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Mesopotamia
HOW WRITING
BEGAN
WHEELIES
IN ANCIENT
SUMER
WHOLE CITIES
MADE OF CLAY
WOMEN IN TROUSERS AND
HANGING
OUT IN THE
HANGING
GARDENS
MEN IN SKIRTS
IN PARTNERSHIP WITH
mesopotamia_cover.indd 1
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2
Cradle of Civilization
In the heart of modern-day Iraq, between
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, lies a dry,
flat, hot plain. It offers little to attract a
casual tourist. But buried under sandy
mounds on this vast plain are the remains
of Mesopotamia, “the land between two
rivers.” Scholars call Mesopotamia “the
cradle of civilization.” It was there that
cities first developed into civilizations:
human communities with well-organized
societies, economies, and political and religious systems.
Long before the cities, however, bands of
humans searched the plain for plants and
animals to eat. About 12,000 years ago,
some of these hunters and gatherers discovered that the seeds they had been eating could be planted to grow more food.
These people began to settle in villages,
growing crops and domesticating animals.
Some of the first permanent settlements
were at the foot of the mountains east and
north of Mesopotamia. When the soil was
d CIVILIZATION IN MESOPOTAMIA
began with the Sumerians,
who started building cities in
southern Mesopotamia around
3500 BCE. The Sumerians
invented an early form of
writing called cuneiform.
Around 2350 BCE, Sargon
Babylon, lay northwest of
Sumer on the Euphrates
River. The Babylonians created a 12-month calendar.
Babylon was conquered by the
Assyrian Empire, which arose
in northern Mesopotamia
along the Tigris River. The
the Great conquered the
Sumerian city-states. The vast
territory ruled by Sargon’s
central government, with
all its varied people, made
up Akkad, Mesopotamia’s
first empire. Next came the
Babylonian Empire; its capital,
C.
4500 BCE:
The pottery-making Ubaid people
settle southern
Mesopotamia.
They develop irrigation.
C.
3100 BCE:
The Sumerians
invent cuneiform
writing, making
record-keeping
possible.
C.
2350 BCE:
The Akkadian
king Sargon the
Great conquers
and unifies the
city-states of
Sumer.
Assyrians used chariots in
battle and excelled at warfare.
Eventually, Mesopotamia came
under the rule of the Persians,
who controlled much of the
region for about 1,000 years.
1115 BCE:
The Assyrian
Empire arises
in northern
Mesopotamia.
MESOPOTAMIA’S ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
C.
3500 BCE:
Walled Sumerian
city-states
emerge in
southern
Mesopotamia.
mesopotamia_2-3.indd 2
C.
2600 BCE:
Gilgamesh is
king of the
Sumerian city of
Uruk.
1792 BCE:
Babylon grows
powerful under
King Hammurabi,
who creates a
code of laws for
his realm.
811 BCE:
Queen Semiramis
rules Assyria.
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3
worn out, the farmers moved onto the
plain, where the soil was nourished by the
annual overflow of the rivers. There was
little rain, so farmers needed to channel
river water to irrigate the fields. Irrigation
projects required cooperation, planning,
u TODAY, THE
once-flourishing cities of
Mesopotamia are
reduced to mounds
of brick rising from
the arid soil, like
this palace from
Ur, an ancient
Sumerian city. Ur
was surrounded
by branches, or
tributaries, of the
Euphrates River.
689 BCE:
The Assyrians
conquer Babylon.
612 BCE:
The Chaldeans
and Medes sack
the Assyrian
capital Nineveh,
ending the
Assyrian Empire.
mesopotamia_2-3.indd 3
and leadership.
Villages grew into cities and then citystates, which sometimes warred with one
another, following their leaders’ call. For
thousands of years, civilizations rose and
fell on the plain of Mesopotamia.
Over time, the
waters of the
Euphrates have
shifted to the west;
today, the river is
10 miles from the
city’s ruins.
605 BCE:
The Chaldean
king
Nebuchadnezzar
II rebuilds
Babylon.
539 BCE:
The Persian king
Cyrus conquers
Babylon.
u MESOPOTAMIA
is part of an area
called the Fertile
Crescent. Some of
the earliest civilizations developed
here, along the
banks of the Tigris
and Euphrates.
Both rivers have
their sources in
the mountains
of northeastern
Turkey and drain
into the Persian
Gulf. This map
shows the area
today.
r MESOPOTAMIA
had few natural
resources; stone,
wood, and metal
were scarce. There
was, however,
abundant clay.
Buildings were
constructed of
mud bricks, writing
was done on clay
tablets, and the
earliest sculptures
were made from
clay.
BILL
OF SALE
WATER
PITCHER
HOUSE MODEL
VASE
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Sumerians,
Babylonians,
Assyrians,
and
More
The history of Mesopota-
mia is measured in millenniums rather than centuries. The first cities
developed in the south
around 3500 BCE. For the
next 3,000 years, kingdoms rose and fell, empires expanded and contracted, and outsiders
conquered and were repelled. During that time,
three dominant civilizations held center stage at
various times: the Sumerians, the Babylonians, and
the Assyrians. In brief,
here are their stories.
MAGNIFICENT
MESOPOTAMIANS
Hammurabi took the throne of Babylon in 1792 BCE. A skilled statesman and warrior, he united rival
kingdoms and made Babylon the
center of power. He claimed that the
gods told him to write a set of laws,
to bring justice to the land, so “the
strong should not harm
the weak.” This was
the Code of Hammurabi. One of its
laws said, “If a
man destroy the
eye of another
man, they shall
destroy his eye.”
Another said, “If
a son strike his father, they shall cut
off his fingers.”*
*From The Code of Hammurabi,
King of Babylon by Robert
Francis Harper, ed. University of
Chicago Press, 1904.
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SUMER
3500–2006
Sumerians use mats to dry the marshes
BCE
The first civilization developed in
Sumer, the marshy area at the
southern end of the fertile plain
between the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers. Over time, the Sumerians
converted their open villages into
walled cities. As cities expanded their
control, they became city-states
ruled by strong leaders. One such
leader, Sargon the Great, from Akkad,
conquered all of Mesopotamia, ruling
from c. 2334 to 2279 BCE. Sumerians
developed a system of writing that
could be used for different languages, enabling people to keep records
and transmit knowledge. They also
developed metalworking and were
early users of the wheel. Sumer,
however, became weakened by
constant warfare. It was overrun
by invaders in 2006 BCE, and the
region splintered into small
kingdoms.
This is a statue of King Gudea,
who developed long-distance
trade in timber and metal objects.
BABYLONIA
The city of Babylon inherited the
culture of Sumer. Under Hammurabi
(1792–1750 BCE), it became the seat of
a strong central government and a
great cultural and religious center.
However, during the following centuries, Babylon was often invaded –
by the Kassites and the Assyrians, for
example. In 612 BCE, Babylon was dominated by Chaldeans. They, along with
the Medes, crushed the Assyrian Empire. Chaldean king Nebuchadnezzar II
(ruled 605–562 BCE) rebuilt Babylon into
the greatest city in the world. Babylonians created the 60-minute hour, a
calendar with 12 lunar months, and
complex multiplication tables. Cyrus,
king of Persia, conquered Babylonia in
539 BCE, ending its glory days forever.
1792–539
BCE
Ishtar Gate, site of grand processions
A lion adorns
a wall at the
entrance to
Babylon.
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ASSYRIA
1115–612
Warlike Assyrians are busy at work in a military camp
BCE
In hilly northern Mesopotamia, the small
city-state of Assur slowly grew to become
the powerful kingdom of Assyria. Using
chariots, battering rams, and armored
horses, the Assyrians conquered Babylon
in 689 BCE, as well as other independent
states. They uprooted the people they conquered, enslaved them, and forced them
into labor. These prisoners built the cities
of Nineveh and Nimrud. The cities featured
ornate palaces and temples and magnificent sculptures. Their mighty walls had
gateways flanked by winged bulls or lions.
They even had sewage systems. Kings
Tiglath-Pileser III, Sennacherib, and Ashurbanipal II made the empire grow and
opened trade links. However, in 612 BCE,
Chaldean people from southern Babylonia,
who had gained control of Babylon, joined
the Medes people from Iran and sacked
the capital Nineveh. The Assyrian Empire
never recovered.
Ashurnasirpal II
captured wild
animals and
brought them to
the city of Nimrud
for display in the
world’s first zoo.
Bronze statue of
Hammurabi, ruler
of Babylonia
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Day-to-Day
Life
The ruins of Mesopotamia
reveal more about kings
and battles than about the
ordinary citizens who
lived there. Still, artifacts
and ancient writings tell
us something about the
day-to-day lives of the
people. What was it like to
live in Mesopotamia?
CITY ARTISANS
included potters,
carpenters, metal
workers, leather
workers, basket
weavers, and
jewelers. They
made both necessities and luxury
items.
l MESOPOTAMIAN
cylinder seals
combined beauty
and usefulness.
Carved in stone,
they produced
a raised image
when rolled on
moist clay. The
image could be
used to mark a
merchant’s shipment or stamp an
official document.
d HOUSES WERE
made of the only
abundant building material, mud
bricks. Square or
rectangular, the
houses were constructed around
a central courtyard. Cities were
mazes of narrow,
winding streets.
Some had drainage systems, and
some homes even
had flush toilets.
Trash, however,
was thrown into
the street until it
piled up so high
that steps had to
be cut down
toward doorways.
STIR
MESOPOTAMIAN FASHION
r EARLY GARMENTS
were knee- to
calf-length skirts,
worn by women
and men. Later, a
shawl-like piece
of wool was
draped over one
shoulder.
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l IN THE HOME,
women spun
sheep’s wool
with hand-spindles. The thread
was then woven
into cloth, both
for the family’s
use and for extra
income.
r SURPLUS CROPS
and cloth were traded for wood, gold,
silver, and other
natural resources
Mesopotamia
lacked. Traders
traveled far, including to the African
kingdoms of Egypt
and Kush. Wood
from Lebanon is
being unloaded
from this ship.
r SONS OF WEALTHY
families went to
school from age
six, mainly to learn
to read and write
cuneiform, the
wedge-shaped
writing inscribed
on clay tablets.
By copying texts,
WORKER
STIRRING MILK
u OUTSIDE OF CITIES,
farmers raised
cattle, sheep,
goats, and pigs.
These animals provided wool, meat,
skins for leather,
and dairy products
such as milk and
butter. Farmers
also grew wheat,
barley, and millet in their fields.
mesopotamia_6-7.indd 7
STRAINING
MILK
They planted fig,
pomegranate, and
other fruit trees.
Their gardens were
full of cucumbers,
peas, onions, garlic, lettuce, lentils,
turnips, and
chickpeas.
STOOL
1
2
3
4
5
CHURNING
STRAINED CREAM
INTO BUTTER
COWSHED
they also learned
about animals and
plants, mathematMILKING
A COW
l AT THE TOP OF
Mesopotamian
society were
1 kings and their
families. Next
came 2 large
landowners,
high-ranking government officials,
military leaders,
and priests. The
next rung of society held
ics, and literature.
Girls learned
cooking, spinning,
and household
management from
their mothers or
from the family’s
enslaved servants.
Some were taught
cuneiform at home.
CALF
3 merchants,
scribes, and craftspeople. Below
them were
4 farmers, hunters, and herders. At
the lowest level of
society were
5 enslaved people
– military captives
or citizens who had
fallen into debt.
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Gods and Demons
Sumerians, Babylonians, and Assyrians
shared the same basic religious beliefs
and gods, or deities, though the names
were sometimes different. They believed that human beings were created
to serve the gods. Gods looked and acted like people but had supernatural
powers. Spirits (good and bad) and demons also affected the lives of humans.
u MESOPOTAMIANS
were buried with
their special possessions. In the
royal tombs at Ur,
excavators found
jewelry (above),
u MANY MESOPOTAMIAN myths are
echoed in the
Bible. One tells of
the gods’ decision to destroy
the world with a
great flood, like
mesopotamia_8-9.indd 8
r TEMPLES, CALLED
ziggurats, dominated Mesopotamian
cities. Ziggurats
were stepped, like
some pyramids,
and were several
stories tall or taller.
Babylon’s sevenstory ziggurat,
called Etemenanki,
is thought to be
the Tower of
Babel referred to in
the Bible.
pottery, weapons, and makeup
paints with the
tools for applying them. There
was also evidence
that servants had
been buried alive
with their masters,
perhaps after
being drugged or
poisoned. This may
have been done
so that servants
could serve their
masters in the
afterlife. In the picture to the right, a
dead nobleman is
being placed on a
stretcher, on which
he will be carried
to his grave.
the story of Noah
and the Ark. One
god warned a
Sumerian king
and gave him
instructions for
building a large
boat to carry his
family and livestock. This myth
may include some
history. Scientists
have found evidence of flooding
that destroyed
large areas of
Mesopotamia
more than once.
THIS LITTLE GOD
IS HOLDING A
BUILDING PEG
TO SECURE THE
FOUNDATION OF
A TEMPLE
DEITIES ALLEY
ASTARTE,
GODDESS
OF LOVE
ABU, GOD OF
VEGETATION
ISHTAR,
GODDESS OF
LOVE
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OD OF
TION
9
SICK PATIENT
FATHER
PRIESTS HELPING
TO CURE THE
PATIENT
GULA,
GODDESS OF
MEDICINE
u MESOPOTAmians
believed in ghosts
and demons.
Ghosts of those
who had not
received a proper
burial might haunt
the living. The
demon Pazuzu
(above) brought
mesopotamia_8-9.indd 9
sandstorms
from the
desert. Other
demons lurked in
dark corners or
carried disease.
Some good spirits
acted as guardians
and helped people
to ward off evil
spirits.
u ORDINARY PEOPLE
and priests offered
food and incense
to the gods during
special festivals. In
Babylonian times,
the most important
celebration was
an 11-day new
year’s festival. It
was held near the
spring equinox,
a time when the
gods were thought
to set people’s
fates for the next
year. Each day of
the festival brought
special ceremonies, including one
in which a
beheaded sheep
magically absorbed
the evil of the old
year. The sheep
was then thrown
into the river so
that the evil could
float away with it.
u TO INTERPRET THE
will of the gods,
priests called
Baru examined
all sorts of signs,
including the
movements of
stars and planets,
weather, dreams,
and the behavior
and organs of
animals. This
clay model of a
sheep’s liver told
the Baru what to
look for in various places on the
liver in order to
foretell the future.
MAGNIFICENT
MESOPOTAMIANS
Sargon the Great ruled from 2334
to 2279 BCE. He became the first
empire builder by uniting northern
and southern Mesopotamia. A
legend tells that, as a baby, he was
set adrift in a reed basket
and found by someone
who took him to the
royal court, where he
later rose to power.
Similar stories were told
about other Near Eastern
leaders, including the
biblical Moses.
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The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
Nebuchadnezzar II, ruler of
Babylonia from 605 to 562
bce, brought the capital city
of Babylon back to its former
grandeur – and then some!
The Assyrians had destroyed the city around 689
bce, but Nebuchadnezzar rebuilt it. He decorated temples
and palaces with lavish gold
and silver ornamentation,
making it the most magnificent city of the day. His most
mesopotamia_10-11.indd 10
noted contribution was a
series of terraced gardens
known as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Kept lush
and green by a complex irrigation system, these gardens were considered one of
the Seven Wonders of the
World. Nebuchadnezzar
may have built them to
please his wife. She missed
the forested mountains of
Media, her homeland.
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mesopotamia_10-11.indd 11
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12
Accomplishments of the Mesopotamians
Long before the modern world ever knew
about the splendors of Mesopotamia, it
had benefited from the accomplishments
of this long-lost world. The Mesopotamians were the first people known to
study the skies, use the arch or the wheel,
compile laws, and keep written records.
Their legacy was passed down to us by the
people they conquered and by the people
who conquered them. Here are some of
their achievements.
u DO YOU LIKE SKATEboards, rollerblades,
and bicycles? We
wouldn’t have any of
them without the
Mesopotamians,
who were the first
to use the wheel
l MESOPOTAMIAN
builders were the
first to use the
arch, an advance
that allowed doorways and roofs to
hold more weight.
for transportation
(perhaps inspired
by their pottery
wheels). Wheels
helped animals
pull heavy loads,
and they made the
battle chariot a formidable weapon.
KING SENNACHERIB
WATCHES
ROL
r A HUMAN-HEADED,
winged, four-ton
bull sculpture is
moved from a raft
onto a sledge. It is
pulled uphill by a
chain of captives,
over logs, or rollers, that serve as
wheels.
u THIS BOARD GAME
was played by
Mesopotamians,
but the rules have
not been found.
The 4,500-yearold clay, wheeled
animal at right was
most likely a toy.
mesopotamia_12-13.indd 12
BUCKET GANG
KEEPS ROLLERS
WET
l THIS MESOPOtamian is carefully studying
a palm tree.
Mesopotamians
were great list
makers, compiling
descriptive lists of
plants, animals,
and minerals.
So,
you want
anchovies
with
that ?
r MESOPOTAMIANS
were the first to
use baked-brick
ovens, not pits of
hot coals. Some
ovens had cooking
ranges for boiling
and frying food.
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13
d THE ASSYRIANS
were probably the
first to develop
an armored “car”
to use in battle.
The battering ram
smashed a hole in
a city’s wall, while
archers in the car’s
tower fought off
those defending
the city.
u ASSYRIANS USED
inflatable animal
skins as personal
floats to help them
cross a river, either
to escape an
enemy or to attack
one.
r THIS LENS WAS
made by Assyrians.
It is the earliest
known example
of glass used for
magnification.
ROLLER
r MUCH OF OUR
modern number
system is based
on the number
10. It probably
goes back to
people counting on their 10
fingers. The
Mesopotamians
used this decimal
system and a
more complex
one built around
the base of 60.
That one is
reflected today in
how we measure
seconds, minutes,
and hours, and
also the degrees
in a circle.
Mesopotamians
So,
you want
anchovies
with
that ?
Which of the
accomplishments of
the Mesopotamians
do you think is most
important?
mesopotamia_12-13.indd 13
u MESOPOTAMIANS
were the first
chemists. They
used natural materials to make such
useful items as
soap, herbal medicines, and dyes. By
studying the soil
and sand used in
pottery-making, they
learned to make
glass. They also
discovered that copper and tin could be
combined to make
a stronger metal,
bronze.
MAGNIFICENT
MESOPOTAMIANS
were also the first
to use place value
in a number system and the first
to invent a symbol
that indicates nothing, or zero.
l MESOPOTAMIANS
recorded the positions
of bright stars. They
named constellations and divided the
sky into 12 sections,
each named after a
nearby constellation.
Our names for the 12
signs of the zodiac are
based on Latin and
Greek translations of
Mesopotamian names.
Mesopotamian
astronomers may have
recorded the earliest
sightings of Halley’s
Comet.
After her husband died (around 811
BCE), Queen Semiramis ruled the Assyrian
Empire until her son was old enough
to take the throne. Her husband had
destroyed Babylon in
a military campaign.
She restored it to its
former magnificence.
Semiramis extended the
empire as far south as
the Arabian Peninsula,
and north to Turkey.
Some people think
she invented trousers,
which were useful for traveling in comfort
on military campaigns. They also made
it hard for an enemy to see if a horseback
rider was male or female.
lu THE SUMERIANS
probably invented
stringed musical instruments,
such as the harp
and lyre. Burial
sites at Ur contain
beautifully carved
instruments,
evidence of their
popularity.
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14
The Legendary Gilgamesh . . .
Little is known about the
real Gilgamesh, a Sumerian
who ruled the city-state of
Uruk, probably around
2600 BCE. Still, he is possibly the most famous of all
Mesopotamians. He is the
hero of stories first told in
the markets of Mesopotamia
and later written down as
one of the world’s first epics. Twelve tablets that tell
parts of the tale were found
at Nineveh in the library of
the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. In these tales, Gilgamesh is half god and half
man. He is a great builder
and warrior, but he’s not a
perfect human being!
GILGAMESH MEETS
ENKIDU
When Gilgamesh’s
people complain
to the gods that
he works them
too hard building
walls around the
city, the gods create the wild man
Enkidu to challenge
Gilgamesh. Enkidu
and Gilgamesh
fight.
GILGAMESH
TAMES A
LION CUB
THE DEATH OF ENKIDU
One adventure
of Enkidu and
Gilgamesh involves
Gilgamesh’s
attempt to make
a name for
himself by chal-
lenging Humbaba,
a guardian-demon.
Humbaba pleads for
his life, but Enkidu
kills him. The gods
decide Enkidu must
die. Gilgamesh
mourns his friend.
GILGAMESH SEEKS
IMMORTALITY
Gilgamesh travels
across the waters
of death to speak
to the wise man
Utnapishtim, the
only human to have
escaped death.
Utnapishtim tells
Gilgamesh the story
of the flood, in which
the gods saved him
and his family.
He challenges
Gilgamesh to stay
awake for six days
and seven nights.
Gilgamesh fails.
*
*From The Epic of Gilgamesh translated by N. K. Sandars.
Penguin Books, 1960.
*
Finally, Gilgamesh
throws Enkidu.
The wild man is
impressed, and
they become
friends.
As Gilgamesh prepares to return to
Uruk, Utnapishtim
offers him a final
secret. It’s a plant
called “The-OldMan-Will-Be-
Made-Young.”
Gilgamesh finds the
plant, but a serpent
carries it away.
Thus, Gilgamesh is
destined to die a
mortal death.
*
mesopotamia_14-15.indd 14
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15
. . . and the Origins of Writing
It is said that “history begins at
Sumer” because history is the
written record of events, and
around 3100 BCE the Sumeri-
ans invented writing. Of course,
they didn’t start by writing history.
Their earliest writing kept track of
business transactions.
SMALL CLAY TOKENS, PROBABLY
symbolizing items such as grain
or sheep, were an early form of a
bill that went with shipments. The
tokens were put into clay spheres.
The spheres had cylinder seals
rolled over them to show records.
r WITH WRITING
came the desire
to send a letter.
In Mesopotamia,
that could
be done! The
Mesopotamians
invented the
earliest example
of a postal
envelope. A
letter was written on a small
clay tablet and
l SINCE MESOPOtamia had few
trees for making
paper, writing was
scratched on clay
tablets. This chart
enclosed in a clay
envelope with the
name and address
of the recipient.
shows how
cuneiform writing developed,
from early pictographs (picture
writing) to later
symbols.
MAGNIFICENT
MESOPOTAMIANS
Enheduanna, daughter of Sargon
the Great, learned to read
and write at an early age.
When she was a teenager,
her father made her high
priestess to Nanna, the
moon god of Sumer. She
held the position for 25
years, expressing her religious feelings in poems.
Besides penning a series of
43 hymns to the temples
of Sumer and Akkad, she
wrote a cycle of poetry to
the moon goddess Inanna.
Enheduanna is the first author to
be known by name.
r THE BABYLONIAN
map of the world
is the earliest
known world
map. A copy
is shown here.
Made 2,700 years
ago, it shows the
Euphrates River
mesopotamia_14-15.indd 15
(parallel lines in
the circle), crossed
by Babylon (top
rectangle in the
circle), and nearby
countries (small
circles).
r ASSYRIAN KING
Ashurbanipal
(668–627 BCE)
founded the first
national library, at
Nineveh. Clay tablets were stored on
shelves in baskets.
Catalogs were
prepared that listed
the contents and
locations of the
various baskets.
3/10/17 4:05 PM
16
How We Know What We Know
When Babylon fell to the Persian king
Cyrus in 539 BCE, Mesopotamia’s glory
days came to an end. As the centuries
passed, people remembered less and less
of Mesopotamia’s achievements. Onceglorious cities were buried in the sands.
Cuneiform was replaced by other
types of writing. Ancient Greek historical
writing and the Old Testament kept alive
an awareness that Assyria
and Babylon had existed. But
Sumer had died out long before
u IN 1811, BRITish business agent
Claudius Rich, stationed in Baghdad,
visited the ruins of
Babylon. He surveyed the site,
u FROM 1922 TO
1934, Sir Charles
Leonard Woolley led
a joint excavation
team from the British Museum and the
mesopotamia_16-17.indd 16
made sketches,
and dug up cuneiform tablets. This
is considered the
beginning of
Mesopotamian
archaeology.
University of Pennsylvania. Its goal
was to explore the
ancient city of Ur.
Woolley did some
remarkable detective work when he
discovered pieces
of gold near a hole
in the ground. He
poured plaster into
the hole, and it
hardened in the
space, which had
been left by the decaying wood of a
harp. The plaster
cast made possible
this reconstruction
of the harp.
ur PAUL-EMILE
Botta became
French consul at
Mosul in the Ottoman (Turkish)
Empire in 1843.
He swore to find
the lost cities of
Assyria. While excavating at Khorsabad, he uncovered the remains
of the great palace of Sargon II.
Later, Englishman
Austen Henry Layard unearthed
palace treasures,
such as this
winged bull.
these later civilizations. It was
completely forgotten.
The Persian rulers were followed by the
Greeks, the Arabs, and the Turks. When
Britain defeated Turkey in World War I,
the land became part of the British Empire
and was given the new name of Iraq. The
Arab natives of Iraq fought for independence, which they won in 1932. More
than a century before that, however, scholars and adventurers had begun to rediscover Mesopotamia.
l AN ENERGETIC
scholar, Gertrude
Bell had the job of
controlling archaeological digs in Iraq
during British rule
of the area. She
granted permits
only for single sites
with well-defined
limits. Her work put
an end to random
treasure hunting.
l IN 1877,
French diplomat
Ernest de Sarzec
was assigned to
the port of Basra, which is at
the head of the
Persian Gulf.
Alerted by an official to an interesting site called
Telloh, Sarzec
decided to explore. Between
1877 and 1878,
he found many
inscribed tablets
and cylinder
seals. Sarzec
had discovered
the remains of a
Sumerian city. At
the time, the
very existence of
a Sumerian
culture was
questioned by
some scholars.
3/10/17 4:08 PM
17
u In 1835,
British soldier Henry Rawlinson risked
his life many times.
He was studying
writings 300 feet
up a cliff face in
Behistun, Persia
(left). By comparing
writing in three languages – Old Persian, Elamite, and
Babylonian – he
eventually broke
the code. His work
enabled later scholars to read Akkadian cuneiform and
thus Sumerian.
u Until Iraq’s
former leader Saddam Hussein began
a project to drain
the marshes near
the Persian Gulf,
Marsh Arabs lived
there in homes
made of reeds,
much like Mesopotamia’s earliest residents.
mesopotamia_16-17.indd 17
3/10/17 4:08 PM
18
Activities
WRITE A
NARRATIVE
Imagine that you are a reporter in ancient Sumer. A
Sumerian has built the first wheeled cart. Compose
a narrative story announcing this innovation. Invent
details: Tell your readers who built the cart and how that
person expects the invention to affect people’s lives.
CREATE AN ADVERTISEMENT
Suppose you are a Mesopotamian trader.
Choose something that you trade and create an
advertisement for your business. Your ad must
help persuade people to buy the goods you are
selling. Provide details to convince them.
Mesopotamia_18-19.indd 18
3/10/17 4:09 PM
19
MAKE CONNECTIONS WITH THESE RELATED TITLES
Archaeology
Language
Ancient Egypt
Understanding the daily lives of ancient
people is the driving force behind
archaeology. The pottery, art, tools,
and ruins early civilizations left behind
provide a window into their habits and
cultures. Learn all about the essential
tasks of archaeologists, from mapping
a site and sifting dirt to using brushes
to unearth delicate artifacts.
Language is more than just the words
and sounds we use to communicate.
The study of language helps us understand our past. From ancient hieroglyphs and the first papyrus scrolls to
sign language and computer programming, language has long been at the
center of human society.
Pyramids, pharaohs, mummies, and
gods: This once-powerful civilization
left behind breathtaking monuments
and priceless treasures. Discover the
people and practices that make Ancient
Egypt so alluring to the historians who
have uncovered the mysteries of this
ancient civilization.
CALIFORNIA
STANDARDS
HSS 6.2 Students analyze the geographic, political, economic, religious, and
social structures of the early civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Kush.
6.2.1 Locate and describe the major river
systems and discuss the physical settings
that supported permanent settlement and
early civilizations. 6.2.2 Trace the development of agricultural techniques that permitted the production of economic surplus
and the emergence of cities as centers
of culture and power. 6.2.3 Understand
the relationship between religion and the
social and political order in Mesopotamia
and Egypt. 6.2.4 Know the significance of
Hammurabi’s Code. 6.2.9 Trace the evolution of language and its written forms.
LEARN MORE ONLINE!
• The region once known as
Mesopotamia is a stretch of land
along and between two large rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates.
• In Sumer, city-states emerged as
centers of culture and power. Each
city was surrounded by a wall protecting it from enemies.
Mesopotamia_18-19.indd 19
• In Mesopotamia, religion and
kingship were intertwined.
Mesopotamians believed in many
different gods – a religious system
known as polytheism.
Historical and Social Sciences
Analysis Skills:
Chronological and Spatial Thinking
3. Students use a variety of maps and
documents to identify physical and cultural
features of neighborhoods, cities, states,
and countries and to explain the historical
migration of people, expansion and disintegration of empires, and the growth of
economic systems.
• Mesopotamians created technology
used in every area of life. Their
paved roads made travel easier.
3/10/17 4:10 PM
hmhco.com
Editor: Jennifer Dixon
Art Direction: Hopkins/Baumann,
Brobel Design
Designers: Ian Brown, Ed Gabel,
David Ricculli, Jeremy Rech
Photo Research: Ted Levine,
Elisabeth Morgan
Activities Writer: Marjorie Frank
Proofreader: Paula Glatzer
Fact-Checker: Nayda Rondon, Amy
McIlwaine
Author: Lois Markham, James Waller
Author Team Lead: Amy K. Hughes
President and CEO: Ted Levine
Chairman and Founder: Mark Levine
GRADE 6 TITLES
World’s Early People
Ancient India
Mesopotamia
Indian Empires
Ancient Egypt
Ancient China
Archaeology
Early Romans
Language
Roman Empire
Ancient Hebrews
Christianity and Rome’s Legacies
Early Greeks
Olmec and Maya
Greece’s Golden Age
Civil Rights
Ancient Persia
On the Cover: Ur-Ningirsu, Prince of Lagash. Alabaster figure, c. 2100 bce. Art Resource:
Erich Lessing.
Picture Credits: Alamy: Chronicle: p.2 bottom center (Gilgamesh), p.17 (Darius
monument); Interfoto: p.2 middle right (Sargon the Great), p.9 bottom right (Sargon
the Great); Lanmas: p.2 middle right (Assyrian palace); Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo
Library: p.2 bottom right (Semiramis); Walker Art Library: p.3 middle left (Assyrians
besieging a city); Mary Evans Picture Library: p.3 bottom left (Nineveh), p.16 upper right
(Nineveh), p.16 bottom center (Gertrude Bell); North Wind Picture Archives: p.3 center
(Ancient Babylon); bilwissedition Ltd. & Co. KG: p.3 bottom center (King Cyrus); www.
BibleLandPictures.com: p.4 bottom left (Code of Hammurabi); Luis Dafos: p.19 bottom
(Tigris River). Art Resource: Erich Lessing: p.2 left (Ubaid), p.3 lower right (bill of
sale), p.3 lower right (lion-rhyton), p.3 bottom center (vase with goat), p.3 bottom right
(house model), p.6 bottom right (male figure), p.7 upper right (cedar transport), p.8
bottom center (figure of a god), p.8 bottom right (Ishtar, goddess of love), p.8 bottom
right (goddess Astarte), p.9 bottom left (goddess Gula), p.9 bottom left (Pazuzu), p.12
bottom left (24 squares of Ur), p.13 top left (Ashurnazirpal assaults a city), pp.12–13
bottom (Ashurnazirpal II in Nimrud), p.13 middle right (Assaradon), p.13 bottom right
(the music-stele), p.12 bottom center (studying palm tree), pp.14–15 center (Gilgamesh
tames the lion), p.15 bottom center (Babylonian map), Musee de Louvre, Paris: p.15 top
center (clay tokens), Erich Lessing: p.15 bottom right (King Ashurbanipal); Scala: p.4
center (Gudea, king of Lagash), p.7 (milking scene), p.13 top right (bronze chariot),
p.8 bottom right (Abu); British Museum, London: p.5 right (Ashurnasirpal II), p.6
left (greenstone seal impression), p.16 upper center (winged bull), p.13 bottom right
(queen’s lyre); The Morgan Library & Museum: p.6 left (seals and tablets); Werner
Forman: p.8 upper left (Mesopotamian jewelry); SEF: p.12 top right (Sumerian wheel),
p.18 top (Sumerian wheel); HIP: p.15 top right (cuneiform tablet and envelope).
Biblioteque National, Paris: p.16 lower right (Ernest de Sarzec). Bridgeman Images:
Look and Learn: p.2 bottom center (King Hammurabi); Louvre, Paris, France: p.7 top
right (Elamite woman spinning), p.7 middle right (cuneiform script); Biasioli: pp.8–9 top
(Etemenanki); Roger Payne: p.15 middle right (Enheduana). British Museum, London:
p.13 top center (Assyrian lens). Getty Images: G. Dagli Orti: p.2 middle left (cuneiform
tablet), p.4 bottom right (King Hammurabi); PHAS: p.12 middle left (Ishtar Gate); De
Agostini/Archivio J. Lange: p.16 middle left (ruins at Babylon). Granger Collection:
p.2 bottom left (Sumerian walled city); p.6 bottom left (palace and Khorsabad); p.8
bottom left (Noah’s Ark); p.9 middle right (clay model of a sheep’s liver); p.12 bottom
left (toy animal); p.16 bottom left (bull’s head); p.17 top right (Henry Rawlinson). Mary
Evans Picture Library: p.13 bottom center (heavens). National Geographic Creative:
H.M. Herget: p.4 lower right (Ishtar Gate), p.4 upper center (drying marsh land), p.5
top (Assyrian military camp), pp.6–7 top (making cylinder seals), p.8 right (burial),
p.9 top right (priests stand beside sick boy), pp.12–13 center (men haul a statue in
Nineveh). Science Source: George Gerster: p.3 top left (palace at Ur), p.17 center middle
(Marsh Arabs). Shutterstock: jsp: p.4 bottom (lion on a Babylonian wall); khd: p.12 top
right (lion hunt); Kamira: p.13 center (clay tablet); Fejas: p.18 bottom (vase cartoon);
Vladimir Zhoga: p.19 top center (Japanese hieroglyphs); LuFeeTheBear: p.19 top left
(archaeologist); JJ_SNIPER: p.19 top right (ancient Egyptian statue).
Original Illustrations:
Acme Design Company: Inflatable Skins, p.13; Pictograms to Cuneiforms, p.15.
Gary Hallgren: Map, pp.4–5; Mesopotamian Society Diagram, p.7.
Michael Kline Illustration: Cartoons, Cover, p.9; Map, p.3; The Story of Gilgamesh, p.14.
Wood Ronsaville Harlin, Inc.: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, pp.10–11.
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