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AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)
1. The Man
Auguste Comte was a French philosopher and founder of Sociology and hence is
credited as “father of Sociology”. He insisted that Sociology be treated at par with other
sciences. He was born on January 19, 1798 in the southern French city of Montpellier.
His parents were humble, law abiding and religious. His father was a petty government
servant whose only pastime was to cultivate his gardens. He was royalist and a
traditionalist. Since childhood Comte exhibited extra-ordinary mental ability, strong but
rebellious character.
Small, delicate and subject to many diseases, the young Comte however, proved
to be an outstanding student at the imperial Lycee which he entered at the age nine. He
was studiously devoted to his work yet was the most recalcitrant and rebellious. At the
age of 16 he entered the famous Ecole Polytechnique in Paris where he received
instructions in Physics and Mathematics and unlike his professors Comte displayed great
social and human concerns. Young Comte was critical of Napoleonic Administration and
disliked both parental and religious authority. In 1818 Comte became secretary to SaintSimon who was a great socialist thinker and received 300 francs as salary. He has long
and lasting influence on Comte’s life and work. He was forty years seniors to Comte their
association lasted upto 1824 and jointly published “The Plan of the Scientific Operations
Necessary for the Reorganization of Society” in 1822.
Comte married in 1825 and within 17 years in 1842 his wife deserted him. He had
to led isolated life and faced economic crisis when his admirers invited him to deliver a
series of lectures on “Positive Philosophy” and his lecture notes running to 4800 pages
was published in six volumes between 1830-1942 entitled “Courses of Positive
Philosophy”. This made him famous. In this Comte first used the term Sociology.
By 1851, Comte had completed “System of Positive Politics” in four volumes
wherein he proposed a grand plan for reorganization of society and tried to apply his
findings of theoretical Sociology to the solution of social problems.
He had a set of bizarre ideas such as “cerebral hygiene” and to preserve his
mental health stopped reading works of others.
Comte’s life was full of stress and strain, conflicts and controversies, poverty and
isolation and he died on 5th September, 1857.
2. The Work
Comte’s aim was to create a naturalistic science of society. This would both explain the
past development of mankind and predict its future course. In addition Comte attempted to
formulate the conditions that account for social stability at any given historical moment. The
study of social dynamics and statics – of progress and order, of change and stability—are twin
pillars of his system.
Comte thought that the society of man must be studied in the same scientific manner as
the world of nature. Natural science had successful in establishing laws of natural phenomena
which followed ordered sequences of development. In natural world science had succeeded in
progressively removing the apparently non-ordered, the fortuitous and accidental. He believed
that stage was now set for a similar endeavor in the study of society.
The new social science that Comte sought to establish he first called “social physics” and
later he coined the word “sociology” when he thought that the previous term was stolen from
him by the Belgian social statistician, Adolphe Quetelet. It was to be patterned after natural
sciences not only in its empirical methods and epistemological underpinnings but also in the
functions it would serve for mankind. Social sciences must ultimately be of concrete benefit to
man and play major role in ameliorating the human conditions far from being theoretical
interests only.
In order to transform the natural environment to his advantage, the man must know the
laws governing natural world. By knowing the laws of phenomena man can foresee them and use
them to their benefit. Similarly social action beneficial to mankind will become possible once the
laws of motion of human evolution are established and the basis for social order and civic
concord is identified.
As long as men believe that social action followed no law and were arbitrary and
fortuitous, they could take no concerted action to ameliorate their condition. Under these
circumstances men clashed with one another in the search of their differing individual interests.
When this was the case a Hobbsean model of society seemed appropriate and plausible wherein
only power and the willing acceptance of power permit a semblance of order. But things are
different once sociology teaches men to recognize the invariable laws of development and order
in human affairs and at that time men will learn to utilize these laws for their own collective
purposes.
The discovery of the basic laws of society will cure men of overweening ambition; they
will learn that at any historical moment the margin of societal action is limited by the exigencies
of the proper functioning of the social organism. But at the same time, men will also be enabled
to act deliberately within given limits by curbing the operations of societal laws to their own
purposes. In the realm of social, the science is not to govern but to modify phenomena and to do
so, it is necessary to understand their laws. And once the new science establishes itself, men will
no longer think in absolute terms but in relative terms to a particular state of affairs in society.
For example, it is impossible to talk about political aims without considering the social and
historical context of political action. By recognizing and acknowledging the constraint that any
social order imposes on action, men will at the same time be enabled freely to order their society
within the bounds imposed by necessity.
The new positive science rejected the authority of tradition. His basic ideas are governed
by the dictum that nothing is absolute but relative. He insisted on continued progress of human
understanding and self corrective nature of scientific enterprise.
Comte believed that freedom of personal opinion makes no sense in astronomy or physics
and in future such freedom will be similarly inappropriate in the social sciences.
Methods of Inquiry
Sociology while explaining the laws of progress and of social order, will employ the resources
used in natural sciences, namely,
1. Observation.
2. Experimentation.
3. Comparison.
The Law of Human Progress
Hierarchy of the Sciences
Positivism
1. THE LAW OF HUMAN PROGRESS
As early as 1822 when Comte was still apprentice to Saint-Simon, he set a task for himself--- to
discover how human race reached to the level of then developed and civilized Europe (through
what series of successive transformations). In order to carry out the task set for himself Auguste
Comte organized and classified the social thoughts prevailing before his times. He studied
evolution of human thinking and its various stages. He maintained that human thinking gradually
evolved and developed and this is known as the law of three stages of thinking.
In fulfilling the task of laying down the foundations of a new social science, Comte analyzed the
types of thinking. He elaborated the Law of Three Stages of Human Thought or the Law of
Human Progress, namely, Theological, Metaphysical and Positive. These three stages represent
the development of both human knowledge and human society correspondingly society
developed from military to legal and finally industrial society. Comte maintained that evolution
of human mind paralleled the evolution of individual mind. As an individual in childhood is a
strict believer, a critical metaphysician in adolescence and a natural philosopher in adulthood, so
mankind in its growth travelled through three stages listed below:
1. First Stage: Theological of Fictious.
2. Second Stage: Metaphysical of Abstract.
3. Third Stage: Positive or Scientific
THEOLOGICAL STAGE: Primitive man believed that all phenomena are caused by some
supernatural beings and also believed in all kinds of fetishes in which some spirits live. Hence
fetishism as a form of religion started without priesthood as its gods are individuals and residing
in fixed objects. With the passage of time mind of primitive man became better organized,
fetishism became problematic because too many fetishes created confusion and they started
believing in several gods and thus polytheism developed. Classes of priests were created to get
blessings of these gods. In due course of time too many gods also created mental contradictions
and hence they arranged the gods in hierarchy. At last they developed the idea of one god
(monotheism), so to speak supernatural powers of only one god. In due course of time feelings
and imaginations were getting replaced by thinking and rationality. Monotheism is the final
height of the theological stage. This kind of thinking was suitable for military society.
METAPHYSICAL STAGE: Metaphysical thinking is an extension of the theological thinking.
In this phase rationalism had started replacing imagination. Rationalism says that god is not
responsible directly every phenomena and pure reasoning considers God is an abstract being.
Man started finding out order in the natural order on the basis of reasoning. This led to the
development of theoretical models to understand and explain the natural phenomena. This
replaced feelings and speculations about the natural phenomena. Comte held that even these
metaphysical explanations were unsatisfactory to the mind, however, this kind of thinking suited
to the legal type of society.
POSITIVE STAGE: This stage represents the scientific thinking. Comte developed his concept
of positivism. It’s a purely an intellectual way of looking at reality. He insisted upon the
scientific methods of observation and classification of phenomena. He even rejected to ascertain
the causes behind phenomena. The positive thinking suits the needs of industrial society.
CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN STAGES OF THINKING AND STAGES OF SOCIAL
ORGANIZATION: Comte maintained that each stage of development of human thinking has a
corresponding social organization. Accordingly theological thinking refers to a military and
monarchical social organization wherein god is on the top of the hierarchy as king of kings and a
mighty warrior. The human beings would be arranged in a military organization. Divine rule
prevails which is hardly questioned or challenged. Dogmatism prevails and anyone who
challenges gets severe punishment.
Metaphysical thinking produces a government nominated by doctrines of abstract rights
and corresponds to a legalistic social organization exemplified by medieval social organization
where natural rights substituted the divine rights. A priesthood exists. Society is legalistic, formal
and structural. In Europe nation-state emerged during this time.
Positive thinking represents a society dominated by industrialists wherein individuals
exploits nature and its resources and transform them into material resources for their benefits.
Big thoughts lead to generation be large powers in modern urban industrial society.
THEORY OF HIERARCHY OF SCIENCES
Prologue: Auguste Comte’s second best theory is known as “Hierarchy of Sciences”. It is
intimately related with the Theory of Three Stages. Just as mankind progresses only through
determined stages, each successive stage building on the accomplishments of its predecessors, so
scientific knowledge passes through similar stages of development. But different sciences
progress at different times. Any kind of knowledge reaches its positive stage early in proportion
to its generality, simplicity and independence of other departments.
Hence astronomy, the most general and simple of all the natural sciences develops first.
In time it is followed by Physics, Chemistry, Biology and finally Sociology. Each science in this
series emerged for its emergence on the prior development of its predecessor in a hierarchy
marked by the law of increasing complexity and decreasing generality.
The social sciences, the most complex and the most dependent for their emergence on the
development of all the other sciences are the “highest” in the hierarchy. Social science offers the
attributes of a completion of the positive method.
Pre-Comtean Phase: Thinkers prior to Comte also tried to classify knowledge such as the early
Greeks classified all knowledge under three heads, namely, Physics, Ethics and Politics. Later
Bacon made the classification on the basis of man’s faculties such as
a) Memory = history.
b) Imagination = Poetry.
c) Reason = Physics, Chemistry etc.
Purpose: The main purpose of the classification was to create a background and basis for the
study of “Sociology”. It also helped him to establish relationship of Sociology with other
sciences.
Principle of Increasing Dependence: Comte adopted the principle, ‘the order of increasing
dependence’ to classify knowledge. He arranged the sciences so that each category may be
grounded on the principal laws of the preceding category and serve as the basis for next ensuing
category. Hence the order is one of increasing complexity and decreasing generality. The most
simple phenomena must be the most general, general meaning Omni-present. He was of the
opinion that the most complex science will attain the positive stage in the course of development
in the end.
According to Comte, mathematics occupies the first place in the hierarchy. However,
mathematics is not a constituent member of the group of sciences, rather it’s the basis of all the
sciences. It’s the oldest and the most perfect.
In his classification of sciences mathematics occupies the lowest rung and sociology the
highest as under:
Sociology or Moral Sciences
Biology
Chemistry
Physics
Astronomy
Mathematics
Social sciences are at the apex of the hierarchy because they are the most complex and the
most dependent for their emergence on the development of other sciences.
POSITIVISM
Auguste Comte founded positivism or positive philosophy. It is philosophy of science
influenced by empirical tradition. It rejects metaphysical speculation and favors ‘positive
knowledge’ based on systematic observation and experiment.
Positivism refers to the doctrine formulated by Comte which asserts that the only true knowledge
is the scientific knowledge, that is, knowledge which describes and explains the co-existence and
succession of observable phenomenon, including both physical and social phenomena.
Positivism also refers to any sociological approach which operates on the general assumption
that the methods of physical sciences can be carried over into social sciences.
Auguste Comte used positivism in two ways- as a doctrine and as a method. In the former sense
positivism is a way of thinking. It is based on the assumption that it is possible to observe social
life and establish reliable knowledge about how it works. Such knowledge helps to improve
human condition and affect the course of change. His concept of positivism refers to a
philosophical position stating that knowledge can be derived only from sensory experience.
Metaphysical speculation, subjectivity and purely logical analysis are rejected as outside sphere
of knowledge. The methods of physical sciences are regarded as the only accurate means of
obtaining knowledge. Hence social sciences should be limited to the use of these methods and
modeled after physical sciences.
In the latter sense the concept of positivism refers to the application of scientific methods to
understand society and its changes. He emphasized that sociology must depend on careful
observation of social statics and social dynamics. He recognizes that sociology would have to be
less experimental than physical sciences because of ethical and practical difficulties intervening
in individual’s life. Comte believed that social life is governed by underlying laws and principles
that can be discovered through the use of methods of physical sciences. By way of positivism
Comte rejected previous reliance on religious or speculative metaphysical bases of knowledge.
However, Comte regarded scientific knowledge as ‘relative knowledge’ and not absolute
knowledge. He maintained that absolute knowledge was always unavailable.
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