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Chapter 22 / 6
Thought and Culture in the Early
Nineteenth Century
Romanticism: A New Cultural Orientation
The central message of the romantics was the individual imagination was
primary in artistic creation.
Romantics were most interested in expressing primitive feelings.
Exalting Imagination, Intuition and Feelings
The author describes Romanticism as a reaction against Enlightenment
rationalism.
One of the earliest literary expressions of the Romantic sensibility was
Rousseau’s Confessions.
John Keats wrote "I am certain of nothing but of the holiness of the
Heart's affections and the truth of Imagination".
Nature, God, History
When English romantics referred to "dark satanic mills," it was a
reference to factories.
The Romantic attitude towards the Middle Ages is best characterized as
reverence.
The best characterization of the Romantics’ attitude towards history is respect for and interest in
each specific historical era.
The Impact of the Romantic Movement
Scholars agree that in Germany, the romantic view of the state contributed to totalitarianism.
German Idealism
G.W.F. Hegel
Hegel posited the existence of a universal mind.
Hegel's theories may be associated with glorification of the Prussian state.
The term Young Hegelians refers to those who believed an understanding of the
dialectic could lead to change in the world.
Marx chose to utilize Hegel's idea that there is system behind the movement of history
The author characterizes Hegel’s philosophy as a synthesis of Romantic, Enlightenment
and Kantian philosophy.
For Hegel the supreme embodiment of Universal Reason in the world was the state.
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Maps, 20–6
German Idealism
German idealism developed as a response to the ideas of Hume.
German idealism postulated that human consciousness builds the world.
The Challenge Posed by Hume’s Empiricism
The origins of skepticism may be found in the work of Hume.
Immanuel Kant
Kant wrote the Critique of Pure Reason (1781).
Kant: One cannot actually know ultimate reality.
Objects conform to the human mind because the mind creates order within
nature.
Kant supported Newtonianism and the scientific method.
Conservatism: The Value of Tradition
Burke wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France.
Edmund Burke was concerned that fanaticism would lead to terrorism.
Burke wrote that "when ancient opinions and rules of life are taken away, the loss cannot possibly
be estimated"?
De Bonald remarked "When God wished to punish France, he took away
the Bourbon from her governance”
Hostility to the French Revolution
Voltaire was referred to by statesman De Maistre as one "into whose hands hell has given all its
power“
Conservatives were likely to blame Human nature as the root of human malevolence.
Conservatives were generally: critical of Enlightenment principles that released instincts religion
had once controlled; suspicious of the theory of natural rights; and fearful of utopian visions and
those who would implement them by force.
The Quest for Social Stability
Political conservatives shared with Romantics veneration of the past.
Liberalism: The Value of Individualism
The bourgeoisie in the nineteenth century usually supported Liberalism.
The Sources of Liberalism
Nineteenth-century liberalism drew on the following political theories of Montesquieu, Locke
and Mill.
Individual Liberty
Liberals tended to believe that pursuit of self-interest was a positive force in society.
Liberal Economic Theory
According to Malthus, the cause of the distress of the poor should be
blamed on the workers themselves.
David Ricardo argued that high wages would encourage workers to have more children, which in
turn would continue the cycle of poverty.
Liberalism and Democracy
De Tocqueville argued that in a democracy one might eventually develop hedonism, an interest in
possessions rather than interest in the public good.
One may correctly say that nineteenth-century liberals were concerned that revolution would
spread to the masses.
Radicalism and Democracy: The Expansion of Liberalism
Paine
Thomas Paine may be remembered for contending that all hereditary monarchy was really a
system of slavery over the people.
Bentham
Jeremy Bentham may best be associated with utilitarianism.
Chapter 23/ 7
Europe, 1815-1848: Revolution
and Counterrevolution
or
“You say you want a revolution
Well you know
We all want to change the world”
The Congress Of Vienna, 1814-1815
Peoples of the
Hapsburg Monarchy,
1815
The Congress Of Vienna, 1814-1815
Representing Austria
Metternich the Archconservative
Klemens Metternich was an Austrian politician
and statesman and perhaps the most important
diplomat of his era.
He was the dominating influence at the
Congress of Vienna
Metternich's approach to European
politics involved working for a restoration
of a balance of power.
The Congress of Vienna was praised for
this reason.
Representing Britain
Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh
Castlereagh was known as having
perceptive and practical insights at the
Congress of Vienna.
In his role of Foreign Secretary he was
instrumental in negotiating what has become
known as a quadruple alliance between the
United Kingdom, Austria, Russia and Prussia
At the Congress of Vienna, Castlereagh
designed and proposed a form of collective
and collaborative security for Europe, then
called a Congress system. According to the
Congress system the main signatory powers
were to meet periodically (every two years or
so) and collectively manage European Affairs.
Representing Russia
Tzar Alexander I
Wanted to create a new Poland to be
ruled by Russia
Alexander was preoccupied by a vague,
mystical Christianity and thought of
himself as the savior of Europe.
Viewing revolutionary movements as
challenging to the authority of
legitimate Christian monarchs, the czar
now supported Metternich in
suppressing all national and liberal
movements.
*Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace takes
place during Alexander’s reign
Representing France
Talleyrand
When the allies entered Paris in 1814,
Talleyrand persuaded them to restore the
Bourbons in the person of Louis XVIII (who
made him foreign minister).
He negotiated the first Treaty of Paris of May,
1814, by which France, despite the defeat,
was granted the French borders of 1792.
Winning the European powers to his principle
of “legitimacy,” namely, the restoration of
Europe to its prerevolutionary status
Shrewdly exploited the dissension among the
allies, he was able to take part in the
negotiations on equal terms with the principal
victorious powers.
Representing Prussia
Prince von Hardenburg
Hardenburg argued that it was largely due to the
efforts of the Prussian army that had turned the
war against France.
Prussia’s goal: to gain all of Saxony*
In diplomacy he was no match for Metternich,
whose influence soon overshadowed his own in
the councils of Europe
At Vienna, in spite of the powerful backing of
Alexander of Russia, he failed to secure the
annexation of the whole of Saxony to Prussia
At Paris, after Waterloo, he failed to carry
through his views as to the further
dismemberment of France
The Congress Of Vienna, 1814-1815
Crisis over Saxony and Poland
Two issues threatened not only the conference but the peace of
Europe.
1. Prussia’s intention to annex the German kingdom of Saxony
2. Russia’s demand for polish territories.
•
•
•
Tzar’s push for the new territory was seen as a a threat to the
balance of power that was being crafted
Talleyrand seizes the moment – an alliance to check Russia
War is averted
The Settlement
Among the arrangements made at the Congress of Vienna were:
•Austria received Lombardy and Venetia
•Austria was given back most of the territory it had lost and
was also given land in Germany and Italy (Lombardia and
Venice)
•Britain gained control of the seas.
•France was not punished severely
•France was deprived of all territory conquered by Napoleon
(*Yet more land than it had before the Revolution.)
•France was restored under the rule of Louis XVIII.
The Settlement (Continued)
Among the arrangements made at the Congress of Vienna were:
•Holland gained the southern Netherlands.
•Norway and Sweden were joined under a single ruler
•Prussia was given much of Saxony
•Russia got Finland and effective control over the new kingdom of
Poland
•Spain was restored under Ferdinand VII
•The Dutch Republic was united with the Austrian Netherlands to
form a single kingdom of the Netherlands
•Switzerland was declared neutral
No one Country was strong enough to dominate the continent
This reestablishing a stable balance of power in Europe.
Europe, 1815
Europe's Age of Revolutions
Revolutions, 1820-1829
• Both liberal and nationalist uprisings threatened European stability following the
Congress of Vienna.
• Spain experienced a revolt in 1820 that expressed both nationalist and liberal
sympathies.
• In 1821, there was a liberal uprising in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and a
rising in Piedmont as well.
• In 1825, liberal officers in Russia revolted.
• The Greek nationalist revolution against the Turks began in 1821 and lasted almost
a decade.
The Quadruple Alliance included:
Russia, Austria, Great Britain, and Prussia.
France was admitted into the Alliance after paying its indemnity.
(Concert of Europe was another name for the Quadruple Alliance.)
During the 1820s Greece fought valiantly for its independence against the Turks.
The Decembrist revolt or the Decembrist uprising was attempted in
Imperial Russia by army officers who led about 3,000 Russian soldiers in
December 1825. Because these events occurred in December, the rebels
were called the Decembrists.
Greek Revolution
The Battle of Navarino
Revolutions, 1830-1832
Louis XVIII – The Ultras Problem
1824 the Comte d'Artois, Louis’ younger brother, becomes King Charles X.
Charles - indemnifies the émigrés for lost property, censors the press, and gives the church
greater control over education.
The revolution of 1830 in France set off Belgium, Poland and Italy.
Belgium proclaimed independence from Holland and established a liberal democracy.
In 1830-1831 revolutionaries in Poland and Italy failed to mobilize peasants.
Chartist demonstration, 1848
The Rise of Reform in Britain
“Rotten boroughs” were depopulated parliamentary districts that were overrepresented.
In 1828, Parliament removed certain disabilities against Catholics and Nonconformists.
The Reform Act of 1832 in England reformed rotten boroughs and granted suffrage to the
middle class.
Feargus O'Connor led a mass demonstration of Chartists in 1848.
The primary demands of the Chartist movement in Britain were:
• universal manhood suffrage.
• secret ballot.
• abolition of property requirements for service in Parliament.
Chapter 24 / 8
Thought and Culture in the Mid-Nineteenth Century:
Realism and Social Criticism
Realism - The representation in art or literature of objects, actions, or
social conditions as they actually are, without idealization or presentation
in abstract form.
Gustave Courbet's genius was expressed as an artist of everyday life.
A Burial at Ornans 1849-50
Interior (The Rape) 1868-69
Gustave Courbet - The Stonebreakers
Realism & Naturalism
The preeminent literary genre for realist writers was the novel
Writers included:
Ivan Turgenev’s A Sportsmen’s Sketches describes conditions in rural Russia.
Emile Zola compared the novelist to a scientist performing an
experiment.
Zola’a work, Germinal may be associated with coal mining in France.
Henrik Ibsen’s Pillars of Society was a critique of hypocritical businessmen.
That a woman might, with rectitude, leave both her husband and child is the conclusion
in A Doll's House.
Realism & Naturalism (Continued)
Crime and Punishment (Dostoevsky) is one of the first novels that
provided insight into human behavior and could be described as a
psychological novel
**Naturalism limits itself to a search for causes and takes little account of reasons.
Positivism
What is it?
Positivism is a philosophical position which holds that knowledge can be ascertained
only through scientific study of things which can be observed and measured.
Auguste Comte was the leading figure in the Positivist Movement
In his early life August Comte worked with Saint-Simon.
Comte viewed religion as necessary for emotional needs of human beings.
Emile Durkheim did original work in the field of sociology.
Henry T. Buckle may be credited with emphasizing the need for statistical studies.
Darwinism
Natural Selection
Erasmus Darwin and Charles Lyell both demonstrated that the earth was far older than
the Biblical account of creation suggested.
The H.M.S. Beagle is the ship that sailed Charles Darwin on his trip around the world.
Darwinism & Christianity
Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged traditional Christian beliefs in all
of the following ways:
•it contradicted the account of creation in the Old Testament book
Genesis.
•it deprived man of the privilege of being God’s special creation.
•it suggested that the human race had evolved as the result of random
natural processes.
Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism was forwarded by Herbert Spencer
Social Darwinist were generally politically conservative.
Historians would agree that Social Darwinism led some to believe that the extinction of
so-called "inferior races" was a good thing.
Social Darwinist thought was generally widespread in Germany, the United States, and
Great Britain.
Religion in a Secular Age
David Friedrich Strauss argued that the Christian Gospels were not
reliable historical sources.
Feuerbach referred to religion as "the dream of the human mind"?
Marxism
Karl Marx is a descendant of Rabbis from both sides of his family.
The differences between Marxists and liberals were:
•liberals did not aim for the destruction of capitalism.
•Marxists denied that education and self-discipline were enough
to advance the working class.
•liberals did not see violence and class struggle as the core of
history.
A Science of History
According to Marx, the engine of historical change was class
struggle.
Hegel would probably have agreed that Synthesis is part of progress.
Class Conflict
Destruction of Capitalism
Marxist theory involved a materialist conception of history, a theory of class war, a
belief in the ultimate destruction of capitalism and the formation of a classless society.
Marxism's Appeal and Influence
The authors of your text refer to several ways that Marxism exhibited features of
religious myth. They include
•an apocalyptic struggle.
•messianic hopes.
•the belief that human nature was meant to be better than what we presently see.
Anarchism
Pierre Joseph Proudhon(1809 - 1865)
He achieved prominence through his pamphlet What Is Property? (1840, tr. 1876), in
which he condemned the abuses of private property and embraced anarchism.
Proudhon believed that a society of small, independent businessmen would require no
government.
Mikhail Bakunin (1814 - 1876)
Russian revolutionary and leading exponent of anarchism.Mikhail Bakunin’s
revolutionary tactics involved secret societies and terrorism.
A call for all people, workers and peasants, to revolt may be associated
with Bakunin.
** Note - Karl Marx’s attitude toward individual acts of terror against the capitalist
state was that he rejected them because he believed them useless.
Liberalism in Transition
John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873)
British empiricist philosopher and utilitarian social reformer.One may correctly say of
John Stuart Mill's work On Liberty that it referred to liberty as a supreme good.
Thomas Hill Green (1836 - 1882)
British absolute idealist and social philosopher.
Greene encouraged the alleviation of poverty through state agencies and social reform.
Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903): Rejection of State Intervention
was an English philosopher, scientist, engineer, and political economist. In his day his
works were important in popularizing the concept of evolution
Spencer’s writings expressed deep concern for "creeping socialism"?
Herbert Spencer's work was directed toward limitation on the role of government.
Feminism: Extending the Principle of Equality
De Gouges was a feminist who wrote "Woman is born free“
Grimke declared that it was anti-Christian to believe that a woman
was meant to be dependent on a man?
The women's suffrage movement drew up a declaration of principles at Seneca
Falls.
Jules and Edmund Goncourt were known for considering
intelligent women insufferable.
Mills stood strongly for female equality
Chapter 25 / 9
The Surge of Nationalism:
From Liberal to Extreme Nationalism
The Unification of Italy
Forces For and Against Unity
In 1815 Italy consisted of Separate states.
The French occupation of Italy during the Napoleonic Wars brought
all of the following changes:
•elimination of trade barriers.
•introduction of a standard system of law throughout much of
Italy.
•introduction of constitutions and representative assemblies
quenched
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Maps, 25–49
In Italy after the withdrawal of Napoleonic power:
•There were economic divisions.
•The middle class had hopes for national unity.
•Italians who had served under Napoleon wanted to hold
onto new career opportunities.
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Maps, 25–50
Failed Revolutions
The Carbonari were secret nationalist societies.
The authors characterize Giuseppe Mazzini as a liberal and a romantic.
Mazzini was active in inspiring revolutions during the 1830s and in 1848
Mazzini believed that God’s plan for humanity involved a world of
independent republics, one for each nationality.
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Maps, 25–51
The principles of the Risorgimento may best be related to
nationalism.
Early successes of revolutionaries in 1848 included each of the
following:
•taking over the city of Milan.
•forcing a liberal constitution in Sicily.
•establishing of a Roman republic.
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Maps, 25–52
Cavour and Victory over Austria
Count Cavour was the primary mover of Italian unification.
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Maps, 25–53
The results of the victory of Piedmont-Sardinia against the
Austrians in the 1859 included:
•New revolutionary governments in central Italy decided
to accept the leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia.
•Venetia voted to join Piedmont-Sardinia.
•Nice and Savoy were awarded to France.
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Maps, 25–54
Garibaldi and Victory in the South
Italian Unification Completed
Italian unification was completed with the acquisition of
Rome.
The ultimate reason that newly unified Italy was able to
occupy Rome and make the city its capital was withdrawal of
the French garrison during the Franco-Prussian War.
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Maps, 25–55
The Unification of Germany
After the 1848 revolution, German liberals realized that they
had failed to understand the strength of the conservatives.
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Maps, 25–56
Prussia, Agent of Unification
•In the early nineteenth century, Prussian reforms did not
include a constitution.
•The Zollverein was a customs union embracing all German
states except Austria. (abolished tariffs.) It also provided the
economic foundation for political unification.
•After 1849, Prussia sought to create a German Union.
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Maps, 25–57
The Unification of Germany
Bismarck and the Road to Unity
In 1866 there was a war between Austria and Prussia.
Königgrätz was the site of a tremendous defeat for Austria in
1866
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Maps, 25–58
The Unification of Germany
Many German liberals forgave Bismarck for defanging
parliament after Prussian victory in the war with Austria.
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Maps, 25–59
The Unification of Germany
War with France – Pretext for winning the South German
States - According to historians, by 1871, Germany had
destroyed the balance of power.
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Maps, 25–60
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Maps, 25–61
Unification of
Germany,
1866-1871
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Maps, 25–62
Nationality Problems in the Hapsburg Empire
Magyarization
The Settlement of 1867 succeeded in giving Hungary
complete control over its internal affairs.
After 1867, Magyar administration was open to those who
spoke the Magyar language and thought of themselves as
Hungarians.
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Maps, 25–63
Nationality Problems in the Hapsburg Empire
Jews were one group that took the advantage of
opportunities offered by the Magyar government.
Hungarian nationalities policy after 1867 can be best
summarized as forced assimilation of other ethnic groups to
Magyar culture.
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Maps, 25–64
Nationality Problems in the Hapsburg Empire
German Versus Czech
Czechs had the highest literacy rate in the Dual Monarchy and
inhabited Bohemia a highly industrial area.
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Maps, 25–65
Nationality Problems in the Hapsburg Empire Among the
contested issues in Bohemia and the Sudetenland were all of
the following:
• the language of street signs.
• introduction of requirements that civil servants know
both Czech and German.
• Czech demands for autonomy similar to that granted the
Hungarians.
Extreme nationalists in Germany were likely to suggest that
ancestry should determine who should be considered a
member of the state.
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Maps, 25–66
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Maps, 25–67
Volkish Thought
Volkish thought sought to unify Germans by cultivating their
love for German language, traditions and “fatherland.”
The Volkish movement appealed most to the peasants.
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Maps, 25–68
Houston Stewart Chamberlain's Foundations of the
Nineteenth Century may be viewed as a spiritual forerunner
of Nazism.
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Maps, 25–69
Anti-Semitism:
The Power and Danger of Mythical Thinking
Pan-German racism targeted Jews and Slavs in
particular.
Romania had the most anti-Semitic laws in the late 19th
century.
The work "Jewish France" was responsible for spreading
anti-Semitism by accusing Jews of having gained control
of France and for introducing capitalism to France.
Hans Kohn contended that Germany became the father
of modern anti-Semitism.
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Maps, 25–70
Theodor Herzl is remembered for encouraging Zionism.
In the late nineteenth century most European Jews were
quite poor.
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Maps, 25–71
Chapter 26 / 10
The Industrial West: Responses to Modernization
In Europe, Ireland was more or less untouched by
industrialization before World War I.
Cartels and monopolies are usually associated
with the industrial development of Germany and
the United States.
When one speaks of "essential" industries, this
refers to transportation and communication.
Among the innovations in the utilization of energy
around 1900 was the internal combustion engine.
The origin of assembly-line production may best be
associated with Henry Ford.
1. Explain the connection between Romantic thought and the
growth of nationalism.
2. It has been said that the delegates to the Congress of Vienna
produced long-lasting results because they acted according to
rational principles rather than acting according to popular
emotions. Do you agree? Support your conclusion. Apply this
question to contemporary affairs.
3. Can you discover similarities in Marxist and liberal thought of
the late nineteenth century? Was there a major difference in their
approaches?
4. Define Zionism. Refer to its leaders and explain the threat to
which this movement was responding.
5. Define Magyarization.
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Maps, 25–78
BRING A SCAN & PENCIL!!!!
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Maps, 25–79