions99) and urban surface waters monitoring or general ground water
monitoring is lacking (through Permethrin and Piperonyl Butoxique have been detected in
Quebec groundwater)101. Furthermore, considering that few water treatment plants are
56




equipped to remove pesticides from surface and groundwater, Quebec regulations on drinking
water54 should include monitoring a few common pyrethroids, such as Permethrin.
o Further research is needed on safe and effective pyrethroid alternatives for agricultural and
domestic uses.143, 144
Sensitive populations
o Pesticides should always be stored out of the reach of children, and in their original labelled
containers, to prevent accidental poisoning.2
o Because of the risk to the unborn child, pregnant women should avoid contact with pesticides.28
o Labels of unrestricted pyrethroids (over-the-counter products) should warn sensitive subpopulations (like allergic or asthmatic people or those suffering from multiple chemical
sensitivity) to avoid exposure.29
o Everyone, and in particular children, should wash their hands before eating to minimize
undesired ingestion of pyrethroids.7
General population
o To avoid pyrethroid exposure, it is advisable for people to remain indoors while the
neighbourhood is sprayed with pyrethroids to control mosquito populations.2
o To reduce dietary exposure, all fruits and vegetables should thoroughly be washed before being
eaten.7
User specific
o If pyrethroids are chosen to solve a house pest or health issue, instructions should be carefully
followed to ensure proper use and it is inadvisable to use more than the recommended
quantity.2
o Labels of unrestricted pyrethroids (over-the-counter) should better define what ventilating a
treated area means, and increase the recommended re-entry delay period to better protect
sensitive sub-populations.2, 29 Professional pesticide applicators should initiate mechanical
ventilation of treated homes instead of instructing occupants to enter and open windows.29
o Cleaning surfaces with commercial cleaning products may considerably reduce the
concentration of pyrethroids in house dust on surfaces, but not significantly in indoor air.106 Care
should be taken to completely eradicate insect pests in homes prior to cleaning to avoid
reinfestation following subsequent hatching of eggs, for example, or development of resistance
in individuals exposed to lower concentrations.106
Education
o Governmental agencies and health departments should educate applicators and consumers
about the importance of reading and following all directions on pesticide labels, and educate
asthma and allergy sufferers on the potential risk of pyrethroids. 29
o Pyrethroid labels (e.g., Allethrins) should clearly state the danger of increased runoffs to aquatic
environment within the first few hours after application and all labels should clearly recommend
a minimum time (as it is the case for Cypermethrin), a time which should be more in-line with
the current state of scientific knowledge (i.e. 24 to 48 hours, not 8 hours).97
o The use of symbols to communicate water quality stewardship concepts on pesticide labels, as
used for other toxicants, may also help illustrate concepts for the target audience of pesticide
users.97
57



Alternatives
o Efforts should be made to promote and institutionalize safer alternatives to pyrethroid
treatments in multiple or low-income housing which are commonly contaminated with
pyrethroid residues, with 100% kitchen floors contaminated with Permethrin.30
o Placebo studies using no insecticide at all revealed that this was an effective treatment for head
lice in 46% of the cases. Perhaps pediculicides showing less than 50% efficiency should simply be
removed from the market, albeit on a local basis and not a nationwide one, since resistance is
known to vary regionally.34 This would require a local and periodic reporting protocol.
Health professionals and reporting
o Health professionals should be aware of the respiratory risks of pyrethroids and associated
solvents in aerosols, and should report suspected and confirmed cases of exposure to a
centralized reporting system.29
o Reporting systems should keep track of regional specificities in pyrethroid poisoning since
occurrence and severity of poisoning has been shown to vary in different regions.29 Geographic
based information systems may improve toxicosurveillance, allowing the better identification of
high risk regions and the development of preventive interventions accordingly.14
o Family physicians should advise parents to minimize children’s exposure to indoor, home and
garden pesticides, since home exposure to pyrethroids is common and preventable.33
Strong political goals to minimize pesticide impacts
o Several agricultural practices are recommended to reduce the impact of pesticides on surface
and ground water. A Quebec study prioritized five interventions to reduce surface water
contamination with agricultural pesticides: (1) No-till practices; (2) Minimum-till practices; (3)
Crop rotations; (4) Use of low-impact pesticides and (5) Use of reduced pesticide doses.
According to this research, vegetated buffer strips, crop rotations and low-impact pesticides
could completely eliminate the presence of pesticides in agricultural watersheds. Additional
governmental actions such as pesticide taxation, banning of the most toxic pesticides, ecoconditional subsidies, ecological labels and financial incentives should be explored. Despite
efforts to reduce health and environmental impacts, current provincial and federal laws,
regulations, programs and stakeholder actions have failed to reduce the use of pesticides, and
this phytosanitary solution is still gaining in popularity.55
58
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