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1. Editing: Editing news copy is one of the main jobs of the news desk. Mainly sub-editors or copy-editors are rOsponsible for this job. lt includes the basic of trimming, adding, expanding or rewriting news copies. lt also involves correction of copies too. - Principles of editing - There are certain principles of editing to be followed. Such as use simple words and take out jargons and difficult words. The idea is to communicate as much as possible in a simple way as it involves mass reading, Simple sentences are also to be preferred, Easy language of writing makes a copy easy to read and thus communicate more. - Copy Testing - Copy testing is a process by which the news desk gets feedback on how the copies are responding. This process involves market reseaich and readers, opinion. A particular type of article or column may draw more readerships. The copy testing confirms the readership behaviour pattern. The feedback can be in form of ietters to the editor or any article coming from the readers. - Processing Copies - This is the process of making a copy fit for publication. At times reporters call in and brief the desk about a particular story which the desk processes" Different portions of the same story can be covered by more than one reporter and the desk collects and processes the whole story. Agency copies and creeds are also changed into news copies in the desk. Trimming, subbing, correcting, editing, expanding - all these and more are done in the news desk to make the news copies communicable. 2. Headlines: Headline is the most crucial part of a report. lt hooks the attention of the readers to the report. Headlines are a typical combination of the big, the brief, the bold, and the dramatic, all aimed at attracting the attention of the readeri. A freaotine is an abstract sentence with a complete thought. The headlines stand out visually thus compelling people to pay attention to them first. - Making Headlines of news stories - The words in a headline must represent accurately what is in the story. Reading the whole story minutely is a task to be done before giving it a headline. The most important point of the story will automatically come out as the headline" ln case of follow up stories a hint from the previous headlinei can be followed. - lmportance - previously there were multiple headlines to a story but with time only the important point of the story started becoming the headline. As tlre reader had lesser time to decide which story to pick up the use of headlines became more and more important. It gives the readers a gateway to the story. Even if the reader does not have the time or the opportunity to read the whole story he would prefer to go through the headlines to have an idea about what are the latest big news. Rules to be followed - For writing a headline there are few basic rules that are to be followed - i) the lines should be easy to read, crisp and short, ii) it should not have unnecessary word even use of articles and prepositions are to be done when there is absolute need, iii) the line should be written in present tense, iv) numerical should be used instead of spellings in case of numbers, v) it should have a bold type phase, vi) in case of double deckers the appearance should be different to establisn tfre two decks, vii) it should be the most important point of the 5W1H to become the headline. - Different types of Headlines - Division of headlines into three categories i) according to the number of lines (single deck, double deck, multiple deck, deck shedding); ii) according to the arrangement of words (flash left, flash right, center, banner, iicXer, stepper, hanging indent, hammer, pyramid, invefted pyrimid, streamer, waist buiging belly and skinny mid-riff), iii) according to the content (straight, suspense, interrogaiive, excl a m atory, state m e nt, q uote) 3' Proof Reading: Proof reading is the main process to make a copy error free. lt is the job of detecting and correcting the errors made in a copy. Any grammatical, punctuation, typographic, spelling or factual errors are to be removed in this stage of the production. Usually this process is heavily used in the print media. Though with the advent of modern computers the grammar and spell check has become easier but the requirement is still there, ' Symbols of Proof reading - i) delet, ii) close up, iii) delet and c/ose up, iv) insert, v) space, vi) lower case, vii) capitalize, viii) new paragraph, ix) remove paragraph break, x) move to a new position, xi) super script, xii) sub script, xiii) period, xiv) apostrophe & single quote, xv) semi colon, colon, coma, xvi) hyphen, xvii) run in the previous line, xviii) transpose, xix) wrong font, xx)sef rn italic & set in bold - Duties & responsibilities of proof reader- the proof readers should have good command over English grammar and vocabulary. He should find the mistakes on the sentence and also have the knowledge to correct them accurately. All kinds of errors in the copy should be taken out in this stage as this the last gate-keeping done to the done before getting approved for publication. Most of the companies appoint individuals that can be able to do prooireading on all types of documents pertaining to any topic, whether it be for a website, magazine, newspJper, brochure or a product writes up. General habit of reading enables the prooireader to check the matters more accurately. Apart from general knowledge the proof reader also needs to acquire special knowledge if he is working on a special field, specific product or service. Very high ievel of concentration is required from the proof reader. 4. Gopy writing: this is the process of writing advertising promotional materials. Copywriters are responsible for the text on brochures, billboards, websites, emails, advertisements, catalogs and so no. so, whatever we see as written form in any of these are known as copy. News copy writing is to disseminate information but other kind of copy writing leads to persuading the reader. ' Types of Copy- i) ad copy, ii) marketing copy, iii) PR copy, iv) technical materials, v) online copies, vi) ghost copies, vii) audio-visual copies, viii) broadcast copies ' How to prepare - As these are specialized type of writing they need a lot of research and reading before one starts writing the copies. lf the copies are client oriented then the need of the client and the demand of the subject has to blend properly. Understanding the market is also important. The targeted consumers for any product or service are to be identified beforehand. ' Principles of writing - i) do a lot of research before writing. Market research can also be done if needed, ii) Stick to the subject while writing, iii) choice of words is important as most of the copies are required to create an impression on the reader, iv) use action words while writing the copies. They are more effective and stays in the mind of the readers. ' Main features - the main features of a copy starts with the headline or the catch line. Secondly, the readers should be able to relate to the content of the copy. Emotional appeal is one of the key features for the success of a copy. Thirdly, it should generate some desire followed by demand (desire of purchasing or investing on something backed,by financial ability) in the market. The copy should get the message clearly to the mind of the reader. Twisted or heavy words are not encouraged whereas fun elements can be added to the copy. 5" Copy Writer: professionals who compose headings, sub-headings and body copy of advertisements, who compose press releases, brochures, catalogs, billboard write-ups, product literature and so on. ln today's world the copy writing industry provides a huge number of employment and is one of the biggest industries in the world now of $2.3 trillion. Usually copy writers are with the payroll of a company or an organization or agency. The copy writer is a part of the creative team. ln case of ad agency the copy writer is often tagged with a creative director or art director. For technical copy writing however the copy writer works in close quarters with different teams. For content writing a there can be copy writers who works as freelancers. - Qualities - some of the qualities that are must in a copy writer are as follows:a. ability to work under persure b. working with team and working independently as per requirement c. creative and imaginative with a good hold on language d. understanding and observing both client and market and catering to the requirement accordingly e. well aware about the other market players f. sound knowledge about mass media and how they work g. organized and has the ability to keep up with the deadlines - Duties & responsibilities . o . . Before meeting clients doing a research about the client Listening to the client's requirement Doing research Looking for the other market players and keeping track of the emerging trends . o o . lf required testing the product before working on it Checking copy before submitting it ln case of team work being an important support of the team The copy writer should have an eye for the detail as that helps in coming up with a good copy which can satisfy the client 6" Communication: communication is a two way process used for sending and receiving messages. lt involves five basic elements - a) sender, b) message, c) medium, d) receiver and e) feedback. The form of communication can either be Verbal, like talking to each other or giving a speech, or non-verbal like writing a letter or reading news from a newspaper. Communicition can be divided into four major parts - i. intrapersonal communication (the communication that goes on within an individual), ii. lnterpersonal communication (this can happen between two, three or four individuals like exchange of information ad opinion), iii. Group communication (five or more than five people who can assemble anywhere physically and is able to listen or communicate with the sender is group communication. ln this kind of communication physical presence is a pre-requisite. For example: - a classroom or a seminar), iv. mass communication (this involves mass i.e., public and mass media is needed to convey the message or information. For example: - radio or television news, books, magazines, websites, etc.) . Definition- communication has been defined in many ways. Though the contemporary period is referred to as the age of communication the process of communication has existed since the very beginning of the human civilization. The English word of communication is derived from the Latin word 'communis'which means common. Modern day communication encompasses a multitude of experiences, actions, and events, as well as a whole variety of happenings and meanings and technologies. 'Communication is the name we give to the countless ways that humans have of keeping in touch - not just words and music, pictures and print, nods and becks, postures and plumages; to every move that catches someone's eye and every sound that resonates upon another's ear.' . Scope & Functions- Communication is important both for an individual and also for the society. A person's need for communication is as strong as the basic needs of human beings. A communication should always clearly identify the subject scope of the communication. The subject scope is a specification of the information covered by the communication, lt has become a basic for the social existence and the feeling of commonality and togetherness. So the existence of human being can be clearly elaborated in the development of the communicative system. The scope of communication can be evaluated and analysed from different point of views. The dimensions can be social, educational, organizational, cultural, entertainment or integrated. The main functions of communication are to - inform, educate and entertain. ln the long run communication always leads to decision making, coordinating and persuading. However, the functions and scopes of communication always face barriers while functioning within the various levels of the society. 7. Mass Gommunication: this is a process of communication where the receivers are rnany or mass and the mass media are used to reach to the public or the large number of receivers. The term mass communication was coined along with mass media in the twentieth century" This became a new social phenomenon and a key feature of the modern society and popular democracy and industrialism was found. o Definition o Scope & Functions - This is the age of communication, especially mass communication. With the advent of new media and up-gradation of the conventional media smooth communication is an essential part of the modern society. The functions of mass communication is same as communication as a whole but with a little more perspective. The basic functions of mass communication are to - a. disseminates information, b. building opinions and discussion of opinions, c. cultural transmission through interaction, d. entertainment. - according to the Oxford dictionary mass communication is 'the imparting or exchanging of information on a large scale to a wide range of people'. Mass communication is the study of how individuals and entities relay information through mass media to large segments of the population at the same time. Theories - there are many theories prescribed by experts over time based on their research and study of society and application of communication and its various components in the society. Four such theories are discussed below hypodermic or bullet theory- The phrasing "hypodermic needle" or "bullet" is meant to give a mental image of the direct, strategic, and planned infusion of a message into an individual. But as research methodology became more highly developed, it became apparent that the media had selective influences on people. As the name implies, the bullet theory suggests the messages were thought to be like magic bullets that were shot directly into the receiver. The influence of media on individuals is immense. lt depends on many factors including individual psychological differences, membership in social categories, and patterns of social relationships that serve as alternative channels of communication individual theory- lndividual differences theory of mass communication proposes that each one of us has unique qualities that result in our reacting differently to media messages. ln other words, individuals respond differently to the mass media according to their psychological needs, and that individuals consume the mass media to satisfy those needs. Professor Melvin DeFluer and Sandra Ball-Rokeach say - lndividual differences perspective implies that messages contain particular stimulus attributes that have differential interaction with personality characteristics of audience members. This means that the members of an audience are very selective in what they read, listen to, or view from the media. democratic-participant- Democratic-participant theory was proposed in recognition of new media developments and of increasing criticism of the dominance of the main mass media by private or public monopolies. From the 1960's onwards call could be heard for alternative, grass-roots media, expressing the needs of citizens. The theory " ii) iii) iv) o i) supports the right to relevant local information, the right to answer back and the right to use the new means of communication for interaction and social action in small-scale settings of community, interest groups or subculture. Dennis Mceuail states that it is most difficult to formulate this theory partly because it lacks full legitimisation and incorporation into media institutions and partly because some of its tenets are already to be found in some of the other theories. Developmental- Development media theory was intended to recognize the fact that societies undergoing a transition from underdevelopment and colonialism to independence and better material conditions often lack the infrastructure, the money, the traditions, the professional skills and even the audiences needed to sustain media institutions comparable to those of the First world or Second world, in which the four theories could take root. The limited application of the four established theories of the press let to the emergence of the new media theory whose main task is to carry out development functions in the society through communication. Models - linear & non-linear models - Linear model - lt is a one way model to communicate with others. lt consists of the sender encoding a message and channeling it to the receiver in the presence of noise. ln this model there is no feedback which may allow for continues exchange of information. Non'linear model - this model is not based on a definite set of performance always. Unlike the linear model it is not like a straight line. lt has interference in different level and feedback is always a part of this type of models, ii) Lasswe// - Harold Dwight Lasswell, the American political scientist states that a convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions . Who . Says What . . To Whom . With what effect? ln Which Channel This model is about process of communication and its function to society, According to Lasswell there are three functions for communication (prescribed by him in 194g): 1. Surveillance of the environment 2" Correlation of components of society 3. Cultural i ii) transmission between generation Shannon & Weaver - ln 1948, Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer and Weaver was an American scientist both of them join together to write an article in "Bell System Technical Journal" called "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" and also called as "shannon-Weaver model of communication" 5s!r{4 &tgsp}'sn &s&ss $6',rr'3ridn S@tsWEutrq & AAA ,ti FEEOBACK $xxNt'lot*-WEnveR's M " ggEr- ar Col,lMUNtcATloN The effects oriented models or approaches to mass communication derive from this model. They conceived of communication composed of five essential parts plus noise. iv) Wilbur Schramm - in the year 1954 Wilbur Schramm prescribed the model circular model of communication, This model is also referred to as the Osgood and Schramm Circular Model. Schramm defined communication as "the sharing of information, ideas or attitude". He endorsed the Aristotelian principle that communication always requires at least three elements - source, message and destination. lnlerpreler For Schramm the encoding and decoding of the message are the most important point of the communication system. v) Westley & MacLean- ln 1957 Westley and Maclean's model of communication is proposed by Bruce Westley (1915-1990) and Malcolm S. Maclean Jr (1913-2001). Being one oi the creators of journalism studies, Westley served as a teacher at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, between 1946 and 1968. Malcolm was director of University of Journalism School (1967-74) and co founder of the University College at University of Minnesota. This model can be seen two contexts, interpersonal and mass communication. And the point of difference between interpersonal and mass communication is the feedback. ln interpersonal, the feedback is direct and fast. ln the mass, the feedback is indirect and slow. Westle v ancl bt :rcl-eil n's l\ifncle I nf ;;;. ;1, trt-k , $li|i4#ffi{ $ti(M$ $i**ltilfrlu \ Co rrrnru n i c irti o I r X1,X2, X3 and X4..."-are news articles or information, Feedback (f), Clients (A), Reader or Audience (B) and Gate Keeper (c) Vl)DeFleur- The theory De fleur model of communication is expanded version of Shannon and weaver model of communication. And also based on the "Westley & Maclean model of communication" describes the circular process of communication with feedback from the receiver. Shannon and Weaver model is a one way communication and they explain the role of noise in the communication process. Westley & Maclean model is a two way communication and for first time they introduced the important component called "Linear Feedback" in the communication model. De fleur combine these two models and creates new one called "De Fleur Model of Communication". Destination I I I Noise I I I DdStharidri Rereivei,,'',. Sor-irdeir. . Defleur Model of Mass Communication System Defleur's another important suggestion in this model is "Feedback Device". This feedback device is helps to analyse the target audience (as separate from the receivers). Here, all these receivers are not considering as a target audience because the target audience will make some kind of feedback which will helps to find the target audience by using feedback device. 8. Mass Media: ' Definition - The mass media are the tools or technologies that facilitate dissemination of information and entertainment to a vast number of receivers. These tools 'mediate' the messages. "Mass media" is a deceptively simple term consisting of a countless array of institutions and individuals who differ in purpose, scope, method, and cultural context including all forms of information communicated to large groups of people, from a handmade sign to an international news network, There is no standard for how large the audience needs to be before communication becomes "mass" communication. There are also no constraints on the type of information being presented. 'A mass medium' says Wilbur Schramm, 'is essentially a working group organized round some device for circulating the same message, at about the same time, to large number of people'" ln communication studies today, however, mass media has come to be a useful collective phrase, though it slurs over the distinction among the various media. - modern mass media largely informs, educates and entertains the mass. lt also helps in establishing smooth and fair connectivity. lt also integrates the mass at sometimes. Apart from these mass media is also used as the tool for advertising. 'Functions - Different types - i. ii. on Conventional or traditional mass media - newspapers, books, radio, television, film, journals, magazines, etc. New media - blogging, social networking, micro blogging, iptv, cell phones and so - Print Media and Electronic Media i. print media - newspaper, magazine, journals, advertisements, ii. electronic media iii. others - bitl boards or hoarding, tablos. - radio, television, film, web, cell phones (usage like citizen journalism) social networking, blogging, micro blogging, street corners, street theaters, jatra, etc. 9. Specialization in Reporting: specialized reporting is based on what beat is assigned to the reporter. Depending on the area of reporting there are some general and some special points that the reporter should keep in mind while covering his assignments. . o . o o . o Science Political Administration Crime Fashion Financial & Agriculture journalism Sports journalism 10. lnterpretative & lnvestigative reporting: a. interpretative reporting - lnterpretive (or interpretative)journalism goes beyond the basic facts of an event or topic to provide context, analysis, and possible consequences" lnterpretive journalists must have unusual familiarity with and understanding of a subject, and their work involves looking for patterns, motives, and influences that explain what they are reporting. Some experts are of the opinions that for 150 years, interpretive journalism has waxed and waned, but levels of interpretation have generally risen since the beginning of the twentieth century, at least in US journalism. ln other countries where news work developed primarily as a literary occupation, interpretation began and remained at the forefront. ln Latin America, southern Europe, Africa, and elsewhere, the main content occupying key positions in newspapers, for example, is always interpretive rather than straight chronicles. - nsws , which journalists in these regions consider mere b. investigative reporting - lnvestigative journalism is a form of journalism in which reporters deeply investigate a single topic of interest, such as serious crimes, political corruption, or corporate wrongdoing. An investigative journalist may spend months or years researching and preparing a report. lnvestigative journalism is a primary source of information. Most investigative journalism is conducted by newspapers, wire services, and freelance journalists. Practitioners sometimes use the terms "watchdog journalism" (though that has a broader meaning) or "accountability reporting". ' lmportance & Scope - both investigative and interpretative reporting has huge scope in today's journalism. With so much or scandal and corruptions there isalways story to chase and crack. On the other hand explaining the message underneath a story can be done by interpretative reporting. - Basic qualities i. sharp mind and clear thought process ii. having the ability to analyse a situation or a some information iii. keeping record of all the details iv. doing thorough background research v. asking the right kind of questions vi. cross checking facts from more than one source in case of investigative i vii. viii. ix" x. - reporting writing the facts while reporting detaching from the content emotionally and looking from a top view discussing different aspects with experienced people specially the editor if needed the detail of the source should not be reveal for security reasons planning & style a. investigative reporting ln this case the reporter is always trying to bring out something which someone is hiding. The steps to be followed are:- i. phase one - getting hint of the story and doing initial investigation, ii. phase two - getting clearance for doing the story and making a working plan for the story, iii. phase three - getting confirmation on the doubts and confirmation about the story, iv phase four - investigating and keeping records and cross checking, v phase five - writing the story telling it chronologically and sticking mosily to the facts" No comments should be done b. interpretative reporting - this type of reporting need a detailed amount of report. lt also needs experts' comments and views to substantiate a point that the reporter is trying to make with the story. Keeping records and cross checking to reach a probable interpretation of a fact is also required. Works on same or similar subject is a must read. While working on a report the journalist will always have to analyse the facts that are acquired through out the process. ln interpretative reporting the reporter often explains the inner meaning or the cause of certain things. For example:- a report on climatic shift will always explain with insights about the climatic conditions of planet earth. - Few major cases of investigative journalism xi. xii. - Watergate (international case study) - The Watergate scandal was a major potitical scandal that occurred in the United States in the 1970s as a result of the June 17 , 1972, break-in at the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C., and the Nixon administration's attempted cover-up of its involvement. This whole story was investigated, recorded and reported by two of the eminent journalists - Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward. Finally in 1974 President Nixon had to resign from his position just before he was about to run a second term in the oval office. Tihar (nilan case study) - ln lndia the ground breaking investigative reporting was done by Ashwini Sarin under the guidance of Mr. Arun Shourie. On April 18, 1979 Sharin got himself arrested and went inside the famous Tihar jail of the lndian capital. He investigated and gathered evidences for about three months before coming up with a whole story about how the jail operates; blowing the cover on all the misdeeds that went on inside those boundaries"