Download Using animation in forensic pathology and

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Using Animation
in Forensic Pathology
and Science Education
Gary Fisk, PhD
(Department of Psychology and Sociology,
Georgia Southwestern State University, Americus, GA)
DOI: 10.1309/LM2MP23DKGWWCCPJ
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October 2008 j Volume 39 Number 10 j LABMEDICINE
587 A
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nimated educational materials can provide
significant advantages to teachers in the sciences. Many scientific topics, such as the
cardiovascular system, have a visual-spatial
component that can be naturally expressed
with animations of scientific phenomena.
The instructional benefits of animated biological examples have also led to increased use
of animations in the courtroom, particularly in cases that involve
medical evidence. Animations can help forensic pathologists
communicate complex medical evidence to lay juries in a straightforward and accessible manner. Animations can also be useful for
evaluating the likelihood of different scenarios that may have occurred during a crime.
The present article explores the uses of animation in forensic
pathology and science education. First, the use of animation as a
tool for teaching juries and forensic investigation is covered. Next,
the research evidence for the use of animations as educational supplements is reviewed. The article concludes with suggestions for
maximizing the effectiveness of animations as instructional aids.
The Use of Animations in Forensic
Pathology
Forensic experts distinguish between three forms of animation. The term “animation” is usually used to refer to dynamic
illustrations, like those that might be used as a teaching aid.1 The
term “scientific animation” is reserved for animations in which the
motion is governed by scientific principles rather than an artist’s
creative vision. The controlling principles that govern these animations are the laws of physics and realistic models of the human
body, such as the positions of joints. Scientific animations in forensics may also include empirical data from the body or the crime
scene. Scientific animations can, accordingly, be thought of as a
form of three-dimensional data visualization. The third form of
animation, “simulation,” is a scientific animation used specifically
for prediction purposes.1
An important goal of forensic pathology is to instruct juries, which are typically composed of nonexperts, in the details
of medical and scientific evidence that occurred during a crime.
Animations can be helpful in courtroom settings for teaching
the jury about the technically complex details of the case (Figure
1A, left). The use of medical animations in the courtroom has
the greatest benefit for people with little background in biology
or medicine. The members of the jury do not need to become
experts in order to visualize and appreciate the details of the
case being considered.
In addition to jury instruction, forensic applications of animation can also include scientific animations that are closely based
upon biological evidence from the victim and physical evidence
from the crime scene (Figure 1A, right). The physical data can be
digitized using capture techniques similar to the techniques used
to make animated characters for movies (eg, the character Gollum from The Lord of the Rings) or video games (eg, John Madden Football). The data are modeled in a computer system based
on physics, realistic biological models of the human body (eg,
joint range of motion), and evidence from the crime scene. The
resulting models can be animated so that the biological and physical objects involved in the crime interact. The scene can also be
viewed from any number of perspectives. This approach has been
successfully employed to create computer models of automobile
accidents, particularly in regard to how the vehicle came into
contact with the victim2,3 (Figure 1B).
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Computer-based modeling of forensic data has a number
of additional advantages.3 The electronic data can also be shared
more easily between experts than physical evidence. Furthermore,
the blood and other unappealing aspects of the injury can be removed for the jury, which might help the jury focus on the most
important factors in the case and make evidence more admissible
in court.1 The data from the physical evidence can also be easily
stored on computers, which aids in conserving evidence.2
Animation and computer modeling of forensic data can also
be used to help investigators draw conclusions about the events
that occurred at the crime scene. One important application is
matching crime scene evidence to biological evidence from the
victim, with the goal of identifying perpetrators. Several studies
have used this approach to match bite marks,4 tire tracks,5 and
shoe treads3 to biological imprints left on the victim. Matching
techniques have also been used to match the point of impact in
car accidents2,3 and gunshot wounds6 (Figures 1A, left and 1B).
A second important forensic application of animation is to
test hypotheses about how an injury might have occurred. For
example, March and colleagues1 employed computer-based models to test hypotheses about a suicide case in which the wrist was
slashed and the heart was punctured. Based on computer models,
they were able to determine that the stab wound to the chest would
have been impossible to make with a utility knife, thereby ruling
out one potential cause of death. Similar approaches have been
used to determine the feasibility of self-inflicted gunshot wounds.7
The position of the gun, characteristics of the injury, and potential
joint configurations can be modeled to determine whether or not
a gunshot wound may have been self-inflicted. In sum, the use of
animation and computer-based models to test forensic hypotheses
is essentially a scientific approach to interpreting a crime. Hypotheses about the cause of death can be generated, and then computer
models derived from empirical evidence can be tested to determine
how likely each event might have been. The computer model can
determine that some events might be physically impossible, which
enables these impossible scenarios to be ruled out.7
The Use of Animation in Science
Education
Animation offers science instructors a tool for illustrating
how a system changes over time. Instructors of upper-level biology
students and medical students have typically reported improved
educational outcomes when using animations as instructional aids.
Animated materials have been used successfully to teach complex
topics in cell biology,8,9 histology,10 and surgery.11-13 Several reviews of the educational psychology studies on animations show
that animated materials can be effective teaching tools, but a number of studies have failed to demonstrate improved educational
outcomes when animations are used.14-17 This literature suggests
that a number of conditions must be met in order for animations
to improve the learning process.
The most common reason for using animation is to increase
student interest in the subject material.18 The presence of motion
in a display makes an illustration more dynamic, which may, in
turn, increase intrinsic interest in the topic.19 Furthermore, today’s
students have been raised in an environment rich in videos and visual stimulation. As a result, animated demonstrations of scientific
topics may be more familiar and engaging for younger viewers. It
is important to note, however, that there are distinct limits to the
benefits gained by adding motion to an animated display. Excessive motion and realism can be distracting, which could interfere
with learning.20
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Animations are often used to make a presentation more dynamic. However, it is important to note that animations are only
effective teaching tools when they are closely tied to the educational
objectives that the teacher is seeking to accomplish.17 Animations
can be dynamic and have impact, yet fail to improve student learning. For example, animated characters, such as cartoons, may not
be very useful for education, even if they are dynamic and interactive. Older versions of Microsoft Office contained an animated
character named “Clippit” or “Mr. Clippy” who was designed to
help people effectively use their software. Although Mr. Clippy was
a state-of-the-art interactive animation, this feature was widely disliked, possibly due to Mr. Clippy’s poor social skills.21
Educational research has sometimes produced results similar to
the failed Mr. Clippy. Mayer, Dow, and Mayer22 used an animated
character named “Dr. Phyz” to narrate an instructional animation on electric motors. The comparison of groups who learned
the material with and without Dr. Phyz’s image failed to show
that the presence of Dr. Phyz’s picture on the computer screen
contributed to the learning process. In short, adding animation
did not facilitate instruction under these conditions, even though
the presence of Dr. Phyz was intended to engage and direct student attention. Thus, only animations that are closely aligned to
instructional goals are likely to be effective teaching tools. In general, Rieber17 suggests that educators should “resist incorporating
special effects, like animation, when no rationale exists.”
The effectiveness of animation may depend, to some degree,
on student abilities. Students who have a low degree of prior
knowledge about a topic may benefit more from illustrated instructional materials than students who have a higher degree of
prior knowledge.23 Furthermore, the effectiveness of animation
may depend upon learning objectives. Dwyer and Dwyer24 found
that the greatest educational benefits of animation were achieved
when the students were given background information prior to
viewing the animation. This information prepared them for viewing the animation, thereby helping the students to comprehend
the animation. The benefits of animation may also vary depending
upon student visual-spatial skills, with people who have lower abilities benefiting more from animation.25 Koroghlanian and Klein,26
A
B
Figure 1_Examples of forensic animation from the Virtopsy system. (A) Left: A 3-dimensional model of a shooting victim created from CT
scan data. The blue figure is an anatomically correct, computer-generated model based on the bone structure. Right: A reconstruction of a shooting scene based on empirical evidence from the crime scene, such as damage from the skull and bed frame. (B) A 3-dimensional reconstruction of
a traffic accident. All of the data in this reconstruction was derived from the bone structure of the victim and evidence from the accident scene.
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Examples from Flix Productions.
Examples from Animated Biomedical Productions.
for example, divided students into low spatial ability and high spatial ability groups based on a spatial cognition task (internally visualized paper folding). They found that the students in the lower
spatial ability group were more likely to report that the animation
helped motivation and concentration on the learning task than
the students in the high spatial ability group. However, the overall
differences in learning outcomes were not different between the
high and low spatial ability groups in this study.
Animated teaching materials are the most effective when
accompanied with a narrative that guides the viewers’ attention
and explains the key events occurring in the animation. Several
studies indicate that pairing animation with narration is more effective than having narration alone or animation with text.22,27-29
This effect is generally attributed to dual-coding theory,30 which
proposes that learning is a process of forming connections between verbal and visual representations of the information. The
cognitive representations are enhanced when complementary
information is presented to both the verbal and visual modalities
at the same time. Dual coding theory also suggests that placing
written text beside animations might be counterproductive given
that both the text and the visual images must be simultaneously
processed by the visual system.
It is important to acknowledge that animated instructional
materials can occasionally introduce problems. Students may
unintentionally learn misconceptions about the subject material
from the animated illustrations.18 For example, some of the stu590
LABMEDICINE j Volume 39 Number 10 j October 2008
dents in one study who viewed
animations about the diffusion
of molecules in solution learned
incorrect ideas about molecular
motion from the simplified
nature of the animation.31 It is
important to point out, however,
that only a small number of
students in this study experienced this problem. Misleading
information can easily sneak
into instructional animations
because the software does not
contain any physical constraints
based upon reality. The creation
of educational animations must
be done with caution to avoid
misinformation that might be
inadvertently learned.
In summary, the educational studies on the use of
animations in teaching indicate
that animations can be an effective teaching tool provided that
a number of conditions are met.
The overall research findings
clearly show that animations
are not a panacea that will
turn boring, poorly organized
lectures into dynamic learning
experiences. Animated instructional materials need to be carefully constructed and deployed
in a way that meets specific
educational needs in order to
achieve maximum effectiveness.
Using Animations as Instructional Aids
The first step in using animations to enhance teaching is to
examine how the animations will support the educational objectives (Table 1A). The animations must go beyond a simple “wow”
response to a focus on delivering pedagogically sound learning
experiences. The instructor must consider how the animation will
illustrate the key points of the topic and visually reinforce concepts
learned from the textbook or lecture. Park and Hopkins suggest
that animations are the most effective when the certain instructional roles and conditions are met (Table 1B).16 These roles
include guiding attention and aiding students in building mental
representations of physical objects. Conditions for using animations include demonstrations of sequential actions and simulations
of complex behaviors. Animations can also serve illustration purposes and are particularly valuable for teaching about anatomical
structures that might not be readily visible to the naked eye.
The second step is to consider the capabilities of the student
audience and the role that the animation will play in their educational experience. There is at least some evidence that students
who have lower prior knowledge of the topic will benefit more
from animations than students with more knowledge. This suggests that animations might be most beneficial for high schools
students, lay people in a jury, or lower-level college students. At the
same time, however, individuals who have higher degrees of prior
knowledge might potentially benefit from scientific animations if
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Table 1A_Steps for Implementing Animations in Educational Settings
Step
Objective
1
2
3
4
5
Identify educational objectives that the animation must support.
Determine the capabilities of the audience that will see the animation.
Locate or create animations that will meet both the educational objectives and the capabilities of the audience.
Presentation: Prepare the audience for the animation by giving them sufficient knowledge to comprehend the animation.
During the presentation, narration should also be provided to point out important features and explain the events.
Evaluate the instructional effectiveness of the animation.
Table 1B_Recommended Uses of Animations from Park and Hopkins16
Instructional Roles
Instructional Conditions
As an attention guide
As an aid for illustration
As a representation of domain knowledge
As a device model for forming a mental image
As a visual analogy or reasoning anchor for
understanding abstract and symbolic concepts or processes
For demonstrating sequential actions in a procedural task
For simulating causal models of complex system behaviors
For visually manifesting invisible system functions and behaviors
For illustrating a task difficult to describe verbally
For providing a visually motional cue, analogy, or guidance
For obtaining attention focused on specific tasks or presentation displays
these are being used as interactive visualizations of complex threethree-dimensional model building. In sum, creating animations
dimensional data, as suggested by the medical literature and the
is a major undertaking, but it can be a rewarding way to achieve
forensic uses of animation.
unique educational objectives.
The third step is to find or create the animations that meet
The fourth step is to present the animation to the target
the educational objectives. Many science textbooks for understudent audience in an effective manner. The research evidence
graduate students have multimedia supplements that are available
suggests that students benefit more from animations when they
for free upon adoption of the
textbook. These supplements
can be obtained by contacting
the textbook publisher’s sales
representative. There are also a
number of Web sites that contain animations that can be freely
downloaded by anyone. Several
examples are shown in Table 2.
Animations can also be
created by anyone who has the
proper equipment and a moderately high degree of computer
skills. The chief downside to
creating animations is that the
Examples from Nucleus Medical Art.
process is difficult, expensive,
and time-consuming. The
Table 2_Links to Animation Examples
standard for two-dimensional
animation on the Web is Adobe
Forensic/Medicolegal Examples
Flash (formerly Macromedia
Description
URL
Flash), which is typically created with Flash Creative Suite 3
Virtopsy—Forensic Animation
http://www.virtopsy.com/
(CS3). More sophisticated softFlix Productions
http://www.medflix.com/movie.html
Animated Biomedical Productions
http://www.medical-animations.com/gallery.php
ware applications are available
Medical Legal Art
http://medicolegalart.com/animation.html
for creating three-dimensional
Nucleus Medical Art
http://www.nucleusinc.com/
animated models. Tom GuthGhost Productions
http://www.ghostproductions.com/
rie, of Flix Productions (www.
medflix.com), uses 3ds-Max as
Teaching Examples
his primary animation software
for realistic, three-dimensional
Description
URL
animations. The use of scientific
Virtual Cell Animation Collection
http://vcell.ndsu.nodak.edu/animations/
animations in forensic pathology
Neuroscience
and
sensory
animations
created
by
Gary
Fisk
http://www.garyfisk.com/anim/index.html
is the most demanding of all,
Cell biology animations created by Donald Slish
http://faculty.plattsburgh.edu/donald.slish/animations.html
as it requires significant investDNA animations from the DNA Learning Center
http://www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/resources/animations.html
ment in data acquisition tools,
Cell biology animations from Cells Alive!
http://www.cellsalive.com/
data collection processes, and
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have some advanced preparation, such as basic information about
the topic, prior to seeing the animations. This prior knowledge
appears to help students properly understand and interpret the
information presented in the animation. During the presentation,
it is also important that narration should be used to explain the
events occurring in the animation. Providing narration should
help to direct student attention to the most important features of
the animated display. Simultaneous presentation of the animated
visual information and narrative information should also help provide optimal learning conditions according to dual-coding theory.
The final step would be to evaluate the effectiveness of
the animated supplements. For example, the students might be
able to volunteer their opinions about the animations. Teachers
should also be on the lookout for evidence that the animations
are entertaining, but not educational. There is also the possibility that the students might inadvertently learn misconceptions
or pay attention to irrelevant parts of the animation. If these
patterns are noted, either corrective steps can be taken or the
use of the animation should be discontinued.
Conclusion
Animated models offer great potential for improved instruction in forensic pathology and science education, particularly
in regard to the visualization of complex physical structures.
Although this approach is relatively new, it is already beginning
to have an impact in the courtroom and in training of future
scientists and laboratory technicians. It is likely that the future of
forensic pathology will see much greater employment of animated
data visualization and animated models as tools for understanding
and communicating biological information. LM
Acknowledgments: We thank the following individuals and
medicolegal animation firms who gave permission for the artwork
used in this article: Tom Guthrie (Flix Productions Biomedical
Animation), Sue Snape (Nucleus Medical Art,), and Des Sloan
(Animated Biomedical Productions). We also thank Michael
Thali (University Forensic Institute—Bern) for contributing an
example of scientific animation in forensic pathology. Finally, we
thank Ellen Cotter for providing feedback on this manuscript.
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