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Summary, Synthesis and Report of Project Coordination
Rehabilitation of important migratory waterbird sites, which have
been degraded by invasive aquatic weeds.
A large number of wetlands (including many of international importance to migratory
waterbirds), particularly in tropical Africa, have been degraded by invasions of species of
aquatic weeds. Such weed infestations greatly affect the ecological character of these
wetlands. The impacts on migratory waterbirds may occur either through the direct removal or
alteration of their habitats, or by effects on the food chain.
In addition to AEWA, the CBD, Ramsar Convention, and CMS have all given a high priority to
issue of invasive species of aquatic weeds. IUCN has been strongly involved in this issue
worldwide and also in Africa.
This report describes work done under a contract with the Secretariat of the African-Eurasian
Waterbird Agreement (AEWA), funded by the Government of the United Kingdom and the
Secretariat of AEWA, and administered by the IUCN Environmental Law Centre (ELC). The
work was undertaken by IUCN’s East African Regional Programme (EARP) and IUCN’s
Regional Office for Southern Africa (ROSA), each of which examined and assessed the
impact of aquatic weed problems on migratory waterbirds in a particular waterbird habitat
area, through a combination of desk/literature surveys, field questionnaires and other inquiry.
EARP studied these issues as they have arisen in Lake Naivasha in Kenya, and ROSA in
Kafue Flats (including parts of Lochinvar National Park) in Zambia.
This Summary and Synthesis provides a brief overview of the work in these two venues,
addressing both the substantive issues and practical operation of the project. It also offers a
partial list of recommendations regarding further work and case studies. It is intentionally only
a summary, to encourage the reader to focus primary attention on the excellent work of EARP
and ROSA.
This document also contains the Report of Project Co-ordination, detailing the manner in
which these reports were contracted, overseen and completed.
1. Background
The studies included in this report address areas that are, in some respects, very similar and,
in other aspects, quite divergent. As such, they offer a very useful basis on which AEWA can
begin to develop a broader programme of study, information development, and action,
relating to invasive weeds and other invasive species impacting on migratory waterbird
habitat areas.
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The sites studies are
•
the Lake Naivasha Ramsar Site in Kenya, focusing on a wetland complex consisting
of one main lake, several subsidiary lakes and surrounding wetlands as well as a
floodplain and delta of the inflowing Malewa and Gilgil Rivers; and
•
three designated areas within the Kafue Flats flood plain – one of the major wetland
areas in Zambia.
Geophysically, the sites are, of course rather different, however both include large, seasonally
inundated wetland areas and are significantly impacted by widely varying annual rainfall.
Both sites are home to well-known and diverse avian fauna, and have been affected by alien
invasive waterweeds over the last decades.
Both sites are populated and used by humans as well, but differ from one another in the
nature of land tenure afforded to local residents, and thus the nature of their presence on and
use of these areas.
Lake Naivasha is described as the only privately-owned Ramsar site, with lands around the
Lake being privately owned since early in the 20th century (at least.)
By contrast, most of the residents in the Kafue Flats are indigenous and itinerant people.
Having no acknowledged private tenure in the lands, most of the human occupation in the
area has been transient. As further discussed below, this distinction may have made a major
difference in management of the area, particularly with regard to control of invasive species.
2. Bases of the Studies
The primary basis of these case studies was expected to be existing literature relating to the
issues of invasive species infestations, invasives control measures, migratory bird
populations, and the relationships between the three, in each of the study areas. There is a
definite difference between the two areas, with regard to the extent of available locally
oriented literature.
Thanks in part to the long efforts and involvement of the LNRA and the Government of Kenya
in examining this issue, there has been considerable study and research on various aspects
of the ecology of wetland birds around Lake Naivasha and its environs. Official studies and
other information relating to invasive weed infestations in the lake are available at least as far
back as 1964. In addition, studies dating back to the 1980s have examined the relationship
between abundance of bird species and critical ecosystem factors (proliferation of submerged
macrophytic growth and diverse plankton at feeding and breeding sites) which have since
been shown to be impacted by infestations of aquatic weeds at the site.
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In Kafue Flats, however, the availability of scientific and monitoring data, and relevant data
analysis was significantly less. The consultant notes, for example, that there is data on
species inventories, including invasives incursions, but “there is currently an information void
on the weeds bloom problem. More specifically, the relationship between weeds infestations
and their impact on wildlife habitats and the overall ecosystem has not been studied.”
Researchers in the area have stated that “the whole question of growth of undesirable plants
in the Kafue Flats rangeland has not been investigated”, that “the status of most birds remains
unknown” and that “there seems to be limited information specific to the impacts of the
various invasive alien species on the diversity/ecology of bird life on the lake and its
immediate environs.” Finally, “this is the first report to bring out concerns on the conservation
of the Kafue Flats wetland as special habitat for aquatic birds.”
Even where data exists it often does not cover critical areas. For example, within Kafue Flats,
there have been no detailed studies on weeds in the Lochinvar National Park. Site visits and
questionnaires of under this project offer the first information relevant to this issue.
As a consequence of this deficiency, much of the analysis provided by the consultant
reviewing the situation in Kafue Flats utilises international materials discussing the species
found in Kafue, as they have been studied in other regions. While perhaps appropriate for the
present, this choice underscores the need for direct study within the region, particularly when
compared with the Naivasha results in which some alien species which have been expected
to be invasive have not resulted in any noticeable infestation, even many years after the first
individuals were noted in the field.
The Kafue Flats case study also asks whether relevant species have or can change their diet,
but has not found any available data relating to this issue. In Lake Naivasha, this answer has
been demonstrated, based locally generated data indicating that some species have
successfully transferred their food dependence from former species that have now
disappeared or become unacceptably scarce, to the invasive weeds themselves.
3. Substantive Analysis
This summary cannot substitute for the full analysis provided by these case studies,
themselves, to which the reader is referred.
Rather, it seeks to give an initial basis for
comparison between the two studies, and limited synthesis of their results.
3.1 Legal Status
There are three components of the legal status of the area that appear most relevant to these
reports:
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3.1.1 Legal Status – Land Ownership and Tenure
One of the most important differences between the two studies involved the nature of the
surrounding lands and landholders/land-users. While the Kafue Flats areas are surrounded
by rural communities (fishermen, farmers, and forest users), much of the land around Lake
Naivasha is owned by individuals and institutions, many of which engaged in commercial, or
entrepreneurial activities. This difference may bear a strong relationship to the significant
difference in the level of action that has been taken at the two sites.
In essence, Lake Naivasha is generally described as the only privately-owned Ramsar site,
with lands around the Lake being privately owned since early in the 20th century (at least.)
The lake-ward boundary of the riparian landholders’ titles is defined by map elevation (the
6,210 feet contour). Below this contour, the shore above the water line is deemed “riparian
land” – that is although it is government land, the landward riparian owner has certain rights
over it. Below the water line, the lake is state property, and subject to state management.
The Lake Naivasha Riparian Association (LNRA) has existed since 1929, and has more
recently been a major motivating force behind efforts to address the invasives problems on
the lake. Its 150 members (all owners of land contiguous to the lake) are described as
“representing close to 100,000 people.” By agreement with the Government of Kenya (ratified
by the new government after independence), the LNRA has been responsible for
management of riparian land surrounding Naivasha for over 72 years.
In some situations, such as where governmental coffers have proven insufficient to meet the
needs of weed reduction programmes, the LNRA has undertaken fundraising to cover the
shortfall. LNRA members have also been directly involved in remedial activities. It is fair to
say that the LNRA has attempted to be a nucleus around which weed control efforts of many
parties have been coordinated with regard to the Lake.
By contrast, most of the residents in the Kafue Flats are indigenous and itinerant people
(fishermen and others dependent on resource extraction, rather than settled land uses).
Having no acknowledged private tenure in the lands, much of the human occupation in the
area the consultant notes that “the settlements are permanent but most of the residents are
temporary.” At the fringes of the area, settlements consisting of permanent communities can
be found in areas that can be utilised by pastoralists and agriculturalists.
In addition, the human population in the Kafue Flats study area is increasing at an
accelerated rate (overall, more than 3.2% per year).
Over 60% of the 1.2 million adult
residents, have lived in the area less than 10 years, with only 25% having lived there more
than 20 years. It is possible that these habitation distinctions, and particularly the lack of land
tenure may have made a major difference in management of the area, particularly with regard
to control of invasive species.
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3.1.2 Legal Status – Legal Protection/Conservation
With regard to their legal status as protected areas, there are many parallels between the two
sites.
The Lake Naivasha has been designated as a wetland of international importance under the
Ramsar convention. Although not a national park itself, the lake is surrounded by national
parks (including Hell’s Gate and Mt. Longonot).
Almost half of the Kafue Flats are covered by Zambia’s protected area system. The sites
studied in this project include two National Parks (Lochinvar National Park and Blue Lagoon
National Park) that are also Ramsar Sites, as well as severa; designated ‘game management
areas,’ most of which provide a basis for communal use and management of wildlife.
Discussing this protection, the consultant notes that “protection of national parks in Zambia is
concerned mostly with wildlife” (apparently referring to wild fauna conservation) and does not
cover fisheries, water resources and forests in the designated areas. This is, to some extent
a legal problem arising out of the colonial history of Zambia, under which the primary laws
that underpin many of the current environmental provisions were (and are) focused on
extractive rights and licensing of users, rather than on integrated conservation and
sustainable use decision-making at the ecosystem level.
The legal structures applicable to the two areas are very different. As noted above, Lake
Naivasha’s management is focused by the LNRA. Although it remains subject to a broad
array of legislation, this focusing structure, combined with the commitment exhibited by the
LNRA members, has helped it to operate effectively within the broader system of laws and
institutions governing wetlands, water and species.
By contrast, Zambia law imbues over 30 agencies with some level of responsibility for
environmental management, including over Kafue Flats.
With no specifically authorised
primary focal entity, “issues of conflict of power, coordination and integration in a specific
geographical area with multiple land-uses are complicated. The prevalence of this situation
works against the achievement of positive returns of any effort.” To address problems of
governance in Kafue Flats, the consultant identifies the needs for (i) greater attention to
community involvement and decentralisation, (ii) recognition of conservation values, (iii) multisectoral co-operation, (iv) capacity-building, (v) enforcement and, (vi) flexibility to address
changing economic, social and physical conditions. The national government recognises
these concerns and has initiated review and evaluation of relevant laws and policies.
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3.1.3 Legal Status – Water Sources
Like all wetland areas, both Lake Naivasha and Kafue Flats are dependent for their survival
on water catchment basins that include and are affected by a variety of areas and uses. Lake
Naivasha is dependent on the Malewa River, while Kafue Flats receives the drainage from
the Kafue River and tributaries including the Mbuma, Mwembeshi, Nkala, Lukomezi,
Nansenga, Lutale, Nanzhila, Sikaleta, Itu, Nangoma, Banza, Banga and Kaleya streams.
Water users that potentially impact the sites may be extremely distant, both geographically
and philosophically, from the site. At the same time, local and downstream water users are
significantly impacted by activities in the study areas.
For example, in addition to its
biodiversity importance, Lake Naivasha, is a significant national freshwater resource in an
otherwise water deficient area. It supports an outstanding horticulture/floriculture sector that
provides employment and generates significant amounts of foreign exchange as well as a
thriving fishery, livestock farming and a growing tourism sector. It influences geothermal
power generation. Accordingly, in both cases, national water management programmes and
legislation are a critical element of site conservation.
The full range of applicable laws and legal arrangements that define these catchments and
their relationship to Naivasha and Kafue was not within the scope of these case studies. As
underscored by both case studies, however, upstream conservation and sustainable use,
which recognizes the ecological importance of downstream areas, is essential to the future of
either of these sites.
3.2 Conservation Importance
Like all wetland areas, both Lake Naivasha and Kafue Flats are important in many ways,
including for freshwater, groundwater recharge, flood control, water quality (filtration),
sediment control (in associated navigation areas), and nutrient retention, in addition to their
primary conservation roles as ecosystems/habitats for a broad range of species. The reports
note the role of all of the above functions in invasive infestations, however, this summary will
focus only on their importance to migratory waterbird conservation.
Both sites are particularly important, both to their region and to the world. Both are critical
habitats for a great many species, including migratory waterbirds. In Kafue Flats, at least 52
of the 428 identified species of avi-fauna are migratory. Some (e.g., the Wattled Cranes
(Bugeramus carunculatus)) are very rare. Lake Naivasha is a wetland possessing a variety
of unique ecological values and a rich biodiversity, including some endangered species.
There are hundreds species of birds recorded, about 90 of which are waterbirds.
Both areas are important for other reasons as well. As noted, both have been designated
under the Ramsar Convention as Wetlands of International Importance. They are also critical
habitats for a wide variety of other endemic species of animals and plants, including some
that are rare and endangered.
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3.3 Assessing the Relationships between Aquatic Weeds and Waterbirds
3.3.1 Assessment of Aquatic Weed Problems
The studies appear to indicate both similarities and differences relating to the species
involved and the extent and nature of incursions, with the first recorded information regarding
the presence of these weed species having been noted more than 4 decades ago.
In Lake Naivasha, the primary invasive weeds are water fern (Salvinia molesta), water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes). Significant impact study
and weed control efforts have been directed at S. molesta and E. crassipes, however, little
has been done about P. stratiotes, which is less prevalent, and not thought to be particularly
invasive in that context. S. molesta and E. crassipes continue to be very prevalent in the lake.
A number of animals (primarily fish, invertebrates and rodents) have been introduced into
Lake Naivasha in various ways. Some of these too appear to be invasive. At least two, the
Louisiana red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) and a large water rodent, the Coypu
(Myocastor coypus) are anecdotally blamed for the loss of the indigenous water lilies, formerly
important as a food species for many of the waterbirds using the lake, now replaced in that
role to some extent by invasive weeds.
In Kafue Flats, there are at least 12 plant species regarded as weeds and threats to the
Kafue Flats wetland and of these nine are aquatic, while three occur in the flood plain. The
primary known invasive water weeds include Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth, also
identified as an invasive in Lake Naivasha as in many other African aquatic areas), Salvinia
molesta, Mimosa pigra (Cat claw – a woody shrub), Typha latifolia, and Cyperus papyrus.
Interestingly, the latter is a native plant in Lake Naivasha, essential to many elements of the
aquatic environment, which has been negatively impacted by other invasives in the Lake.
The consultant focused on S. molesta, E. crassipes and M. pigra, which have been identified
as “the most serious problem plants.”
3.3.2 Impact on Migratory Waterbirds
Although they vary in the level of specific data available, both case studies identify
relationships between the weed infestations and waterbird populations. Predictably, where
the available data is more detailed (Naivasha), it presents a more complex picture of those
relationships, demonstrating that, in some cases, the invasive weeds have actually improved
the lot of at least some species of waterbird.
Another common factor that should be noted is the fact that, in both areas, weeds negatively
impacted other uses of the lake (boat movement, fishing, industrial intakes, etc.) This impact
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created strong commercial incentives for their removal, and may have helped fuel
rehabilitation efforts.
More specific information on the waterbird situation and the impacts of weed infestations on it,
can be summarised as follows:
It is estimated that Lake Naivasha and its environs support at least 350 bird species of which
90 are aquatic or semi-aquatic. Waterbird counts and other census and survey data for Lake
Naivasha, covering more than 20 years have been studied, however this data is not
particularly useful in assessing the impact of both invasives on waterbird populations.
Comparison of the acreage of the various habitat types within the Lake, numbers of nesting
sites, choice of food species, and other factors affecting distribution (rather than population)
may be more informative, and in this case suggest a decline or at least significant change, for
some species.
Lake Naivasha’s ecosystem is dependent to a large extent on the water purification and
sediment/nutrient retention properties of papyrus, which is also a key habitat species. The
coverage of this species within the lake has significantly declined, due to human activities,
such as land-clearing, in combination with drops in water level that allow key invasive species
(S. molesta) to become established, preventing natural reestablishment of papyrus. Invasive
weeds have a competitive advantage when the water level rises (an occurrence that can
“drown” papyrus rooting areas.)
The loss of the papyrus-centred ecosystems along the
shoreline has seriously altered this ecosystem, with consequent impacts on dependent
species populations.
The abundance of birds in Lake Naivasha has been correlated with prolific submerged
macrophytic growth and diverse plankton at feeding and breeding sites. A study in 1981
established that the abundance of waterfowl coincided with macrophytic bed development.
Congruently, in 1982-84, the absence of submerged macrophytes resulted in a reduced
presence of wildfowl.
Submerged waterplants are probably a major influence of Lake
Naivasha’s avian community.
Data on the site indicates that the primary invasives tend to form mats of floating aquatic
weeds, that have brought about significant alterations in the physical condition of the lake. In
places, these mats affect temperature and pH, interfere with affecting photosynthetic
production with consequent increases in CO2 levels and declines in macrophytic vegetation.
This decline in macrophyte growth offers initial evidence to suggest a negative impact on
Naivasha’s waterbird communities. For some waterbirds, however, the data suggests that the
species has successfully transferred to the new habitat conditions, living off the S. molesta
mats. This fact that may complicate future eradication programmes.
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The Kafue Flats area is reported to be the most ecologically disturbed wetland in Zambia,
despite the ecological importance, rich natural resource base, economic significance of these
resources, and functional values of its ecosystem. One aspect of the area’s degradation is
weed infestation. There is anecdotal evidence suggesting that invasive weeds combined with
other factors (such as recent dam construction, management/co-ordination – caused
problems, land-use and resource utilisation conflicts, and pollution/eutrophication) to have a
significant impact on the ecology of bird and mammal life. It is indicated, for example, that the
fish-eating species, such as Pelicans and Storks, may have been displaced from the waterline
and shallow waters of ox-bow lakes and lagoons, as a result of the invasion of mimosa which
eliminates the open and muddy waterline these species depend on.
On a more general level, however, the Kafue Flats case study notes that much data is lacking
and “the exact impact of weeds on birds needs to be studied.” It identifies possible impacts
that need to be confirmed, including: loss or nesting sites, loss of feeding sites, loss of cover
exposure to predation and failure to mate. The consultant notes, that “it is obvious that both
water hyacinth and Mimosa pigra are potential threats to birds,” but recognises the need for
further study to confirm whether these threats have been realised in the area.
3.4 Weed Control and Site Rehabilitation Activities and Proposals
The two studies provide significant information regarding various types of weed reduction
activities, and the extent to which such efforts have proven successful. In this connection, it
should be noted that some of the sites examined in Kafue Flats (especially Lochinvar) had not
been the subject of any direct efforts at weed removal.
Among the methods used, were
•
•
Application of aquatic herbicides:
o
paraquat partially successful against water fern (Salvinia molesta) in Lake
Naivasha (1964),
o
the same used again, less successfully, in 1968,
o
used in the Kafue Flats area only in ponds on private lands, with no data
available on the particular herbicides used, their effectiveness or their side
effects.
Pollutant reduction (introduction of mechanisms to reduce pollutants that alter the
chemical balance of the water, promoting weed growth and inhibiting native plants)
Primary mechanisms:
o
setting and enforcement of pollution guidelines and methodologies (settling
ponds and aerators for retention of wastes, neutralization ponds,
rehabilitation of sewerage treatment facilities and recycling);
o
training of industry in cleaner production technologies;
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o
provision of education awareness to communities and industry; and,
Found to be effective in the end expressed in quantity of weed removed compared to
the other methods (Kafue Flats).
•
•
•
Biological control:
o
the aquatic grasshopper Paulinia acuminate, unsuccessfully against water
fern in Lake Naivasha (1980s),
o
the weevil Cyrtobagous salviniae successfully against water fern in Lake
Naivasha (1986),
o
the Sameodes albuttalis and Orthogulma terebrantis unsuccessfully against
water hyacinth (Eichhornia carssipes) in Lake Naivasha in 1995 and 1997,
o
a combination of four agents in used in one area within Kafue Flats between
1995 and 1997, of which three are named in the report -- Mottled Water
Hyacinth Weevil (Neochetina eichhoniae Warner), Chevroned Water
Hyacinth Weevil (Neochetina bruchi hustache), and Water Hyacinth Leafsucking Mirrid Bug (Eccritotarsus catarinensis, Calvalho). The programme
did not include a post-application monitoring component, however, so it is not
possible to determine whether biocontrol or other factors (e.g., unusually cold
weather and water-level manipulation) were responsible for a subsequent
temporary decline in weeds in the area, and
o
the beetles Nerchetina bruchii and Neochetina eichhornia used against water
hyacinth in Lake Naivasha in 1998, with as yet un-noticed results.
Manual/mechanical control
o
in support of herbicidal application and otherwise in Kenya,
o
producing early successes against water hyacinth in Zambia in late 1960s
and early 1970s, but later failing as specimen replacement seemed to
outpace removal activities.
Promoting or intensifying use of invasive weeds. Nascent programmes in Kafue Flats
promote the use of aquatic weeds, as a disguised incentive for their regular removal
from the water area. Potential uses include
o
hut construction
o
stock feeds,
o
compost,
o
medicinal herbs,
o
coolant for fish (by fishmongers).
As the programme has not been fully implemented, results and evaluation of
effectiveness as a weed control measure are not yet known.
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Problems: Problems associated with some of these methods were also noted, such as (i) the
impact on dissolved oxygen levels of a large mass of dead organic matter resulting from
herbicide spraying, (ii) the impact of herbicide use on native flora and fauna. Other possible
impacts of control measures were noted, including alteration of adapted habitat areas,
displacement of birds due to changes in the level of human disturbance, and sensitivities to
herbicides, including bioaccumulation. No direct data on any of these impacts was presented.
In the Kafue Flats study, mechanical controls and pollution reduction were believed to have
one primary advantage – minimal impact on wildlife. Pollution reduction was also preferred
because it was thought to “not only attack the symptoms of the weed problem but also acts as
a long term prevention program by reducing nutrient loading into the Kafue River.” Moreover,
these programmes are more generally recognised as beneficial to the country, and to critical
factors such as human health and agriculture.
A similar proposal in Kafue Flats would address another artificial condition that has enhanced
weeds at the expense of native flora – flow control in the rivers on which the Flats depend.
Proposals for artificial flood control, to return the Flats to their traditional flooding patterns,
have so far not been possible, in light of the importance of collected waters to other users,
and other relevant costs and limitations.
The consultant noted that there have been no systematic efforts to control M. pigra, as yet.
He noted that this species is possibly the most serious invasive problem in the area.
Effectiveness: The net effectiveness of removal activities appeared to vary according to
many factors. Although this could not be studied as to Kafue Flats due to the lack of postremoval monitoring data, it was directly addressed in the Naivasha study.
It was clear that some efforts were more successful than others, but perhaps only hindsight
can identify which methods will be most successful in a particular place and time.
For
example, in Lake Naivasha, a variety of geophysical factors, including natural barriers,
weather conditions (high winds and waves) often aided in the initial control measures.
However, over time, some of these factors changed, whether permanently or temporarily,
causing formerly contained invasives to suddenly burst forth into new infestations.
Ultimately, after examining the history of weed control efforts on the lake, the Lake Naivasha
study concludes that
“mechanical and chemical control are (often) not successful in the long-run when
used alone or together.
Biological control can be much more effective, less
damaging to non-target organisms and self-sustaining over time. The concept of
"integrated control" of invasives is even more likely to be effective, especially when
there are problems establishing a biocontrol agent.”
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In addition, in Lake Naivasha, it was noted that cooperation between riparian users and
government in weed control activities was a major component of successful efforts. This was
also notable in Kafue Flats, where mechanical weed control activities that were identified as
successful (or initially successful) were in part carried out by major commercial users (sugar
manufacturer and energy plants) in the area.
3.5 Awareness
Both studies, through general questionnaires and interviews, considered both local input into
the primary questions, and local awareness of the relationship between invasive weeds and
the health and prevalence of waterfowl (and other fauna). In both studies, the awareness
relating to invasive weeds was relatively low. On the other hand however, the studies also
indicate a strong general interest in the ecology of the aquatic system, a desire to preserve
and foster a healthy ecosystem, and other incentives that may help fuel decisions relating to
the removal of aquatic weeds.
In the latter connection, however, it should be noted that in some cases (as mentioned above)
intensive weed-removal programmes may have negative impacts on waterbird species and
local communities.
In particular, some species have converted to use of the weeds as
replacements for lost native plants.
In addition, concerns suggest that some remedial
methods may have impacts on other elements of the ecosystem.
It is worth noting that, the Zambia case study team undertook significant analysis of livelihood
and socio-cultural issues, including extension to many issues outside of the direct scope of
the Terms of Reference of that case study. Their report includes a detailed and rather wideranging examination of socio-economic issues in the region, and significant inquiry into the
state of community involvement. It evidences the importance of ensuring that people resident
in the area understand that efforts to eradicate invasive plants are directed at more than
species conservation and can ultimately have a significant positive impact on the entire
ecosystem, and the communities using it.
4.
Summary Conclusions
In combination, the two case studies offer a great deal of food for thought on many topics.
Both compellingly establish the biological, social, commercial and scientific breadth of the
invasives problem, and the complexities involved in addressing control of invasive weeds as a
conservation strategy.
The Kafue Flats study demonstrates clear limitations that have arisen in this connection,
including particularly limited data gathering, and lack of post-remedial monitoring.
The
limitation of invasives control efforts to water hyacinth, among the nine aquatic plants and
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three shoreline plants that have been identified as invasive weeds does not appear to have
been based on a formal need analysis, and may have been opportunistic (based on
availability of funds and technology). It is particularly telling that no efforts have been made to
address the invasive problem (M. pigra) that is considered to be most significant within a
study area that is so important nationally and internationally.
Disjointed administration may also be a key limiting factor and strong recommendations
regarding the use of an ecosystem-level co-ordination and planning mechanism as a basis for
further control and rehabilitation work.
Finally, invasives control measures in the Kafue Flats area may be highly dependent on local
communities. This is in part because the most effective measures identified in this study were
pollution control measures and local use and hand removal, all of which depend on the active
co-operation of local communities. Moreover, community and local-user support may provide
a strong political basis on which an invasives control and monitoring programme can be built.
The Lake Naivasha study offers a broader analysis of the specific issues addressed by this
project, but also underscores the conclusions of Kafue Flats regarding the need for and value
of data gathering and analysis, as well as the value of co-ordination at all levels, with
particular attention to involvement of local residents.
Of the three major alien water weeds in Lake Naivasha, the most serious invasion, Salvinia
molesta, has been successfully controlled. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is much
more prevalent than formerly, but not yet a serious problem, and biocontrol agents have been
introduced (although their probable success in controlling the spread of this weed has not
been established.) The third weed, water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), is apparently not invasive
in this lake for geophysical or biological reasons that have not been identified.
In this connection, the Conclusions of the Lake Naivasha study note that the study
“…also shows that the control of this one invasive species does not prevent the
appearance of a second candidate for the same niche (in this case the open waters
of the lake and its edges) or even a third (viz salvinia, followed by water hyacinth with
water lettuce "waiting in the wings").”
Although it cannot be proven from the case studies alone, aquatic ecosystem that has been
invaded may be somewhat destabilised following remedial activities, perhaps even enhancing
the possibility of secondary invasion.
“This is further support for the need for regular and persistent monitoring of wetland
sites for invasive species - especially when one has appeared and been seen to be
controlled…. [T]his monitoring should be related to the wetland ecosystem and its
13
function - rather than just to survey for a particular species. In other words, the
"ecosystem approach" is just as appropriate for the understanding and control of alien
invasive species in wetlands as it is for general wetland management and
conservation.”
While examining various control mechanism, the Naivasha study also notes that, so long as
they remain under control, introduced species can provide critical elements to replace or
supplement components of the ecosystem that have been lost to other factors.
Perhaps most important, the Naivasha study notes that where “there is a wetland
management plan in place and an organisation that has taken (or been given) responsibility
for the conservation of the lake ecosystem,” there is a much better chance of controlling (or
even preventing) alien invasions, particularly when all relevant organisations and control
efforts are coordinated.
5.
Future Work and Case Studies
An important conclusion of this study relates to the need for further work.
As they were conceived, these two papers were intended to provide both an understanding of
the extent of available data and literature, and an analysis of that material. In both areas they
identify both strengths and weaknesses, areas of developing knowledge and areas in which
little information is available. In this respect, they have fulfilled their task as ‘initial studies’ by
demonstrating the areas in which more productive study is needed and valuable.
The Lake Naivasha study notes that
“What this study has shown is that it is also important to monitor such invasive
species over time - not only to follow their course of invasion and (hopefully) control,
but to record any short- or long-term impacts on the ecosystem that was invaded.
This should be part of any wetland managment strategy. We hope that it will become
a part of the Monitoring Programme of the LNRA in future and of other wetland
management plans in the AEWA area.”
Many issues that have arisen in these case studies are worthy of significant further attention.
It seems important both
•
to assist in the development of data and monitoring programmes in Kafue Flats,
where available data is limited, and
•
to provide additional support to the efforts of the LNRA, which has developed an
admirable basis of data on which more focused or detailed research can be based,
enabling a more definite understanding of the relationships among waterfowl, weeds
and residents in this ecosystem.
14
In both venues, it is clearly important to develop and co-ordinate/analyse data about migratory
bird populations and habits; aquatic weeds; and the application, effectiveness, and impacts of
control measures. Beyond these, the studies have indicated a number of other areas of
inquiry which might also have a bearing on the basic objectives of this study.
Among these
are
•
The relationship of water resource management in upper catchment basins to
invasives problems and their remediation in wetland areas, and to various wetland
restoration projects and objectives.
•
It is important that special attention is given to the pattern of settlements as opposed
to birds major habitats.
•
Alternative approaches such as intensifying use of the invasive plant species as a
means of promoting their removal.
6.
Project Implementation:
Following completion of primary negotiation of an agreement combining three activities to be
undertaken by IUCN in furtherance of AEWA’s work plan, the ELC negotiated internal
agreements with ROSA and EARO for the work under this activity. Subsequently, at AEWA’s
request the original single contract was broken up into 5 contracts. One for a separate project
on Guidelines for Legislation, and two each for another project (Traditional Knowledge of
Waterbird Management) and this work on Rehabilitation of Important Migratory Waterbird
Sites, which have been Degraded by Invasive Aquatic Weeds. The work on this project was
thus under two contracts, one for the first year, and another (which was not to be executed
until after the first year was over) for the second. This created a number of internal difficulties
in IUCN, where organisational requirements relating to accounting and project management
were multiplied fivefold, and the ability to manage the funds of the three collectively was
prevented.
After accommodating AEWA’s request in this way, the project incurred significant problems
when AEWA was not able to transfer the final payment on the first year contract or the initial
payment on the second year contract until October of the second year, by which date the
work under the contract should have long been completed.
As a consequence, in light of IUCN accounting rules under which programmes are not to
operate projects in a deficit mode, all work under the project was technically required to cease
pending receipt of funding. EARO which was undertaking its work with IUCN staff members,
and had obtained additional assistance from the Lake Naivasha Riparian Association. It was
therefore able to complete its work in 2003, despite the lack of ready funds. ROSA, however,
which was undertaking the work with the assistance of consultants, was forced to cease
operations once the initial funds ran out. When the second tranche of funding was finally
received in October 2003, it was necessary to reschedule time with consultants, as well as
15
staff availability, both of which were significantly hampered by a very full schedule of essential
conservation activities and processes, both internationally and locally.
Ultimately, the project work of both offices was completed and submitted.
Rough drafts
having been submitted to the Secretariat, the attached final reports are now ready for
submission.
FINAL NOTE:
IUCN commends AEWA and the Government of the United Kingdom for their willingness to
give attention to this vital issue, and to begin a process by which the work already undertaken
in key regions like Eastern and Southern Africa can be shared and provide lessons learned
and other value in other regions.
IUCN, too, is committed to continuing to address invasive
species, which , together with habitat destruction, has been identified as the major cause of
extinction of native species throughout the world for over a hundred years.
The IUCN-ELC commends the work of IUCN’s Eastern Africa Regional Office, and IUCN’s
Regional Office for Southern Africa, for their excellent work under this project, in very trying
circumstances, and especially notes the important work of Excellent Hatchileka, Geoffrey
Howard, Francis Mkanda, Maurice Nyaligu, G. Richardson-Temm, Kelly West, Florence
Chege and Francis Karanja.
Respectfully submitted
_______________________
Tomme Rosanne Young
Senior Legal Officer, IUCN
Dated: 30 September 2004
16
MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVES SPECIES
IN WATERBIRD HABITAT IN LAKE
NAIVASHA, KENYA
REPORT ON THE RESTORATION OF WETLANDS THAT
ARE MIGRATORY BIRD HABITATS, AND THAT HAVE BEEN
DAMAGED BY INVASIVE WEEDS
A CASE STUDY OF THE ATTEMPTS TO MANAGE INVASIVE WEEDS IN THE LAKE NAIVASHA
RAMSAR SITE AND LINKS TO MIGRATORY WATERFOWL
IUCN EASTERN AFRICA REGIONAL PROGRAMME
NAIROBI, KENYA,
MAY 2003
SUBMITTED TO IUCN ELC BY IUCN EARP AS PART OF A SERIES OF ACTIVITIES TO BE UNDERTAKEN UNDER THE
AFRICAN EURASIAN WATERBIRD AGREEMENT PROJECT
A CKNOWLEDGEMENT
The IUCN Eastern Africa Regional Programme (EARP) is indebted to its sister institution - the IUCN
Environmental Law Centre (ELC), the African Eurasian Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) secretariat
which has supported the production of this report, and the Lake Naivasha Riparian Association
(LNRA) for the successful implementation of its part of the study.
The EARP is grateful to the following who kindly commented on the text, or helped in other ways;
Geoffrey Howard; Kelly West; Francis Karanja; Florence Chege and Maurice Nyaligu from IUCN
EARO, Andrew Enniskillen, Sarah Higgins and Samuel Gitahi from LNRA and Tomme Young from
the ELC.
Many individuals and institutions were involved in the successful completion of the survey
undertaken by the LNRA, and their contribution is equally acknowledged. In particular we would like
to thank the following: Roderick Kundu - Fisheries Officer Naivasha for use of boat and meetings
with fishermen; Reuben Ngeete - Earthwatch staffer Naivasha; Dr. Nathan Gichuki - NMK; Antony
Kuria
- TBA/NMK; Solomon Ngare -
Nature-Kenya; Ndang’ang’a Kariuki - Ornithology
Department/NMK, Isaac Ouma - Southlake Conservation Group; Moses Maloba - GIS section/KWS
and Hannah Muthoni - LNRA.
Photographs were provided by Maurice Nyaligu, Samuel Gitahi, Sarah Higgins and Geoffrey
Howard.
Cover Photo: Little Stint (Calidris minuta) and Landsat image of Lake Naivasha - courtesy of Maurice Nyaligu.
i
A BBREVIATIONS AND S YNONYMS
AEWA
African Eurasian Waterfowl Agreement
CAB
Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau
COC
Codes of Conduct
CSIRO
Commonwealth Scientific Industrial Research Organization (Australia)
DDC
District Development Committee
EARO
Eastern Africa Regional Office of IUCN
EARP
Eastern Africa Regional Programme of IUCN
ELC
Environmental Law Centre of IUCN
FAWs
Floating Aquatic Weeds
GoK
Government of Kenya
IMCE
Inter Ministerial Committee on Environment
IUCN
The World Conservation Union
KARI
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
KEMFRI
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute
KenGen
Kenya Electricity Generating Company
KWS
Kenya Wildlife Service
LNMIC
Lake Naivasha Management Implementation Committee
LNRA
Lake Naivasha Riparian Association
LNROA
Lake Naivasha Riparian Owners Association
NES
National Environment Secretariat
NMC
Naivasha Municipal Council
NMK
National Museums of Kenya
WWF
World Wide Fund for Nature
ii
P REFACE
This work was undertaken as part of a series of activities aimed at sharing knowledge on legal and
practical issues relevant to the implementation of AEWA and, more generally, to achieving the
underlying aims of the Agreement - protection of migratory water bird species and habitats
throughout the Agreement’s geographical range. One component of this work was a project relating
to the synthesis of information on recent experiences in the restoration of water bird habitats,
degraded by alien invasive weeds, with a specific case study of Lake Naivasha. This preliminary
work by IUCN will serve to form a basis for the compilation of information on “best” practices and
other work by the AEWA Secretariat, including possibly future phases involving the further
development of information from other sources, and deeper understanding of the initial case studies
in the region.
iii
T ABLE O F C ONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT....................................................................................................I
ABBREVIATIONS AND SYNONYMS ..............................................................................II
PREFACE .........................................................................................................................III
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................IV
1.0 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE S TUDY ..................................................................................1
1.2 METHODOLOGY AND A PPROACH .............................................................................1
1.3 LAKE NAIVASHA .......................................................................................................2
2.0 LAKE NAIVASHA AS A HABITAT FOR MIGRATORY AND OTHER WATER
BIRDS.................................................................................................................................4
2.1 IMPACTS ON THE LAKE ’ S ECOLOGY ........................................................................4
2.1.1 Importance of Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) in relation to FAWs .................6
2.1.2 Changing Ecology in relation to FAWs .........................................................9
3.0 MANAGEMENT RESPONSIBILITIES, LAND TENURE AND THE RAMSAR
SITE AT LAKE NAIVASHA............................................................................................12
3.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE MANAGEMENT P LAN ............................................................13
3.2 MEASURES ENVISAGED BY THE P LAN ..................................................................14
3.3 THE SECTORAL C ODES OF C ONDUCT (COC)......................................................14
3.4 LAND TENURE .........................................................................................................15
4.0 THE HISTORY OF INVASIVE WATER PLANTS AT LAKE NAIVASHA AND
IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY IN GENERAL AND WATER BIRDS IN
PARTICULAR..................................................................................................................16
4.1 SALVINIA MOLESTA .................................................................................................16
4.1.1 Historical Background ...................................................................................16
4.1.2 Problems of Salvinia molesta on Lake Naivasha ......................................18
4.1.2.1 Blockage .................................................................................................18
4.1.2.2 Effects on aquatic ecology ....................................................................18
4.1.2.3 Control-related problems.......................................................................19
4.1.2.4 Spread of Salvinia..................................................................................19
4.1.3 Subsequent Outbreaks .................................................................................19
4.2 EICHHORNIA CRASSIPES ........................................................................................21
4.2.1 Historical Background ...................................................................................21
4.3 PISTIA STRATIOTES .................................................................................................25
iv
4.3.1 Historical Background ...................................................................................25
6.0 PRESENT STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION............................................................26
6.1 WATER HYACINTH ...................................................................................................26
6.2 SALVINIA MOLESTA .................................................................................................29
6.3 PISTIA STRATIOTES .................................................................................................29
7.0 MONITORING FOR WATER BIRDS AND INVASIVES IN LAKE NAIVASHA. .30
8.0 PEOPLE’S PERSPECTIVES ................................................................................40
9.0 FUTURE PROSPECTS ...........................................................................................41
10.0 IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR OTHER SITES OF
IMPORTANCE TO AEWA. ............................................................................................42
REFERENCES:..............................................................................................................45
APPENDIX 1:..................................................................................................................48
APPENDIX 2:..................................................................................................................53
APPENDIX 3:..................................................................................................................56
APPENDIX 4:..................................................................................................................57
APPENDIX 5:..................................................................................................................62
v
FI GURE 1: P HOTOMOSAIC OF THE S TUDY AREA
Courtesy of the Lake Naivasha Riparian Association
vi
1.0 I NTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
This study was carried by IUCN-EARP and the LNRA as a joint project on Lake Naivasha, within the
framework of the AEWA sub-project on the management of alien invasive weeds for the benefit of
migratory waterfowl habitat. The sub project focused on the Lake Naivasha Ramsar Site in Kenya
(see figure1), a wetland complex consisting of one main lake, several subsidiary lakes and
surrounding wetlands as well as a floodplain and delta of the inflowing Malewa and Gilgil Rivers.
This wetland array has a well-known and diverse avian fauna and is an Important Bird Area (Bennun
L. & Njoroge P., 1992). The complex is an important site for afro-tropical and palaearctic migrant
bird species, but the same site has been affected by invasive waterweeds over the last decades,
most of which have been managed in some way by the agency most responsible for the Ramsar
site - The Lake Naivasha Riparian Association (LNRA, formerly LNROA). The purpose of the study
was to document the current and historical status of invasive aquatic weeds, their management
interventions, and their actual or perceived impacts on waterfowl. It also included considerations of
local views of the changes that have taken place over the years and which were brought about by
invasive aquatic weeds.
The specific objectives of the study were to:
1
Assess the present distribution and density of invasive water plants in the Lake Naivasha
Ramsar Site - especially water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and water fern (Salvinia
molesta).
2
Document historical incidences of aquatic weeds around the lake, their perceived impacts
on lake ecology and an account of the management interventions and successes.
3
Document any actual or perceived impacts of the aquatic weeds on the resident and
migratory water birds.
1.2 Methodology and Approach
Surveys were carried out in the months of April and May 2003, and involved lake inspections by air,
boat and on land, interviews with local residents and stakeholders, literature and document review,
and consultation with key persons. These surveys were intended to provide practical experiences
and lessons on impacts and management of invasive aquatic weeds, as a reference for dealing with
similar incidences in Kenya and elsewhere - particularly within the area of the AEWA.
IUCN assembled literature and experiences from late 2002, made several forays into the Lak e
Naivasha area to examine issues and then developed a proposal for the lake managers, LNRA. The
sub project managed by LNRA started on April 1st , 2003 and LNRA hired the services of an
assistant to their monitoring officer. A questionnaire was produced for the purpose of collating
1
information from residents and stakeholders on the subject, the aim of the study being to gather the
required information primarily from local knowledge (stakeholders and residents), to complement the
existing scientific information. Additional surveys on the lake were made and the present invasive
situation was assessed.
1.3 Lake Naivasha
Lake Naivasha is a significant national freshwater resource in an otherwise water deficient area, the
only one of its kind in the Eastern Rift Valley in Kenya. It supports an outstanding
horticulture/floriculture sector that provides employment and generates significant amounts of
foreign exchange for Kenya. It also supports a thriving fishery, livestock farming and a growing
tourism sector; the lake likewise influences geothermal power generation and supports significant
biodiversity (both terrestrial and aquatic). Most importantly, a population of about 250,000 people in
the vicinity of the lake gets its domestic water from the lake or its waterways.
Lake Naivasha is a Ramsar Site - a wetland of international importance with various unique
ecological values and a rich biodiversity, including some endangered species. There are hundreds
species of birds recorded, about 90 of which are waterbirds. Many of these are migratory, and the
lake serves as an important stopover point for them. The lake is also surrounded by national parks
such as Hell’s Gate and Mt. Longonot. The largest component of the surface water comes via the
Malewa River, and both the river and its catchment are vital to the lake and all its allied human
activities, and must be conserved at all costs (see figure 2 below).
The lake and its surroundings are fragile and dynamic ecosystems and as yet uncertain water
balance in a basin surrounded by intensively irrigated agricultural land and a fast-growing township.
It seems certain that the lake cannot sustain further development on the scale seen over the last 20
years without there being in place a coordinated plan to conserve the lake’s resources. There are
numerous threats towards the health of the lake ecosystem, which, if not addressed adequately and
urgently, could lead to the loss of these resources and benefits. These threats include:
♦
Out-of-basin water transfer (water supply to Nakuru town)
♦
Water abstraction from the Lake and ground water
♦
Water pollution (from fertilizers, pesticides, sewage, washing detergent and other pollutants)
♦
Inappropriate farming and bush-clearing activities on riparian habitat
2
FI GURE 2: M AP OF LAKE NAIVASHA
♦
Threats from the wider catchment (siltation from inappropriate practices such as cultivation on
steep slopes, deforestation and the consequent effects on hydrology and soil loss, and
destruction of riverbanks thereby losing its filtering effect through such activities as watering of
livestock and cultivating into the river)
♦
Over-fishing
♦
Watering of livestock directly at the shores
♦
Introduction and establishment of alien species of both plants and animals
♦
Unplanned developments (urban settlement, industrial and expansion of horticulture).
3
2.0 LA K E N AIVASHA AS A H ABITAT FOR MIGRATORY AND OTHER
W ATER B IRDS
Lake Naivasha is a very important habitat for migratory, vagrant and resident water birds. It is a
Ramsar Site (Kenya’s second) and an Important Bird Area (Bennun & Njoroge, 1992). Many
species have been recorded in this site over the years (see Appendix 1) and there has been
considerable study and research on various aspects of the ecology of wetland birds around the lake
and its environs. It is estimated that the water body and its environs support at least 350 bird
species of which 90 are aquatic or semi-aquatic. A list of the water birds observed in Lake
Naivasha has been produced, from the records of researchers and residents around the lake, as
well as from records of the NMK Ornithology Department; from this list, a sub-list of those that are
(Palaearctic or intra-tropical) migrants has been made (see Appendix 2). The abundance of birds
found in Lake Naivasha is correlated with prolific submerged macrophytic growth and diverse
plankton at many feeding and breeding sites. A study in 1981 established that the abundance of
waterfowl coincided with macrophytic bed development. Congruently, in 1982-84, the absence of
submerged macrophytes resulted in a reduced presence of wildfowl. Submerged waterplants are
probably a major influence of Lake Naivasha’s avian community.
In spite of the many studies though, there seems to be limited information specific to the impacts of
the various invasive alien on the diversity/ecology of bird life on the lake and its immediate environs.
2.1 Impacts on the Lake’s Ecology
The ecology of Lake Naivasha is forever changing (Harper & Muchiri, 1986). The changes are
brought about by alien invasive floating aquatic weed species (S. molesta, E. crassipes and to a
limited extent, P. stratiotes) among other factors. The weeds have infested the lake ecosystem in
the last three decades, suppressed and occupied ecological niches previously inhabited by native
flora such as papyrus and water lilies (see plate 1), and thus disrupted plant-animal-physical
environment interactions and balance. The formation and movement of their floating mats have
influenced the whole lake and even led to re-distribution of seral stages - in that plant succession no
longer follows a predictable sequence.
These floating aquatic weeds (FAWs) are known to affect water resource management, the
continued existence of human, riverine and wetland communities, and conservation of biodiversity.
Waterways can be blocked; level of floodwaters increased substantially, water loss increased
through evapotranspiration and the efficiency of irrigation and hydro generation impaired. People are
affected by a reduction in the fish catch, difficulties in travelling by boat and consequent isolation
from water sources, gardens, markets and health services, and also change in populations of
vectors of human and animal diseases.
Biodiversity can be reduced and conservation value
affected. E. crassipes, S. molesta and P. stratiotes colonize open water at the margins of water
4
bodies or occur as floating "islands".
As the biomass increases, mats are formed, islands
coalesce, and the infestation spreads to cover more open water. The area of an infestation will
increase until prevented by wind and wave action. A dense cover of FAWs drastically reduces and
may prevent light penetration of the water. Without light, phytoplankton and submerged plants
cannot photosynthesize. Oxygen levels decrease and carbon dioxide increases with catastrophic
effects on the aquatic fauna e.g. fish kills (Howard & Harley, 1998). The uptake of nitrogen and
other nutrients by FAW may affect normal nutrient cycling by native plants, for example papyrus,
and mineral elements will probably be immobilized (Terry, 1991 cited in Howard & Harley, 1998).
P LATE 1: S ALVINIA I NFESTATION IN THE 60’S
5
P LATE 1: S ALVINIA I NFESTATION IN 2003
2.1.1 Importance of Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) in relation to FAWs
Papyrus, the world’s largest sedge (Cyperaceae), is probably the most important plant in Lake
Naivasha, due to its water purification and sediment/nutrient retention capacity. The plant is found
around the lakeshore, and up the Malewa River to a distance of 5 km. In certain cases, particularly
when the lake level rises, papyrus mats break off from the rest at the shore and float to other areas
as islands, moved by the wind. Papyrus, occurring naturally in the lake, is the first freshwater
aquatic plant known to be a C4 plant on the basis of low CO 2 compensation point, ‘Krantz’ anatomy
and high optimum temperature for photosynthesis. It is therefore an efficient and massive dry matter
producer.
Several studies have been carried out on the ecology/ function of papyrus on the lake. The prime
use of the plant in Naivasha is in acting as a filter and causing the retention of nutrients in organic
particles in the detritus and generally recycling nutrients (Gaudet, & Muthuri 1981).
The plant
supplies large amounts of fixed nitrogen, which results in high productivity. It also serves a very
useful function in retaining silt/sediment from upstream or terrestrial sources, thereby slowing down
the rate of siltation and level of suspended sediment (and decrease in visibility). Runoff flowing
through the papyrus swamp is slowed down allowing for the deposition of silt. In this study (Gaudet
& Muthuri 1981), the papyrus swamp, particularly in the northern delta of the inflow rivers (North
Swamp), was shown to affect the whole ecosystem through uptake of nutrients and sediment from
the inflowing rivers and subsequent slow release to the lake water as fine organic particulate matter
and accumulation of peat.
6
Jones & Muthuri (1997) found the standing live biomass of papyrus swamps to be high compared
with most other communities dominated by herbaceous vegetation.
It is also noteworthy that,
unlike water hyacinth, emergent plants such as Typha sp and papyrus have been shown to reduce
water loss by 15 to 20% (Howard-Williams & Gaudet, 1985 cited in Howard & Harley, 1998).
Papyrus also forms a very important habitat for wildlife in general and waterfowl in particular. A
number of large mammals such as buffalo and hippo find shelter in papyrus. In a study on niche
preferences of birds in and around papyrus swamps in Kenya (Naivasha) and wetlands in Uganda,
Maclean, (2001) noted that certain East African bird species are almost entirely restricted to
papyrus. One of these, the Papyrus Yellow Warbler (Chloropeta gracilirostris) is threatened globally
and is vulnerable. The Papyrus Gonolek (Lanarius mufumbiri), White winged Swamp-warbler
(Bradypterus carpalis) and Papyrus Canary (Serinus koliensis) are considered near threatened.
The amount of papyrus on the lake has varied greatly over the decades (see figure 3). The distribution
of the plant on the lake has been constrained by one ecosystem-level process, which is the natural
and unpredictable fluctuation of water levels which the lake experiences. Papyrus swamp clearance for
agriculture has also been an important factor in the decline in papyrus cover. From 1983 to 1987 the
water level dropped by 3m (see figure 4) and much of the papyrus was cleared. By 1987 only 2 km2
was left. However in 1988, the lake rose by 1m, seedlings of papyrus re-established and there were
soon 12 km2 of papyrus on the lake, with 80-90% of the lake periphery lined with the species
(Goldson, 1993). In general, papyrus left on dry ground by a receding lake dries up, but if that area is
re-flooded the papyrus regeneration can be swift. Howeve r sudden rise in lake level can also ‘kill’
papyrus by "drowning" the rooted areas.
7
FI GURE 3: V EGETATION CHANGE 1960-1987
8
FI GURE 4: M ONTHLY LAKE LEVELS OVER TIME
2.1.2 Changing Ecology in relation to FAWs
The changing ecology tends to favour alien water plants over the indigenous species, offering stable
habitat for their establishment and growth.
The water level changes and clearing of papyrus
(Cyperus papyrus) for human activities i.e. agriculture and papyrus shielding encouraged the
establishment of S. molesta by 1982 as depicted in figure 3. In addition to unsuccessful biological
control method of E. crassipes, the weed has the ability to establish in damp mud and a physical
stability of floating when water level rises and vice versa (Adams et al., 2002).
However emergent components dominated by sedges (Cyperus spp.) and submerged /floating
components of macrophytes have been severely reduced through agriculture destruction as a result
of legal permission to cultivated riparian land dating back to 1929 and by grazing impacts of crayfish
- Procambarus clarkii (Harper & Muchiri, 1987) (see plate 3, Crayfish). A presidential ban on the
destruction of papyrus was made in 1987 (LNRA, 1993).
These alien species harbour a number of aquatic floral and faunal associations. Water hyacinth
provides habitats for a range of aquatic micro fauna amongst its petioles, leaves and roots but
appears to have no special associates. A good example is the African Jacana A
( ctophilornis
africanus) that rests and preens on it but makes no obvious use of it as a feeding platform. The
large interconnected mats are impossible to turn over in fossicking and so exploit. But 28 species
of invertebrates have been found on E. crassipes with Hemiptera and Coleoptera dominating. Other
abundant animals previously found associated with water hyacinth in the lake are Odonata, Crayfish
9
and Swamp Worms. Most recently E. crassipes has formed assiociations with several sedges and
grasses which meld together to form small "islands" of plant materials that often merge as
extensive mats.
Species diversity on S. molesta is similar but relatively less diverse compared to that of E.
crassipes.
S. molesta has been recorded to provide food, nesting, preening, protection, and
roosting sites, among many other benefits, to invertebrates, avifauna and fish (Taylor, 1987).
The formation of mobile mats by these floating aquatic weeds reduces the vertical mixing of the
water column shading submerged plants and depriving then of light, increasing the carbon dioxide
levels, lowering pH - all resulting in enahnced formation of dendritus and the building of sludge. The
reduction in photosynthetic production brings about lowered abundance and variety of submerged
aquatic plant growth and a total decline of macrophytic vegetation. Increase in dissolved humic acid
on the other hand may result in a change in the colour of water. The effect is felt on fish, avifauna
and invertebrate populations depending on macrophytic vegetation for food as well as those
indirectly involved in the food chain (see figure 5). In addition, the mats block waterways, obstruct
recreation, fishing and water transport and affect water-pumping activities (Harper, 1984; Clark, et al.
1989; Howard & Harley, 1998).
FI GURE 5: RELATION BETWEEN FISH CATCH AND WATER LEVELS 1962-1989
Mats of E. crassipes support a great abundance and variety of animal and plant species showing a
relationship with mat size. It persists with a narrow distribution facilitating plant succession but
without a zonation typical of the predictable hydroseral sequence. Up to 30 years ago the marshy
10
area (see Figure 3 - vegetation cover change) was dominated by papyrus but the area is now only a
fragment of its former area. The two exotic species formed dense mats out-competing less vigorous
water plants for light and space and these have never returned. As in many tropical areas, water
hyacinth remains the most problematic water weed despite widespread and varied approaches to its
control (Howard & Harley, 1998).
By the end of 1980, Salvinia covered 25% of the lake surface in mobile mats as depicted in figure 3.
In 1990 many small floating islands of C. papyrus and E. crassipes formed when parts of the fringing
vegetation broke off and floated into open waters due to a combination of wind action and lake level
changes. These were temporary in form and location as they moved and may have split further,
coalesced or rejoined the fringing vegetation.
The size and integrity of floating mats offered a
colonization opportunity for other herbaceous plants found in littoral zone of the lake. Such plants
may complete their life cycles on floating mats. They also provide habitats for invertebrates and
juvenile fish (Njuguna, 1992).
Some 51-plant species were recorded on or in floating mats of E. crassipes and S. molesta
between 1989 and 1998 including submerged plants.
Cyperus pectinatus - the most frequent
colonising sedge, played an important role of binding water hyacinth mats and facilitating
colonization by other species.
Faunal concentration between leaves and roots are mainly
Oligochaeta (largely Alma emeni), Insecta and Arachnoidea. A. emeni appear to be of very great
importance in soil formation.
In the early 1960's, measures to control the spread of Salvinia involved unsuccessful herbicide
applications and physical removal.
During these times observations showed that S. molesta
exposed to the windy and choppy conditions of the open lake quickly perished. Reproduction in
more sheltered and shaded lagoons resulted in plants being "pushed out" into open waters so that
between 1975 and 1983 floating mats covered large areas of the northern and western waters of the
lake (Harper, 1994).
The receding lake level in 1980s resulted in a dramatic decline (Tarras -
Walhberg, 1986; Harper, et al 1990). Salvinia is now only found in low density in sheltered edges of
the lake and in marshland at the lower reaches of Gilgil River as the river flows gently and is
sheltered from the exposed conditions of the open lake.
Water hyacinth has colonized most of the Lake Naivasha shoreline in only a few years but the rate
of expansion has been small compared to that of L. Victoria. Individual plant biomass is low and
the plant has not colonized the open lake in large mats. Largest floating mats occur in the north of
the lake around the inflow of river Malewa, (see figure 2 - map of Lake Naivasha) advantaging the
plant with nutrient supply and shelter.
11
P LATE 3: W ATER HYACINTH 2003
3.0
MANAGEMENT
R ESPONSIBILITIES ,
L AND
T ENURE
AND
THE
R AMSAR S ITE AT L AKE N AIVASHA
The Lake Naivasha Riparian Association (LNRA) has been on the forefront in finding lasting
solutions to issues affecting the Lake. The LNRA is an Association of diverse members who own
land contiguous to or near Lake Naivasha. They are either individuals or institutions and include,
the Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KenGen), the Naivasha Municipal Council, Kenya
Wildlife Service (KWS) and most of the main horticultural growers as well as others in the tourism,
livestock, dairy and other industries as well as individual plot owners, local residents and retirees.
The total full membership is over 150 representing close to 100,000 people. There is also provision
for associate membership for interested parties or stakeholders who may not own land adjacent to
the lake.
The LNRA has been in existence since 1929. In 1932 the Association and the Government entered
into an agreement by which the former would be responsible to the latter for the management of the
riparian land surrounding Lake Naivasha. That agreement made the Association the sole arbiter in
land disputes on riparian land and also granted limited rights to the contiguous landowners for
access to water, grazing and cultivation, but under the condition that no permanent buildings would
be allowed. The agreement was ratified and adopted by the Kenya Government at the time of
Independence in 1963. Since 1989 the Association has been very active in promoting environmental
issues around Lake Naivasha, in order to conserve the natural resources whilst encouraging
12
sustainable wise use by all sectors and to promote development.
In 1991 the LNRA started the process of drawing up a Management Plan for the Lake, which would
have the support of all sectors , and which was based on voluntarily adopted sectoral codes of
practice under an overall management strategy. The Management Plan was adopted in 1996 by the
membership and subsequently by the District Development Committee in Nakuru and thereafter by
the Government as the official Management Plan for Lake Naivasha.
In 1995 as a result of initiatives by the LNRA the Kenya Government nominated Lake Naivasha as
its second Ramsar site and reaffirmed the LNRA’s Management Plan as the Government’s official
Management Plan for its Ramsar site. KWS is the custodian on behalf of the Government on
wetlands in general and Ramsar sites in particular, and this process had the full backing and
support of KWS throughout.
The Management Plan is implemented by the Lake Naivasha Management Implementation
Committee (LNMIC) under terms of reference that have been established and agreed in consultation
with KWS. The Committee consists of local and national organizations, including one international
group - IUCN.
The LNRA having initiated the management process and played a central role
throughout remains a key member, but the committee membership is intended to be representative
of the widest possible stakeholders’ interests consistent with administrative and decision-making
efficiency, whilst at the same time being primarily a community-based initiative.
3.1 Objectives of the Management Plan
The prime objective of the Management Plan is to manage existing human activities in the lake
ecosystem through voluntarily adopted sustainable wise use principles to ensure the conservation of
the freshwater resource and associated biodiversity. Secondary objectives are:
1.
To promote and encourage the major contribution made to the national economy (by
the various commercial activities around Lake Naivasha);
2.
To maintain, conserve and, where necessary, restore the natural beauty and
biodiversity of the lake;
3.
To achieve consensus, an understanding of and support for the Management Plan
through voluntarily adopted codes of practice and dialogue;
4.
To facilitate public access, tourism and research activities whilst at the same time
respecting the private ownership of surrounding land;
5.
To immediately adopt practices on which there is consensus based on current
knowledge and to adopt others as the Plan is updated in the light of new information
from the monitoring programme.
13
3.2 Measures envisaged by the Plan
The principle immediate measures envisaged by the Management Plan are to:
1
Require that all developments within the Ramsar Site first be subjected to Environmental
Impact Assessment (EIA) and approval;
2
Strengthen the water abstraction licensing procedures;
3
Establish metering of abstractions and monitoring the use of water;
4
Promote efficient use of water;
5
Protect and where necessary re-establish the papyrus fringe around the lake and allow its
natural growth;
6
Maintain and where necessary restore to a natural state a minimum 100 meter buffer zone
on the land side of the papyrus edge or from the shoreline where no papyrus exists;
7
Disallow the reclaiming of flooded land, intensive irrigated agriculture, and building of
permanent structures, below the lake level in 1906 (6210’ contour);
8
Establish sources of revenue to fund the management plan;
9
Establish direct representation on appropriate regulatory bodies of local and central
administration;
10 Establish accepted sectoral codes of practice;
11 Influence a reversal of adverse activities in the watershed;
12 Implement a technical study of the full water budget and support a study of an alternative
source of water for Nakuru;
13 Implement monitoring, education and awareness programmes;
14 Establish contingency planning for natural and man-made disasters.
3.3 The Sectoral Codes of Conduct (COC)
The LNRA has sensitized the various sectors such as the horticultural growers and fisheries to write
Codes of Conduct for their sectors, which have been incorporated into the Management Plan. Their
purpose is to guide the activities of the various sectors to conform to the requirements of the Plan
and general good environmental practice, while being more focused on the particular sector.
The codes already appended to the Plan and in use are:
1.
Lake Naivasha Growers’ Group Code of Conduct which addresses various issues of
concern in the flower and horticulture industry, including farm management and
documentation, use, transportation, storage and disposal of pesticides and protection
of workers, protection of environment, etc.
2.
Power Producers’ Environmental Code of Conduct: which addresses environmental
conservation (water, soil, and biodiversity), pollution (air, noise, precipitates, drilling
effluents, sewage and solid waste disposal) and environmental management systems
(audit, EIA, risk assessment, and awareness education).
14
3.
Lake Naivasha Tourism Association CoC.
4.
Fisheries Sector CoC.
Other CoCs recently completed and to be included in the Management Plan are:
1.
Livestock and Dairy CoC
2.
Naivasha Municipal Council CoC
3.
Wildlife Industry CoC
These Codes of Conduct are regularly updated.
Lake Naivasha is arguably one of Kenya’s most valuable ecosystems and fresh water resources.
As a hydrologically impacted Lake, it is very fragile and being surrounded by hugely important
commercial developments it is under great threat.
The LNRA Management Plan and its
implementation are now essent ial to the survival of the lake ecosystem and to the continuation of
the Ramsar site as globally important habitat/site for local and migratory waterbirds.
3.4 Land Tenure
Lake Naivasha has the unique reputation of being the only Ramsar Site in private ownership in all of
Africa. In general most Ramsar Sites are often government-protected areas in the form of national
parks or wildlife reserves. The Naivasha Ramsar Site is defined as the area enclosed by the North
and Southlake roads and the national highway (Maai Mahiu - Nakuru road) linking the two (see
Figure 2 - map of lake Naivasha). All of the land within this area above the 6,210 feet contour is in
private ownership in the form of titles, except in a few cases where government departments or
institutions are involved.
Between this contour (the riparian boundary) and the shoreline is the "riparian land". This is in
government ownership, but the contiguous landowner has certain (‘riparian’) rights over it, such as
access to water and limited use (as described in the Government-LNRA Agreement). The area of
riparian land fluctuates considerably with the chnaging lake water level, and depending on the slope
in a given area it can be anything from a few meters to a kilometre and more of change in area over
a few months. In the very flat areas (such as near Naivasha township) a drop in lake level of 1m can
mean new (exposed) land over a kilometre wide.
Therefore regarding land tenure the riparian boundary is the most important factor. The lake itself,
as with all other water bodies in Kenya, is the property of the State. Since the lake is not a
protected area, different government institutions are charged with managing their sectors (e.g.,
Water Dept. on water licensing and regulations, Fisheries Dept. on fisheries licensing and
management, KWS on protecting the wildlife in the lake.).
15
4 . 0 THE H ISTORY O F I NVASIVE W ATER P LANTS AT L AKE N AIVASHA
AND I MPACTS O N B IODIVERSITY I N G ENERAL AND W ATER B IRDS IN
P ARTICULAR .
The introduction of foreign species in Lake Naivasha has presented one of the biggest challenges to
its management. In retrospect, these introductions have also presented perhaps the most exciting
opportunities for collaborative management the lake has seen. The foreign species of concern in
the lake to date include plants such as the Water fern (Salvinia molesta Mitch, formerly confused
with Salvinia auriculata Aurbl), Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), and the Nile cabbage or
water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), and animals such as the Louisiana red swamp crayfish
(Procambarus clarkii) and Coypu (large water rodent, Myocastor coypus ). Other introductions
include those of the fishes Oreochromis leucostictus, Tilapia zillii, and the large-mouth bass,
Micropterus salmoides.
4.1 Salvinia mole sta
4.1.1 Historical Background
Salvinia molesta is a free-floating fern of the plant family Salviniaceae, native to the Amazon River
Basin. The introduction of the weed into Kenyan waters occurred in the early 20th Century and was
cultivated in ornamental pools and aquaria in Nairobi by 1936.
From these sources it spread
downstream in the Nairobi River tributaries and then to the Athi River. In 1953 the weed showed up
in a 60-acre reservoir in Kitale on the Nzoia River. The reservoir was drained to kill the Salvinia
(LNRA, 1993).
Salvinia molesta (initially assumed to be S. auriculata) found its way into Lake Naivasha sometime
in 1961 - 1962. Pet shops and aquaria in Nairobi are thought to be the most probable sources of the
Salvinia accidentally introduced into the lake - although spread by waterfowl and unintentional
dispaersal by people and vehciles are also possible pathways. The Kenya Information Services
Bulletin of October 1964 (GoK 1964 cited in LNRA, 1993) describes the early situation, in June of
that year. In 1964, the weed was found south east of Crescent Island (within ‘Marina’ bay adjacent
to Goat Island, separated from the Crescent lagoon and the main lake by Yacht Island and the
causeway into Crescent Island) where it produced mats covering an area of 60 ha. Initially only the
‘Marina’ part of the bay (separated from Crescent bay by the Yacht Club Island) was infested.
Infestation was light, with patches of Salvinia interspersed with water lilies or growing amongst
reeds and partially submerged bushes. However, south of the bay infestation was heavy, with a
solid mat 4-6 inches thick. The area was subsequently quarantined and on July 31, 1964, the
aquatic herbicide paraquat (trade name Gramoxone S), was applied from the air at a rate of 1 lb
(with wetting agent) per acre. Hand sprayers operated from boats were used simultaneously in
hard-to-reach areas especially inside the extensive papyrus swamps at the lake edge. A second
16
application was made later and by September 1964 the lake was thought to be free of Salvinia. A
wire netting barrier was erected across the channel to prevent any stray pieces from drifting into
clear areas. One portion of the lake was closed to boats as boats were thought to assist in the
spread of Salvinia, but this regulation was relaxed later in the year following successful control in
the bay.
The rising level of the lake at the time was reported to complicate the control operations as new
sections of the mainland became flooded and thus the area to be covered increased. Bush above
the water hid fragments of Salvinia while the rising water tended to break up the water lily banks.
These banks were an important barrier to the spread of Salvinia to other parts of the lake.
Indiscriminate spraying of paraquat1 could therefore not be contemplated due to the danger of
breaking up these natural barriers.
Following the spraying, clearing-up operations were started
using hand nets to remove any small pieces that had escaped the paraquat treatment.
Detailed inspections were made of all areas in the vicinity to determine whether further areas of
Salvinia existed, and in August a seven-acre floating papyrus island was found to be infested.
Paraquat spraying partially killed the papyrus but left salvinia unharmed, while a resident herd of
hippo nearby frustrated the efforts. It thus became necessary to burn the papyrus (using oil). At
the beginning of October further infestations were discovered just south of Crescent Island, in a few
acres of dense papyrus belt 100 m off shore. This discovery of the weed in deeper water was
considered a serious threat to the lake, and ways of tackling the situation were being sought.
These early efforts to contain the Salvinia threat were spearheaded by the Dept. of Agriculture,
assisted by the Water Bailiff, the Fisheries office and the Lake Naivasha Riparian Association.
In 1965, a local infestation was discovered along the same causeway near Goat Island and sprayed.
Between 1965 and 1967 Salvinia was not common (or reported) on the lake but in 1968 a large
mass of Salvinia was noticed expanding over the northeastern section of the lake. This mass of
Salvinia was protected and hidden from view by large masses of papyrus. In January 1970, the
Salvinia here occupied an area of 3 km 2.
Subsequently, a storm broke out in 1970 from the north in September/October and tore apart the
papyrus walls, releasing papyrus islands, Salvinia mats, and mixtures of both. Within a few days,
the weed was found in many shallow bays and lagoons along the western shore. By 1973 it had
spread in a thin band in the littoral zone all round the lake, particularly in the south east area, and
even invaded the more alkaline Lake Oloidien to the south west when the two lakes merged (during
a period of high water level).
1
Paraquat is another aquatic weedicide ……
17
From this time, for a period of 20 years, efforts to understand Salvinia and particularly to control it
continued, but this period is not as well documented as it was for the first 10 years of its
occurrence. However it is evident that control efforts were both at the local and national levels,
spearheaded by the LNRA and government institutions. Over this period Salvinia coverage varied
around the lake just as before, mostly based on the trends in lake level. In general Salvinia would
increase with a rise in lake level, and decline with the lake level particularly where it was left
stranded on dry ground.
4.1.2 Problems of Salvinia molesta on Lake Naivasha
Salvinia at low populations may have favourable effects, especially on fisheries (the plant acting as a
refuge for fry and a source of food organisms). However the development of thick and extensive
mats did have definite deleterious effects.
4.1.2.1 Blockage
1.
Salvinia mats of up to 6 inches in thickness made boat movement very diffi cult.
2.
The weed tended to conform almost exactly to the presence of submerged vegetation in
the shallower areas, thereby causing certain shore areas to convert to primary marsh
community, particularly if the lake level fell slightly.
3.
Salvinia mats also interfered with the lake fishery by clogging gill nets resulting in time
lost in clearing the nets, and/or loss of nets because of drifting.
4.
Mats growing within water abstraction channels impaired water uptake for irrigation.
4.1.2.2 Effects on aquatic ecology
1.
Records taken in 1969 indicated that the oxygen tension beneath a mat of Salvinia was
as little as 10% saturation, compared with 64-85% in open surfaces. This presented
an unfavourable environment for fish, particularly in the shallower breeding areas.
2.
The mats cut out light penetrating into the water column, thereby reducing the amount
of phytoplankton. This was thought to have an impact on organisms such as Tilapia
that depend on phytoplankton as a food source. Submerged macrophytes would also
be cut out.
3.
Salvinia would prevent vertical mixing and allow increase in free CO2 with a consequent
decrease in pH. Thus efficient breakdown of detritus is prevented, and build up of
sludge occurred.
Therefore herbivorous benthic fauna was eliminated, but other
organisms, especially predaceous insect larvae, prospered under the mats.
This
resulted in a benthic biomass actually larger than that associated with other
macrophytes.
4.
Effects on the temperature profile were also reported. Water under the mat tended to
be quite warm in the upper layer, but there was a large temperature drop at lower levels
5.
A number of reports indicate that the mats had a positive effect on waterbirds, which
18
benefited from added food provision - at least in the short term.
6.
Salvinia occurred in association with the Nile cabbage (Pistia stratiotes). But Salvinia
was noted to be more successful in colonisation of open waters than Pistia.
4.1.2.3 Control-related problems
1.
A big mass of dead organic matter after spraying has severe impacts on availability of
dissolved oxygen.
2.
There were fears over the likely impacts of the herbicide used to control Salvinia on
non-target plants such as the water lilies and other emergent and floarting vegetation
and also on other aquatic organisms such as fish.
4.1.2.4 Spread of Salvinia
1.
Wind was the most important factor.
2.
Movement of commercial fishermen and their nets.
3.
The movement of apyrus islands.
4.
Animal movement, especially hippo and cattle, with waterbirds seeming to be less
important.
4.1.3 Subsequent Outbreaks
In January 1968 Dr. C.E. Watson, Chief Fisheries Officer, received ‘another’ report of a fresh Salvinia
outbreak on the lake. This was confirmed to be true, as a considerable amount of the weed was
infesting an area of about 5-10 acres (approx. 1.5 miles long) at the northern end of the lake where it
fronts the Government Farm (current KARI Farm) and Manera Estate (see Figure 2 map of Lake
Naivasha). Most of the papyrus islands adjoining this shore were also infested. However, the main
papy rus belt which extended from Crescent Island northwards to Marula Estate was not infested at
this time, neither were the papyrus islands closer towards the island.
According to this record the last outbreak before this was a relatively minor one towards the end of
1965, and the current one was considered a secondary infestation from that. The 1965 outbreak
occurred in the area where the original outbreak happened, between Goat and Crescent Islands; it
is speculated that the infestation in the northern area must have been caused accidentally by
transfer of the plant by boat or net. However the rate of spread (of the 1968 outbreak) was not as
rapid as that of the original outbreak, but was still considered to pose a danger particularly if the
lake was to rise rapidly again as it had done in 1964. All of the plants observed during this outbreak
were young.
A quick control measure was considered necessary before it could move to a far more inaccessible
area and where it might spread very rapidly. It was proposed that an initial aerial paraquat spray
would kill much of the weed (absence of trees in the affected area made aerial spraying quite easy),
19
and thereafter sustained spraying from boats would be employed. A budget of K£280 was prepared
for the work. The outbreak was in an area largely enclosed by papyrus and would therefore be
closed to the public easily. By this time, there was a Fisheries office in Naivasha with an officer
and 10 support staff who assisted the control process.
The Plant Inspector at the Ministry of
Agriculture was therefore asked to obtain fresh stocks of paraquat, and the spraying was carried out
for some months beginning February.
However, a number of factors worked against the success of the operation. Prolonged and heavy
rains cut down the time available for spraying. A new site of heavy and much older infestation was
discovered further north of the present operation area, hidden behind a very thick belt of papyrus.
This was some 12-15 acres.
This section would need further aerial sprays. Finally, a further
outbreak was reported in the original area that was infested in 1965, very near the causeway
between Goat and Crescent Islands. It is possible that a pocket of Salvinia remained undetected in
the middle of the island and was only able to float free and spread due to the rapid rise in lake level.
By May of 1968 the lake had risen by 37 inches (1.01m). This area was immediately targeted for
spraying, and still the natural barrier of water lilies was important in restricting the weed to the bay.
The newly infested area was closed out to all boats and fishermen. At this point further K£300 was
required for the operation.
By August of 1968 the Ministry had spent over £1,150 in connection with Salvinia control, and the
government was finding it extremely difficult to meet the costs. In correspondence with the LNRA
the possibility of the participation of other stakeholders was explored. In particular LNRA members
were requested to contribute in cash or kind towards the operation. The association started fundraising from among its members to support the Fisheries Department. Members of the association
were also actively involved in the operation (such as through provision of boats and personnel).
Later in 1970, largely through the instigation of the LNRA, efforts were made to bring the various
parties involved or interested in Salvinia control to work together.
On 26 th November, 1970, a
stakeholders meeting was held to discuss measures for eradicating the outbreak of Salvinia, and
means for controlling future outbreaks on a long-term basis. Here it was noted that the chemical
spray used in 1964 eliminated the weed in the Crescent Island area, but the outbreak in the vicinity
of Government Farm had now spread to other parts of the lake due to the high winds opening the
papyrus screen. A narrow belt of weed was now established around the entire southern half of the
lake, covering a distance of some 20 miles. Large clumps of the weed, about an acre in area, were
floating ac ross the lake in the southern sector. Unfortunately this was the area most used by
tourists, bird-watchers and sport fishermen.
The local Fisheries Office had notified the local
authorities, but their efforts could not contain the weed.
The meeting proposed to lay out strategies for raising and obtaining technical and administrative
20
personnel to control the field work. The matter was considered an emergency, and there was fear of
the spread to other waterbodies. Control measures had relaxed somewhat between 1964 and 1969,
and therefore a permanently established committee was necessary for long-term planning and
follow-up, but with necessary powers from government. Howeverthe proposal for one authority did
not take off effectively.
The attempt to establish a biological control (using the aquatic grasshopper, Paulinia acuminata
from Brazil) had failed to have impact on the salvinia. The Commonwealth Institute of Biological
Control had been approached and it was hoping to find another bio-control agent more suited or the
climate. It was considered impossible to eliminate the weed from the lake, and therefore measures
would be taken only to control it within acceptable limits. Concern was raised over the possible
negative impacts of spraying the herbicide, and therefore it was not considered the best option.
In 1983 the Inter-Ministerial Committee on Environment (IMCE) set up a task force to examine the
control of Salvinia on Lake Naivasha. After evaluating both the chemical and manual methods of
controlling the weed, the task force in December 1986 recommended the biological control method
of the weevil Cyrtobagous salviniae. The implementation of this project, however, took some time
because its effectiveness and likely consequences had to be adequately tested. Between 1989 and
early 1990, the LNRA actively followed up on the control programmes proposed by the task force,
for implementation as it had delayed too long. By end of 1989 the weed covered about 20-25% of
the lake’s surface and was thus caus ing considerable concern. On December 19 th 1990 the SubDDC meeting in Naivasha approved the control of invasive weeds, and in May 1991 15,000
Cyrtobagous salviniae weevils were introduced into Lake Naivasha by KARI. The Salvinia declined
rapidly within 18 months after the introduction. Since then it has subsisted only as small, isolated
or rare patches of weed which is no longer regarded as a problem.
4.2 Eichhornia crassipes
4.2.1 Historical Background
Water hyacinth is a free-floating aquatic flowering weed of family Pontederiaceae whose origin is in
South America. The first incidence of occurrence was reported in 1988 in Lake Naivasha where it
was initially recorded as isolated plants in the northern shallows. While in 1989 over 75% of littoral
zones were covered in Salvinia, by 1993 only 5% of the same sites surveyed supported the same
density. By this time E. crassipes had reached over 75% cover of the lake edges (LNRA, 1993).
The weed reproduces asexually by stolons and mats and is distributed by water currents, wind and
boats among others as well as sexually by propagules (Howard, & Harley, 1998). It was found
rooted in shallow waters particularly amongst the fringing papyrus and Salvinia, and sparsely
established in open waters (Harper, 1992). However, the production rate was unexpectedly slow
21
compared to the 800kg/ha/day under stable conditions. The lake temperature regime fluctuation
between 28oC-18oC is below the E. crassipes optimum growth requirement.
E. crassipes was reported in 1999 to be widely distributed in the lake with an overall frequency of
80% within the littoral fringes and scattered in open water but rarely forming patches: this rarely
covers more than 5 % of the open water. Plants in open water are generally less healthy than those
in more sheltered fringes which grow vigorously while rooted in sediment - forming mats especially
in the absence or scarcity of emergent plants and more open shoreline. However, its propagation
especially in fringing vegetation may convert the lake into marshland.
Adams et al. (2002) have discussed the dynamics and ecology of Salvinia and E. crassipes in Lake
Naivasha. Between 1988 and 1999, they surveyed the exotic weeds for associated plants and
made the following inventory (both Salvinia and E. crassipes were associated with similar plants):
22
Table 1: Plant species associated with both S. molesta and E. crassipes
FLOATING SPECIES
HERBACEOUS SPECIES
Azolla africana
Basella alba
Pistia stratiotes
Bidens pilosa
Wolffia arrhiza
Circium arvense
Callitriche truncata
SEDGES
Commelina benghalensis
Cyperus dives
Conyza sp.
Cyperus flavescens
Crassocephalum picridifolium
Cyperus marginatus
Crotolaria barkae
Cyperus papyrus
Crassula schimperi
Cyperus pectinatus
Diplanche fusca
Cyperus rigidifolius
Enydra fluctuans
Epilobium hirsutum
GRASSES
Gnaphalium luteo-album
Acroceras zizanioides
Hydrocotyle sp.
Agrostis stolonifera
Ipomea cairica
Miscanthidium sp.
Iris sp.
Pennisetum clandestinum
Ludwigia stolonifera
Setaria veristicelata
Lythrum rotundifolium
Typha latifolia
Polygonum salicifolium
P. senegalense
SUBMERGED SPECIES
Pycnostachys coerulae
Najas horrida
P. deflexifolia
Nymphaea nouchali
Senecio sp.
Sphaeranthus napierae
Tagetes minuta
Veronica sp.
Source: Adams et al., 2002
Cyperus pectinatus was the most frequent grass or sedge, and appeared to have an important role
in binding the E. crassipes mat, facilitating colonisation by other species.
Adams et al., (2002) also surveyed the invertebrates associated with E. crassipes in Lake
Naivasha:
23
Table 2: Invertebrates associated with E. crassipes
TURBELLARIA
INSECTA (AQUATIC)
Dugesia sp.
Coleoptera
Oligochaeta
Hydaticus sp.
Alma emeni
Rhantus sp
Brachiura sowerbi
Cybister sp
Potamothrix sp.
Helochares sp
Mollusca
berosus sp
Bulinus sp.
Eochrus sp
Physa acuta
Canthyrus sp
Diplura (terrestrial)
Hydrovatus sp
Aranaea
Methles sp
Hydracarina
Synchortus sp
Arachnida (terrestrial)
Bidessus sp
Crustacea
Helodidae
Procambarus clarkii
Hemiptera
Ostracoda
Micronec ta sp
Copepoda
Plea sp.
Insecta (terrestrial)
Mesovelidae
Collembola
Lygaiedae
Thysanoptera
Diptera
Orthoptera
Culicidae
Dermaptera
Ceratopogonidae
Cicadoidea
Chironomidae
Staphylinidae
Tipulidae
Formicidae
sciomyzidae
Trichoptera
Odonata
Ecnomus sp
Enallagma sp
Ephemeroptera
Chloen sp.
Source: Adams et al., 2002
In August 1997 other plants were observed such as Sesbania sesban (indicating the gradual move
towards marsh conditions). Young individuals of Procambarus clarkii and Micronecta scutellaris
were common in the roots of E. crassipes. (In contrast, Salvinia mats harboured a very limited
24
fauna).
By 1998 water hyacinth had colonized the full extent of Lake Naivasha shoreline in only a few years
but the rate of growth was small compared with its invasion and persistence in Lake Victoria, the
Sudd and elsewhere throughout the tropics and sub-tropics. Interesting features of the hyacinth in
Naivasha were that individual plant biomass was low and that the plant had not colonized the open
lake in large mats.
High exposure to winds and relatively low water temperature may have
constrained its spreading.
Attempts to eradicate the weed began between 1995 and 1997. A biological control method was
instituted and involved two insects, Sameodes albuttalis and Orthogulma terebrantis which failed to
establish on/in E. crassipes.
Since then two Curculionid beetles, Neochetina bruchii and N.
eichhornia have been introduced, but by 1998 they had not started affecting the growth of the weed
significantly.
To date their presence is rare and their impact un-noticed although their
establishment has been accomplished.
4.3 Pistia stratiotes
4.3.1 Historical Background
Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) of the family Araceae is less aggressive than either Water hyacinth
or Salvinia but can cause serious problems in tropical and subtropical regions (Howard & Harley,
1998). The origin of water lettuce is uncertain but may be South America (Waterhouse, 1994). It
has been established in Africa for centuries where it is sometimes known as the “Nile Cabbage”. It
reproduces from stolons and by seed. Leaves form a rosette, are spongy with water repelling hairs.
Flowers are inconspicious and arise from the centre of the rosette, while the roots are fibrous and
feathery and may be up to 1 M long. There are as many as nine varieties (Howard & Harley, 1998).
Pistia seems to have been within the lake ecosystem since the 1960s and can therefore be
assumed to have entered the lake in or before the 1960s. It still can be found within the lake
ecosystem in isolated patches, but during field surveys for this study, none was encountered
anywhere around the lake. It can be assumed that any pistia plant would be insignificant anywhere
on the main lake, and likely hidden behind/ within the papyrus growth on the Northswamp. The plant
continues to inhabit several ponds and channels out of the main lake, and therefore it is not
understood why it has not easily invaded the open water. A case in point is its presence in both
constructed wetlands on Homegrown Company’s Flamingo and Pelican farms’ constructed
wetlands.
From the available information, whenever the weed was observed on the main lake it was usually
within the Northswamp area in the littoral zone amongst the Salvinia or E. crassipes . It has not
25
therefore elicited much research interest and, for the purposes of this study, it can be assumed to
be of little or no impact on the lake’s ecology in general or the waterfowl habitat in particular. Many
respondents interviewed during the course of this study were not even aware of its existence.
6.0 P RESENT S TATUS A N D D ISTRIBUTION
6.1 Water hyacinth
FIGURE 6: DISTRIBUTION OF I NVASIVE SPECIES IN LAKE NAIVASHA April 2003
Surveys of the distribution and abundance of invasive weeds in Lake Naivasha were carried out in
the month of April 2003. This information is presented in the attached maps (see Figure 6 above).
The most prominent invasive weed today is the water hyacinth. In general it is present all around
the lake around the shore in shallow water, in varying densities.
The northern shore (from Marula to Loldia Farm, incorporating the mouths of both Malewa and Gilgil
Rivers) carries the biggest cover of E. crassipes. At the time of study these mostly occurred in
mud flats or in very shallow water and were in most cases rooted into the mud partly due to the
heavy rains prevailing at the time (water level had risen by 1 M over a three-week duration from mid
26
April). After the papyrus belt, E. crassipes was the most prominent plant taking about 70% of cover
where it occurred. The following plants were identified as occurring in the E. crassipes mats:
Table 3: Plants occurring in association with E. crassipes mats
SPECIES
Ludwigia stolonifera
Cyperus dives
Cassia didimobotria (seeding)
Cyperus pectinatus
Sphaeranthus aspera
Ipomea sp.
leersia alexandria
Pignostechys
sp
polygonum salisfolia
Comelina benghalensis
hydrocotyl sp.
Cyperus sp. (unidentified)
Cyperus papyrus, (few pockets observed within the hyacinth mats)
Source: The Lake Naivasha Riparian Association
27
Table 4: Birds identified in the E. crassipes mats
SPECIES (COMMON NAME)
Great White Egret
African jacana (Lilly trotter)
Hadada Ibis
Sacred Ibis
Cattle Egret
Glossy Ibis
Blacksmith Plover
Long-toed Plover
Marsh Sandpiper
Black-headed Heron
Little Egret
Coot (at the mat edge)
Grey Heron
Yellow-billed Duck
Hottentot Teal
Intermediate Egret
Blackwinged Stilt
Common Sandpiper
Redshank
Yellow-billed Stork
Southern pochard
African spoonbill
Egyptian Goose
Little Stint (gregarious)
White-necked Cormorant
Pelicans
Squacco Heron
White-winged Black Tern
Grey -headed Gull
Northern Pintail
Long-tailed Cormorant
Source: The Lake Naivasha Riparian Association
Cyperus pectinatus was the most common grass (2 - 10 % cover in E. crassipes mats all around
the lake).
Somewhere behind the papyrus belt was a very thick growth of Cassia (Cassia
abbreviata).
Other areas of the lake displayed generally the same species composition, except that the water
hyacinth width was much lower. Along the shore from Loldia Farm all the way to Kibokoni (past
Rema Island) (see Figure 2 Map of Lake Naivasha), there was E. crassipes in a fairly constant width
of 5 - 30m and covering approx. 75 - 80 %. Pied kingfishers were also observed here. South of
Icely Hill there was a very dense growth of Cassia too. Black crake (Amaurornis flavirostris) was
also observed here, as was the Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus) and Goliath Heron (Ardea
goliath). The weed seemed to prefer the hidden/sheltered papyrus bays.
The other sections with significant E. crassipes growth was the shoreline between Fisherman’s
Camp and Sanctuary Farm/Crescent Island boundary, and from the Central fish landing channel
towards Malewa. The weed here varied between 3m and 20m, and also seem to take advantage of
water abstraction channels.
However it was difficult to establish the breadth/condition of E.
28
crassipes at the latter, because the area was too shallow to venture into by boat (hippos made
wading impossible), and on land there was a herd of buffalo. Indeed, much time was lost just
getting the boat out from Crescent Bay into the main lake because of the shallowness of the water.
The shores that were noted not to be harbouring E. crassipes are Kibokoni to Hippo Point (rocky
shore, hardly any papyrus), between Kamere fish landing beach and Fisherman’s Camp, and
between Burch’s marina area and Kihoto. However these areas generally showed a lack of (or
diminished) papyrus. In most cases, there was plenty of the weed on dry ground, indicating that it
had been left by the receding lake. This was generally drying out, but stakeholders indicated that
with the coming rains the plants were likely to re-grow particularly if the exposed areas were reflooded.
Following the successful implementation of the Salvinia control programme in Lake Naivasha in late
1993, water hyacinth populations rapidly increased, blocking irrigation channels, landing sites and
impeding boat movements and fishing activities.
Releases of the biological control agents
Neochetina bruchii and N. eichhorniae were first made in the late 1990s.
Water hyacinth
populations are currently significantly lower than during the pre-release period due to the combined
effect of the natural enemies and adverse weather conditions.
6.2 Salvinia molesta
During the time of this survey Salvinia cover was so low as to be almost insignificant as shown in
figure 6. In general this weed would not be observed in the way it previously used to occur (in
mats). It could easily be missed out if one did not deliberately look for it amongst the other plants.
It specifically occurred among the plants within mudflats (none observed floating), and specifically
hidden underneath E. crassipes leaves. It may be worth noting that the Salvinia plants observed in
most cases were very small individuals of approx. 1-inch length, but they were green. These were
observed more in the north swamp area (approx. 1 plant in 2 - 4 m2). However in the Oserian Bay
area, a patch of larger and browning Salvinia was observed stranded within the wire mesh around
the KenGen water intake point.
6.3 Pistia stratiotes
This plant was not observed anywhere in the lake. It has never invaded the lake and it is assumed
that it would not take over (having been in the lake since the 1960s). A water lettuce management
programme commenced in early to mid-1999 with the release of the biological control agent
Neohydronomus affinis.
29
7.0
MONITORING
FOR
W ATER B IRDS AND
INVASIVES I N L AKE
N AIVASHA.
Surveillance through regular annual or biannual counts of waterbirds is a way of assessing changes
in ecological character of a habitat, but the causes and significance of changes in numbers may not
be easy to interpret. Lakes Naivasha, Elmentaita and Nakuru together host about 80-90% of the
non-flamingo waterbirds recorded in Kenya. The role of waterbirds in the movement of nutrients for
example through the water and soil that support wetland vegetation is implicit. This is especially
relevant where there are large accumulations of birds, which transfer from wetland to wetland during
migration or local movements (Howard, 1993).
Pearson et al. (1992) surveyed Palaearctic waterbirds in the central and southern Kenya Rift Valley
from the start of January to early February in 1980, 1981 and 1982, when lake levels were high. The
survey was repeated in early in 1988 when water levels were very low. By 1988 the lake had gone
through 7-8 years of general gradual decline. The shores of the alkaline and freshwater lakes of the
Rift accommodate the great majority of Palaearctic waders over wintering and on passage inland.
The alkaline lakes provide open shores and productive feeding areas for waders throughout the year,
and tend to support migrant species between late July (first appearance) and late May (last
departure). On the freshwater lakes (Naivasha and Baringo), on the other hand, migrant arrivals
tend to be delayed until water has receded from the bordering vegetation during September to
expose a muddy edge. In most years rising water covers feeding sites again by late April and rain
quickly stimulates the growth of new vegetation so that waders depart earlier than from the soda
lakes.
Water level records from 1920 reveal that very dry conditions prevailed in Lake Naivasha in the
1950s when the northern end of the lake disappeared. A dramatic rise of several (approx. 6) meters
then occurred after the exceptional rains of 1961-62 (see figure 4 monthly lake levels over time).
There was a general decline from 1971-1976, but high rainfall in 1977 in particular caused another
rapid rise. Since then the lake has fallen steadily, except for the 1997-98 El Nino rains. These
longer-term water level changes were reported to affec t the distribution of birds considerably. When
receding, Lake Naivasha develops long muddy stretches that provide attractive feeding grounds
(which is limited when the level is high), whereas Lakes Nakuru and Elmentaita present only dusty
shores when they recede, and thus become less attractive to waders than when full. The table
below summarises the wader numbers observed in Lake Naivasha in the 1980s.
30
Table 5: Wader numbers in Lake Naivasha in early 1982 (water level high) and early 1988
(water level low)
YEAR
TOTAL
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
Charadriidae
Calidrinidae
Gallinagininae
Tringinae
1982
3,500
2
31
26
38
1988
11,100
7
78
1
14
Source: Pearson et. al., 1992
Migrant ducks require muddy edges and spits for "loafing" and an abundance of submerged
macrophytes and animal food. Their numbers and distribution varied greatly from year to year, and
Lake Naivasha was the main site (usually a few thousand). Wintering ducks were still in good
numbers when the lakes were low, but confined almost entirely to Naivasha.
In 1981 and 1982, most waders on the open soda shores were calidrids, mainly little stints and
Ruffs, but by contrast, the deeper marshy edges of Naivasha (and Baringo) held many Snipe and
Tringine species. In 1988, Nakuru was dry with few waders confined to springs on the northern
side. Naivasha and Baringo on the other hand now accounted for most of the overall wader total,
and held far more Calidrids and plovers than when well flooded in 1982. Although distributions were
different, 1988 wader totals in the freshwater lakes were similar to those in 1981-82, but with Snipe
Gallinago gallinago and Wood Sandpipers Tringa glareola less abundant and Ringed Plovers
Charadrius hiaticula and Curlew Sandpipers (Calidris ferruginea) clearly more so. The large count of
Black-tailed Godwits Limosa limosa in 1988 was due to the many which appeared for the second
season in succession at Naivasha. Lake Naivasha, especially when low, held a greater variety of
waders than the soda lakes. It was the main wintering site for curlew sandpipers and snipe, and
also usually for three scarcer species, little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius, Temminck’s Stint
Calidris temminckii and Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus .
It is evident that fluctuations in lake water levels are considered a major factor that influences
waterbird diversity and density patterns. However in general the fall in water levels seems to have
had little effect in overall migrant wader and duck numbers in the various southern Rift Valley lakes
combined. There was instead some redistribution, with more birds at Naivasha and Baringo and
fewer at the sodic lakes. The Shoveler (Anas clypeata) was clearly the main species visiting the
Rift lakes.
For the little stint, and perhaps also at times for the Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa
stagnatilis), the Rift Valley lakes would seem to provide a wintering area of international importance.
During the period 1991-2000, patterns in waterbird populations seem to have fluctuated apparently
31
only in association with changing lake level. The mean non-flamingo numbers in the lake in that
period were 13,000 ± 6,010. From 1991-1996, significant declines were noted in all piscivorous
birds, including grebes. During 1996-2000, however, all the piscivorous groups recovered to some
extent. Recovery patterns differed between the different groups. Pelicans and terns reached their
lowest levels in 1996 and increased steadily thereafter. Cormorants showed a trough in 1997 and
gulls in 1998, while storks showed troughs in 1995 and again in 1998 before recovering by 2000.
Grebes continued to show very steep decline in 1997 and 1998, reaching very low numbers, and
then increased steeply and unexpectedly to 1992 levels. No Piscivore group showed significant
overall decline or increase over the ten-year period.
Significant declines occurred in the Rallids, birds of prey and kingfishers, in Lake Naivasha from
1991-1996, mainly due to a decrease in lake level. The lake holds the bulk for these groups for all
the rift valley lakes in the country. After 1996, Rallids, made up numerically mainly of Red-knobbed
Coot (Fulica cristata), continued to decline sharply, reaching very low levels in 1998. Numbers then
increased slightly, to the 1996 level.
The ten-year trend still showed a significant decline in
Naivasha as in other neighbouring lakes. By contrast, kingfishers recovered in numbers and birds of
prey appeared to stabilise in numbers during the period 1996-2000, and showed no significant
positive or negative trend over the 10-year period.
Few clear patterns were evident during 1991 - 1996 for other waterbird groups. Herons, ibises and
spoonbills remained relatively stable, with no clear patterns of declines or decreases in overall
numbers. Palaearctic ducks showed large changes in a ‘roller-coaster’ pattern: numbers rose to a
10-year high in 1997 and 1998, then crashed in 2000 to a 10-year low. Numbers of afro-tropical
ducks were also high in 1997 and 1998. This was followed by a decline, but the drop was less
dramatic than for Palaearctic ducks and numbers remained within the bounds of previous years’
counts. The overall numbers of shorebirds (Afrotropical and Palaearctic) and of the partly migratory
stilts and avocets showed relatively small annual fluctuations and no clear trend over the 10-year
period.
In general, it was observed that rallids, kingfishers and raptors declined steadily from 1991-1996, but
that in the longer-term (1991-2000) declines in all the groups (except for rallids) were temporary.
Numbers rebounded between 1997 and 2000, and there was no evidence of overall decrease (or
increase) over the 10 years.
Were the low numbers recorded in the mid-1990s indicative of an underlying environmental problem?
Though difficult to measure directly, the NMK report identified the intensified human pressure over
the decade as a possible cause, arising mainly due to the increase in irrigated floriculture and
horticulture.
Negative impacts on the lake are likely through drainage for irrigation, pollution
potential of pesticides and by eutrophication from run-off and effluent, and destruction of shoreline
32
vegetation.
Intensive land use and soil erosion in the catchment contribute to siltation and
increased water turbidity.
The lake fishery has also proved difficult to control, resulting to over
fishing and declines in fish stocks.
The broad pattern of climatic conditions and lake levels in the southern Rift Valley is considered the
major causal factor in the observed variations. Relatively high levels in 1991-1992 were followed by
a period of gradual decline over a number of dry years. The lake levels increased rapidly in 19971998 following prolonged heavy (El Nino) rains during the period. The margins of Lake Naivasha
were flooded, creating sheltered areas for fish to spawn and good foraging conditions for many
waterbirds.
The fluctuations in wetland condition, due to climatic factors, were thought to be
sufficient to explain the broad patterns in the ten-year data.
In particular, there was a notable rise in the numbers of the African fish eagle at Naivasha following
the 1997-98 lake level rise, with the first successful nesting in a number of years. This appears to
have been helped by an increase in numbers of Red-knobbed Coot on the lake, in turn linked with
the recovery of submerged macrophyte beds.
The report indicates that large and unpredictable fluctuations, which remained difficult to explain,
were often superimposed on this overall pattern. Many species are likely to make local movements
within central Kenya, or more widely in eastern Africa.
Waterbirds in southern Rift appear to
respond independently to conditions at each site; they are evidently drawn from a wider area than
the southern Rift Valley lakes alone. Highly mobile species, such as the Palaearctic migrants,
might also be affected by factors well outside the East Africa region. However for rallids, the bulk of
which (over 90%) comprises the coot, the long and progressive decline was indicative perhaps of the
destruction of their suitable nesting habitat, for instance Lake Ol Bolossat.
African Fish Eagles (Haliaeetus vocifer) at Naivasha were in a state of serious decline throughout
the 1990s until 1998. Many causes were advanced, including pesticide toxicity. Studies continuing
through 1998 and 1999 demonstrated one of the few benefits of El Nino - a 3 metre increase in lake
level brought fish and fishing habitats back to the lake, and with them a rapid return of breeding and
an increase in resident eagles.
Lake Naivasha bird surve y - Earthwatch August 1992.
The project consisted of a survey of the water birds as well as the feeding behaviour of the African
lily trotter (African Jacana Actophilornis africanus). It was designed to assess the distribution,
abundance and diversity of waterbirds on Naivasha and Oloidien, and this 1992 data could then be
compared with similar surveys carried out in 1987, 1990 and 1991.
An average of 10,215 birds was recorded on Lake Naivasha, while 2,280 were counted on Oloidien.
33
During the study period a total of 62 species was recorded. The most exciting find was that of the
African Darter, recorded for the second year running although previously not seen since 1987. An
Open-billed Stork, an uncommon visitor to Naivasha, was seen twice near the Lake Hotel.
On Lake Naivasha the most common species was the red-knobbed coot which was counted in the
thousands.
Terns, Little Grebes and cormorants were the next most numerous.
The most
significant changes in the bird population since 1990 included: an n
i crease in the number of
cormorants (especially the Long-tailed Cormorants), African Jacanas and Childonias Terns; a
decrease in the numbers of Purple Gallinules and Black Crakes.
Table 6: Bird Surveys, August 1990 and Agust 1992
SPECIES
AUG. 1990
AUG. 1992
White-necked Cormorant
295
456
Long-tailed Cormorant
143
570
African Jacana
42
167
Childonias Tern
80
572
Black Crake
154
46
Purple Gallinule
23
2
Source: National Museums of Kenya Ornithology Department
Although it was difficult to determine the effect of local migration on bird populations, some of the
changes were related to the changes in the vegetation and lake level. For example: in 1990 there
were often narrow Salvinia mats in front of the papyrus fringe on which Black Crakes were often
seen, but in 1992 the crakes were more confined to the papyrus fringe where they were less easily
seen.
Sites where the Purple Gallinules nested in 1990 had practically disappeared in 1992
because the previously flooded areas of papyrus and sedge had died down. Some areas, which
were flooded in 1990 and supported large numbers of ducks, were dried out in 1992 (e.g., Safariland
area). Other aspects of the lake’s ecology such as the fish, invertebrates and turbidity would also
affect the bird population. The thick papyrus fringe around the lake made it difficult to estimate the
actual numbers of birds as many of the secretive ones remained hidden amongst the papyrus.
The distribution of the birds around the lake was very similar to that found in previous surveys - with
most birds being recorded along the eastern shore, especially around the Crescent Island area.
This was partly because the shoreline was more open here - with grassy shores around Crescent
Island and easy access to open areas behind the papyrus fringe where the wading birds are usually
found. However, more species were found along the eastern shore between Loldia and Hippo Point
in 1992 than in 1990. The growth of the large sub-macrophyte bed there was thought to explain the
change.
34
The water level at Oloidien was also much lower than in 1990 and there was a muddy shore all
around the lake. There were therefore very many plovers found there, the highest being the Threebanded Plover 28, Kittlitz’s Plover 27. In 1990 a maximum of 3 Three-banded Plovers was recorded.
Another very striking change was the large number of White-necked Cormorants that had moved to
Oloidien in 1992 - a maximum of 549 were counted compared to 50 two years previously. Species
that were seen on Oloidien but not on the main lake were Great-crested Grebe, Avocet, Kittlitz’s
plover and Three-banded Plover.
Lily trotter (African Jacana) feeding:
It seemed that whether they are on Salvinia, water hyacinth or submerged macrophytes, they did
more pecking than probing or turning. However, on water hyacinth they tended to probe more, on
Salvinia and submerged macrophyte beds where they did more turning. Judging by the numbers
found at the different sites, they seemed to prefer feeding off the submerged macrophyte bed near
Rema Island where they ate invertebrates from both the surface of the water and amongst the weed.
This study was carried out to see how the feeding behaviour of these birds had changed since the
decline of the lake’s water lilies. It seemed that the birds had to work harder to get food amongst
the water hyacinth but what they did catch may have been more nutritious.
However further
analysis of these results was needed.
This species used to live on the water lily pads. The water lilies were eventually eaten out by the
combined efforts of the (exotic) coypu and the crayfish.
Since then the bird has successfully
converted its habits to living and feeding on Salvinia beds. It now feeds on Oligochaete worms and
Chironomid larvae hosted by the Salvinia. The bird has now successfully transferred to the new
Salvinia habitat, which should be remembered if it is ever planned to completely eradicate the weed
on the lake.
Taylor (1987) studied the feeding ecology of the African Jacana in Lake Naivasha 1982/83, and in
1984 (over which time the lake level had dropped by over 3 M).
He observed that since the
disappearance of the blue waterlily (Nymphaea caerula) in the mid 1970s, and the later accidental
introduction of the floating water fern (Salvinia), many aquatic birds had experienced a major
alteration in their habitat. The lily-trotter had been particularly affected by the change. This species
was formerly found feeding exclusively from the raft of lily leaves on the surface of lagoons around
the lakeshores. The aim of his study was to assess how the lily-trotter made use of the rafts of
Salvinia as a feeding platform, but observations were also made on other birds utilizing the Salvinia
mats for feeding.
Taylor found that the lily-trotter changed its feeding strategy according to the availability of
invertebrate material in its supporting vegetation. In 1982 the Oligochaete worm Alina elmini was
35
the most common prey pecked, but in 1984 the oligochaete was very scarce and the trotter had to
go for smaller food items (which then called for higher pecking rates). Other prey species were
Meloid beetles, Chironomid larvae and Hydrophilid larvae (associated with the Salvinia mats). In the
north swamp region where the density of aquatic invertebrates was much higher, there was more
regular turning and pecking at the exposed pseudo-roots of the ferns than surface pecking. It was
also evident that more stable Salvinia mats carried more invertebrates and therefore attracted more
trotters, whereas those prone to constant movement by wind did not.
The author concluded that Salvinia provided platforms for the feeding of the lily trotter, there being no
other suitable feeding platform available then. Salvinia was therefore a useful substitute for the
missing water lilies. A number of aquatic birds were also noted to be making use of Salvinia. Up to
20 Squacco Herons (Ardeola ralloides) were regularly seen on the Mennell’s Lagoon raft. These
stalked very slowly on the surface, striking at frogs, tadpoles, tilapia fry, and small crayfish. Other
species associated with Salvinia were Long-toed Lapwing, Black Crake, moorhen, and some
migrant waders, in particular Wood Sandpipers.
African fish eagle:
The fish eagle is the symbol of Naivasha. It is at the top of the food chain, and has therefore
received considerable attention.
Table 7: Fish eagle counts, 1968, 1979, 1986, 1991
YEAR
ADULTS (PAIRS)
PRE-MATURE
TOTAL
1968
130 (65)
24
154
1979
129 (64?)
31
160
1986
136 (68)
8
144
1991
1547 (77)
10
164
Source: Goldson , 1993
From studies of the early 1990s (Smart, et. al., 2002) it was concluded that the fish eagle
population was not significantly different from earlier surveys and therefore it was continuing to
accommodate the changes taking place in the ecosystem.
Earthwatch/ Leicester Final Report to GoK 1987
There are numerous naturalists’ reports of a decline in the diversity of birds seen in the period
following water lily loss compared with the more stable period of the lagoons in the 1970s, but there
are no precise measurements or clear explanations. There have certainly been dramatic changes in
numbers of birds. For example there were thousands of duck and coot in the 1970s up to 1981
36
when 35,000 were censussed in the first 3 months of that year. Two years later, at a higher water
level and in the absence of any submerged macrophytes, ducks and coot could only be counted in
a few tens over the whole lake. Other recent changes have included an increase in the number of
resident flamingos to several hundred in the Crescent Island area, together with about a thousand
terns for most of 1985-86 feeding on small amphibians and crayfish in the lake shallows.
In July 1987 a study of the distribution and abundance of bird species on Lake Naivasha was
conducted with respect to the shoreline areas. Henderson & Harper (1992) noted that the continual
unveiling of new potential habitats and the closing off of others had provided a source of stimulation
for research particularly with respect to fisheries and food web complexes, but that unfortunately
very little information was available with respect to higher trophic levels involving birds or mammals.
Seven habitat categories were recognized and defined:
1.
Open water: deeper offshore water beyond submerged macrophyte zone
2.
Submerged macrophyte zone: mainly Potamogeton pectinatus , though P. octandrus ,
P. schweinfurthii and Najas pectinata were also present.
3.
Salvinia molesta: floating fern forming dense mats in open water and littoral regions
4.
Marshes and margins: shallow inshore pools and lagoons supporting emergent aquatic
vegetation (e.g., Hydrocotyle sp)
5.
Papyrus: stands of mature Cyperus papyrus. However the papyrus interior was not
surveyed and therefore some retiring bird species may have been overlooked.
6.
Open-shore: shallow sloping shelves of sand, mud or gravel with little or no tall
vegetation (only some Compositae, e.g., Conyza sp)
7.
Rocky shore: course, uneven, stony ground, principally around Hippo Point and
Fisherman’s Camp.
There were significant differenc es in the number of bird species utilizing each of the defined
habitats, even though open water and papyrus were more expansive than other habitats. Habitats
incorporating areas of flooded or floating vegetation supported the greatest array of bird species, and
25% and 36 species observed in the Macrophyte zone used no other habitat during the study
[mainly grebes (Podicipidae), ducks (Anatidae), and Red-knobbed Coot (Fulica cristata)]. Amongst
the emergent vegetation (margins), herons (Ardeidae), ducks and waders (Scolopacidae) and Blackwing Stilt (Himantopus himantopus) were the dominant groups.
Although open-shores accommodated a much lower number of species than aquatic vegetation, the
number of ‘unique’ species observed there was highest of any habitat. These were mainly members
of the Scolopacidae and Charadridae. This habitat was also perhaps the most vulnerable to rising
water levels. On rocky shores, only the Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos) and African Pied
Wagtail (Motacilla aguimp) regularly foraged there.
37
On open water, only cormorants, grebes, gulls and terns were regularly frequent, and whiskered tern
was the only species recorded in abundance. No species was restricted to Salvinia, but of the 18
species recorded there, five were regularly encountered, particularly the African Jacana, Long-toed
Lapwing, and moorhen.
38
Habitat complexity and macrophyte growth
Table 8: Use of Salvinia by 18 species of birds around L. Naivasha
SPECIES
NO. OF
% SIGHTINGS ON
TOTAL LAKE
SIGHTINGS
SALVINIA
SIGHTINGS
Actophilornis africanus
53
74.6
71
Vanellus crassirostris
52
58.4
89
Gallinula chloropus
4
57.1
7
Limnocorux flavirostra
8
32
25
Ardeola ralloides
6
30
20
18
17.5
103
Motacilla aquimp
5
17.2
29
Actitis hypoleucos
8
10.8
74
Himantopus himantopus
8
8.5
59
10
7
142
Larus cirrocephalus
2
6.7
30
Ploceus baglafecht
1
6.6
15
Threskiornis aethiopicus
1
4.5
22
Chlidonias hybrida
4
1.3
308
13
1.1
1172
411
.9 - -
425 1 1
Tringa glareola
Vanellus armatus
Phalacrocorax carbo
Anhinga rufagallinula angulata
Source: Henderson I.G, 1987
In this study, the abundance of birds found on Lake Naivasha was correlated with prolific submerged
macrophyte growth. This was in agreement with reports (Clark, et al., 1989) of an abundance of
waterfowl (around 35,000 individuals) in 1981 that coincided with the development of macrophyte
beds. During the period 1982-84, however, submerged macrophytes were absent from the lake and
waterfowl was reported to be present in tens rather than hundreds or thousands. At lower trophic
levels, zooplankton and macro-invertebrate populations have also varied significantly with changes in
submerged macrophyte growth, suggesting that macrophytes may be a key component of the
lake’s ecosystem.
However the authors also suggested that the abundance may be limited to relatively few species
and that varied avifauna is a consequence of increased habitat diversity. Littoral vegetation was the
single most important habitat for supporting a range of bird species, but four of the seven habitats
supported ‘novel’ species, restricted to those habitats during the study. A shallow open shoreline
39
was notable in this respect for supporting several relatively specialized wading species, including
resident plovers (Blacksmith, Three-banded and Kittlitz’s) and migratory waders such as Knot
(Caldris canuta), Curlew Sandpipers (Calidris ferrunginea) and godwits (Limosa spp).
There is little doubt that, in the absence of extensive beds of water lilies, Salvinia served as an
important substitute for many birds to feed on and around. Ralliformes, Jacanas and various waders
are particularly suited to this introduced plant. In the latter case Long-toed Lapwings are worthy of
note as the species was not recorded on the 1967 list but appears in 1975, in some numbers and
its occurrence then was linked with the expansion of Salvinia (Henderson, 1987).
This report
considered that the consequences of encroaching agricultural development on bird diversity in the
lake required serious investigation and consideration.
8.0 P EOPLE’S P ERSPECTIVES
A questionnaire was developed for the purpose of collecting relevant information about this topic
from residents and stakeholders (see Appendix 4). To date, 8 long-time fishermen and 14 residents
have been interviewed. The following summary has been made so far:
The Present Situation
1.
Most stakeholders are aware of only 2 invasive weeds, E. crassipes and Salvinia.
2.
They are aware that very little Salvinia remains today, while the lake still contains a significant
population of water hyacinth but which is confined to the shore/littoral areas, especially in
sheltered areas.
3.
The water hyacinth plants do not exhibit very healthy growth and are in fact often stunted.
4.
They occur in close proximity to papyrus and other such water plants.
5.
However very few residents are aware of the actual distribution of water hyacinth around the
lake.
The Past Situation
1.
Different stakeholders consider Salvinia to have invaded the lake in the early 60s, but
there are some who think it came in the lake 1970s. Water hyacinth is known to have
entered the lake in the late 1980s.
2.
Salvinia is said to have exploded to cover large areas soon after initial infestation,
whereas E. crassipes took time to cover significant areas.
3.
At the peak of infestation Salvinia covered almost half of the lake, while E. crassipes
covered close to a quarter of the surface.
4.
Since then Salvinia has declined to negligible levels today, while E. crassipes shows
fluctuations in cover depending on lake level, but has never been to the extent of
Salvinia.
40
5.
Most stakeholders contend that a rise in lake level usually implies an increase in the
cover of both E. crassipes and Salvinia (when the latter was of concern).
6.
Stakeholders are only roughly aware of the relationships between the weeds and
animals: the hippos fed on Salvinia, but the weed discouraged the existence of other
animals such as frogs. The weeds inhibit the growth of submerged plants through
shading, and they shelter certain organisms such as fry and small snakes.
7.
The weeds are associated with grasses and sedges such as the papyrus.
8.
Stakeholders are aware that chemical, mechanical (manual) and biological control
methods have been employed in the lake against the invasive weeds.
Relationships between the Weeds and Waterfowl
1.
Regarding the relationships between the invasive weeds and water birds, in general the
stakeholders do not clearly indicate that they are aware of this factor. Some feel that
the weeds have interrupted the food chain between birds and indigenous biodiversity
such as water lilies. Others recognize the importance of the weeds as a habitat for
birds such as the lily-trotter after the disappearance of the indigenous water lilies (i.e.,
provide an alternative) and blame the crayfish and coypu for this. Some stakeholders
thought that the weeds have cause a decline in the number of water birds utilizing the
lake, e.g., Yellow-billed Ducks, coot.
2.
Some residents point out that even though they may not be aware of the exact impacts
of the weeds on waterfowl, certain other factors relating to human activities and
introduction of other alien species have had an impact on birds and general ecology of
the lake. These include the trapping of diving birds by gill nets, the damage/removal of
submerged plants through illegal seine-fishing in shallow waters, the disastrous
impacts of the introduced crayfish (feeding on submerged plants and lilies), and the
possible impact of declining visibility (Secchi depth) on (fish-eating?) birds.
9.0 F UTURE P ROSPECTS
A number of observations can already be made:
1.
Three exotic weeds are commonly mentioned: water hyacinth, Salvinia molesta and
Pistia stratiotes.
2.
Many of the residents do not really have much information on the subject, particularly
on ecological impacts and relationships;
3.
Some of the chronological factors relating to the weeds are well-documented.
4.
Salvinia molesta has been a problematic weed on the lake in the past. At present,
although it is still present on the lake, its distribution is in most cases not so great as
to cause ecological or navigational nuisance.
5.
There have been several different programmes employed to control the problems of the
41
invasive weeds. It is believed that these measures have been an important factor in
maintaining the weeds at their present minimal coverage.
6.
The coverage/ distribution of the exotic weeds seem to fluctuate over time.
7.
There seems to be a relationship between these plants and the lake level, and also with
another introduced species, the crayfish - and possibly the introduced fin fish.
8.
The weeds seem to have both positive and negative impacts on the ecology of the lake.
In particular, they provide a floating littoral mat for a number of birds, a niche left vacant
with the dying out of water lilies.
Limitations
1.
Many residents do not have much information about the subject. Perhaps there are
very few who have been keen enough to observe impacts of the invasive plants on the
waterfowl.
2.
Scientific studies and regular research has not been able to document changes so
there is no continuous record and peoples' memories are not really adequate to
remember long-term trends and changes accurately
Future Programme
1.
The boat surveys will continue, so that all associated waterbirds can be identified and
the distribution of the invasive weeds can be recorded for all areas. Invasive species
should, in future, be part of the waterbird surveys carried out each January and July.
2.
Interviews with residents and stakeholders will continue when possible
3.
It is now possible to search for more definite relationships between invasive waterweeds
and migratory waterfolw as well as residents
1 0 . 0 IMPLICATIONS AND R ECOMMENDATIONS FOR OTHER S ITES OF
I MPORTANCE TO A EWA .
There is no doubt that alien invasive species, such as the three floating water weeds described
above, cause significant changes in ecosystems and alter their ability to support their original range
of functions, services, species and their habitats. Thus it makes sense to be aware of the actual
and potential threat of invasive waterweeds in waterfowl habitats. To this end it is gratifying that the
Ramsar Convention now requires that invasive species are described in any wetland that is a
candidate for listing as a Ramsar Site, a Wetland of International Importance. What this study has
shown is that it is also important to monitor such invasive species over time - not only to follow their
course of invasion and (hopefully) control, but to record any short- or long-term impacts on the
ecosystem that was invaded. This should be part of any wetland managment strategy. We hope
that it will become a part of the Monitoring Programme of the LNRA in future and of other wetland
management plans in the AEWA area.
42
This study also makes it clear that the arrival and establishment of an alien invasive water plant in a
wetland of importance (for waterfowl) can be followed by a regime of control which brings it to
manageable levels. However it also shows that the control of this one invasive species does not
prevent the appearance of a second candidate for the same niche (in this case the open waters of
the lake and its edges) or even a third (viz salvinia, followed by water hyacinth with water lettuce
"waiting in the wings"). This is further support for the need for regular and persistent monitoring of
wetland sites for invasive species - especially when one has appeared and been seen to be
controlled. Secondary invasion is always possible as is a resurgence of the original species as an
invasive if circumstances change. Furthermore, this monitoring should be related to the wetland
ecosystem and its function - rather than just to survey for a particular species. In other words, the
"ecosystem approach" is just as appropriate for the understanding and control of alien invasive
species in wetlands as it is for general wetland management and conservation.
The history of salvinia control on Lake Naivasha also shows us that mechanical and chemical
control are (often) not succesful in the long-run when used alone or together. Biological control can
be much more effective, less damaging to non-target organisms and self-sustaining over time. The
concept of "integrated control" of invasives is even more likely to be effective, especially when there
are problems establishing a biocontrol agent.
While the presence and spread of invasive species causes harm to wetland ecosystems, it can also
bring some benefits if it is possible that the species concerned can be managed or controlled. In
Africa, in particular, there is an absence of large floating water plants that can provide the microhabitiats that are provided by the three alien species described above. Thus, in small qauntities and
under controlled circumstances, such species can be regarded as enriching an ecosystem - but
they must be under some form of control. Thus both salvinia and water hyacinth in Naivasha are
under control (through biocontrol agents well-established) and can provide some benefits to
waterfowl provided that they do not expand their coverage of the open waters. This does not deny
the need for vigilance against these and other alien invasive species - but means that integrated
control, which allows some plants to survive, is often better than attenpts at copmplete eradication.
An intersting aspect of the Naivasha situation is that the original demise of habitats (e.g. floating
platforms of water lilies and submerged macrophytes) was brought about by othert alien invasive
species in the first place - initially blamed on the introduced Coypu and then on the ravenous
Louisiana Crayfish. The introduced fish (added to the lake to enhance fisheries) have also caused
changes to vegetation and ecosystem stability - all of which made the impacts of the salvinia (and
latterly the water hyacinth) more noticeable and potentially destructive.
While we have been unable to show numerous impacts of the invasive species on the migratory
43
waterfowl of the Naivasha wetlands, it is clear that they have wrought some changes in the avifauna
and also it is noticeable that after the salvinia was controlled, some of the waterbird populations
returned to their former levels. Much more research and monitoring would be needed to establish
"cause and effect" relationships - especially as they are masked by changing water levels and other
human and natural changes in the wetland system. But it is safe to say that it is advisable to
control alien invasive species in wetlands as and when they appear - or to try to prevent their
introduction in the first place.
The case of Naivasha also shows that if there is a wetland management plan in place and an
organisation that has taken (or been given) responsibility for the conservation of the lake
ecosystem, the chances of controlling (or even preventing) alien invasions is feasible because the
plan and organisations exist and are concerned about the ecosystem. Before the LNRA took over
responsibility for the lake management, there were many disparate organisations taking some
responsibility for some aspects of lake and wetland conservation. In this case the efforts to control
the invasive species began to have combined effect once they were coordinated by LNRA - another
lesson for the management of wetlands and alien invsive species.
44
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Oloiden and Sonachi, Kenya. Revue d’ Hydrobiologic Tropicale.
Dept. of Biological Sciences, Kenyatta University.pp193-208
Earthwatch (1992). Lake Naivasha Bird Survey.
Gaudet, J.J., (1976). Control of Aquatic Weeds in Lake Naivasha, Kenya. Botany Dept., University
of Nairobi.:
Gaudet, J.J. and F.M. Muthuri (1981). Nutrient regeneration in shallow tropical lake water.
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Gitonga, W. and Njihia S.N.,. (2002). Management of water hyacinth and water lettuce in Lake
Naivasha, Eastern Rift Valley, Kenya. Hydrobiologia.
Goldson, J., (1993). A Three Phase Environmental Impact Study of Recent Developments Around
lake Naivasha. Phase 1. An Assessment of Current Information on the Lake, Relevant to a
Management Plan, and Recommendations for Phase II of the Study. LNRA, Naivasha.
Harley S. L. K., (1990). The Role of Biological Control in the Management of Water Hyacinth,
Eichhornia crassipes. Biocontrol News and information Vol11 No. 1 (pp 11-22).
Harper D.M., (1986). The Ecological Relationships of Aquatic Plants in Lake Naivasha Kenya.
Harper D.M., Mavuti K.M. and Muchiri S.M., (1990). Ecology and Management of Lake Naivasha,
Kenya in relation to Climatic change, Alien species’ introductions and Agricultural development.
Harper D., (1991). Publications on the Ecology of Lake Naivasha and Hell’s Gate national Park
(58pp).
Harper, M., Harper D. and Virani M., (2002). At the top of the food web: fish eagles at Lake
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Internationale Vereinigung fur Theoretische und Angewandte Limnologie. 22 pp 1192 - 1197.
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Final Report to the Kenya Government, May 1987. University of Leicester.
Henderson G.I, and Harper M.D., (1992). Bird Distribution and Habitat Structure on Lake Naivasha,
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Kenya. African Journal of Ecology 30, 223-232.
Henderson G I, and Harper M. D., (1992) Bird Distribution and Habitat Structure on Lake Naivasha,
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Julien M.H., Bourne A.S and Chan R.R., (1987). Effects of Adult and Larval Crytobagus salviniae on
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Kenya. Journal of the East Africa Natural History Society and National Museum, 76, pp.1-8.
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D.M.,.(ed.). Studies on the Lake Naivasha Ecosystem, 1982-1984. Final Report to the Kenya
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46
Kenya Government.
47
A PPENDIX 1:
Appendix 1: NAIVASHA WATER BIRDS
Common Name
Scientific Name
African Black Duck,
Anas sparsa
African Crake,
Crex egregia
African Darter,
Anhinga rufa
African Fish Eagle,
Haliaeetus vocifer
African Jacana,
Actophilornis africanus
African Open-billed Stork,
Anastomus lamelligerus
African Pygmy Goose,
Nettapus auritus*
African Pygmy Kingfisher,
Ispidina picta
African Skimmer,
Rynchops flavirostris
African Snipe,
Gallinago nigripennis
African Spoonbill,
Platalea alba
African Water Rail,
Rallus caerulescens
Baillon's Crake,
Porzana pusilla
Bar-tailed Godwit,
Limosa lapponica*
Black Crake,
Amaurornis flavirostra
Black Heron,
Egretta ardesiaca
Black Stork,
Ciconia nigra*
Black-crowned Night Heron,
Nycticorax nycticorax
Black-headed Gull,
Larus ridibundus*
Black-headed Heron,
Ardea melanocephala
Black-necked Grebe,
Podiceps nigricollis
Blacksmith Plover,
Vanellus armatus
Black-tailed Godwit,
Limosa limosa*
Black-winged Plover,
Vanellus melanopterus*
Black-winged Pratincole,
Glareola nordmanni*
Black-winged Stilt,
Himantopus himantopus*
Broad-billed Sandpiper,
Limicola falcinellus*
Cape Teal,
Anas capensis*
Caspian Plover,
Charadrius asiaticus*
Cattle Egret,
Bubulcus ibis*
Collared Pratincole,
Glareola pratincola*
48
Common Moorhen,
Gallinula chloropus
Common Sandpiper,
Actitis hypoleucos
Common Snipe,
Gallinago gallinago*
Common Squacco Heron,
Ardeola ralloides
Common Teal,
Anas crecca*
Common Tern,
Sterna hirundo*
Corncrake,
Crex crex
Crowned Plover,
Vanellus coronatus*
Curlew,
Numenius arquata*
Curlew Sandpiper,
Calidris ferruginea*
Dwarf Bittern,
Ixobrychus sturmii*
Egyptian Goose,
Alopochen aegyptiacus*
Eurasian Marsh Harrier,
Circus aeruginosus
Eurasian Spoonbill,
Platalea leucorodia*
Eurasian Wigeon,
Anas penelope*
Ferruginous Duck,
Anas nyroca
Fulvous Whistling Duck,
Dendrocygna bicolor*
Gadwall,
Anas strepera*
Garganey,
Anas querquedula*
Giant Kingfisher,
Ceryle maxima
Glossy Ibis,
Plegadis falcinellus*
Goliath Heron,
Ardea goliath
Great Cormorant,
Phalacrocorax carbo
Great Crested Grebe,
Podiceps cristatus
Great Egret,
Casmerodius alba*
Great Snipe,
Gallinago media*
Great White Pelican,
Pelecanus onocrotalus*
Greater Flamingo,
Phoenicopterus roseus*
Greater Painted-snipe,
Rostratula benghalensis
Green Sandpiper,
Tringa ochropus*
Green-backed Heron,
Butorides striatus
Greenshank,
Tringa nebularia*
Grey Crowned Crane,
Balearica regulorum
Grey Heron,
Ardea cinerea
Grey Plover,
Pluvialis squatarola*
Grey -headed Gull,
Larus cirrocephalus
Grey -headed Kingfisher,
Halcyon leucocephala
49
Gull-billed Tern,
Sterna nilotica*
Hadada Ibis,
Bostrychia hagedash
Half-collared Kingfisher,
Alcedo semitorquata
Hamerkop,
Scopus umbretta
Herring Gull,
Larus argentatus
Hottentot Teal,
Anas hottentota*
Jack Snipe,
Lymnocryptes minimus*
Kittlitz's Plover,
Charadrius pecuarius*
Knob-billed Duck,
Sarkidiornis melanotos
Lesser Black-backed Gull,
Larus fuscus
Lesser Crested Tern,
Sterna bengalensis*
Lesser Flamingo,
Phoeniconaias minor*
Lesser Jacana,
Microparra capensis
Lesser Moorhen,
Gallinula angulata*
Lesser Sandplover,
Charadrius mongolus*
Little Bittern,
Ixobrychus minutus*
Little Egret,
Egretta garzetta
Little Grebe,
Tachybaptus ruficollis
Little Ringed Plover,
Charadrius dubius*
Little Stint,
Calidris minuta*
Long-tailed Cormorant,
Phalacrocorax africanus
Long-toed Plover,
Vanellus crassirostris
Long-toed Stint,
Calidris subminuta
Maccoa Duck,
Oxyura maccoa
Malachite Kingfisher,
Alcedo cristata
Marsh Sandpiper,
Tringa stagnatilis*
Northern Pintail,
Anas acuta*
Northern Shoveler,
Anas clypeata*
Osprey,
Pandion haliaetus*
Pacific Golden Plover,
Pluvialis fulva
Pectoral Sandpiper,
Calidris melanotos
Pied Avocet,
Recurvirostra avosetta*
Pied Kingfisher,
Ceryle rudis
Pink -backed Pelican,
Pelecanus rufescens
Pintail Snipe,
Gallinago stenura
Purple Heron,
Ardea purpurea*
Purple Swamphen,
Porphyrio porphyrio
50
Red-billed Teal,
Anas erythrorhynchos
Red-knobbed Coot,
Fulica cristata*
Redshank,
Tringa totanus*
Ringed Plover,
Charadrius hiaticula*
Ruddy Turnstone,
Arenaria interpres
Ruff,
Philomachus pugnax*
Sacred Ibis,
Threskiornis aethiopicus*
Saddle-billed Stork,
Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis
Sanderling,
Calidris alba*
Senegal Plover,
Vanellus lugubris*
Southern Pochard,
Netta erythrophthalma*
Spotted Crake,
Porzana porzana*
Spotted Redshank,
Tringa erythropus*
Spur-winged Goose,
Plectopterus gambensis*
Spur-winged Plover,
Vanellus spinosus*
Striped Crake,
Aenigmatolimnas marginalis*
Striped Kingfisher,
Halcyon chelicuti
Temminck's Stint,
Calidris temminckii*
Terek Sandpiper,
Xenus cinereus*
Three-banded Plover,
Charadrius tricollaris*
Tufted Duck,
Aythya fuligula*
Western Reef Heron,
Egretta gularis
Whimbrel,
Numenius phaeopus
Whiskered Tern,
Chlidonias hybridus
White Stork,
Ciconia ciconia*
White-backed Duck,
Thalassornis leuconotus*
White-faced Whistling Duck,
Dendrocygna viduata*
White-winged Tern,
Chlidonias leucopterus*
Wood Sandpiper,
Tringa glareola*
Woolly-necked Stork,
Ciconia episcopus*
Yellow-billed Duck,
Anas undulata*
Yellow-billed Egret,
Mesophoyx intermedia
Yellow-billed Stork,
Mycteria ibis*
Allen's Gallinule,
Porphyrio allen
Little Tern,
Sterna albifrons*
* = Migratory Water Birds
51
Source: National Museums of Kenya Ornithology Department
52
A PPENDIX 2:
Appendix 2: LAKE NAIVASHA MIGRATORY WATERFOWL
(Palaearctic and Inter-Africa Migrants)
Common Name
Scientific Name
Abdim”s stork
Ciconia abdimii
Africa cuckoo
Cuculus gularis
African golden oriole
Oriolus auratus
African rock martin
Ptyonoprogne fuligula
African sand martin
Riparia paludicola
African spoonbill
Platalea alba
Bar-tailed Godwit
Limosa laponica
Black-tailed Godwit
Limosa limosa
Black headed gull
Larus ridibundus
Black cap warbler
Sylvia atricapilla
Black roughwing swallow
Psalidoprocne holomelaena
Black winged stilt
Himantopus himantopus
Blue cheeked bee-eater
Merops persicus
Blacksmith plover
Hoplopterus armatus
Cattle egret
Bubulcus ibis
Caspian plover
Charadrius asiaticus
Common sandpiper
Actitis hypoleucos
Common snipe
Gallinago gallinago
Curlew sandpiper
Calidris ferruginea
Common greenshank
Tringa neburalia
Common ringed plover
Charadrius hiaticula
Cape teal
Anas capensis
Egyptian goose
Alopochen aegyptiacus
Eurasian cuckoo
Cuculus canorus
Eurasian roller
Coracius spatulata
Eurasian swallow
Hirundo spp
Eurasian marsh harrier
Circus ranivorus
Eurasian bee eater
Garganey
Anas querquedula
Glossy ibis
Plegadis falcinellus
53
Grey plover
Pluvialis squatarola
Gull-billed tern
Sterna nilotica
Garden warbler
Sylvia borin
Great swamp warbler
Acrocephalus rufescens
White great egret
Casmerodius albus
Greater flamingo
Phoenicopterus ruber
Grey wren warbler
Calamonastes simplex
Grey capped warbler
Eminia lepida
Grey rumped swallow
Pseudhirundo griseopyga
Green sand piper
Tringa ochropus
Greenshank
Tringa nebularia
Hobby
Falco cuvieri
House martin
Delichon urbica
Hottentot teal
Anas hottentota
Isabeline wheatear
Oenanthe isabellina
Lesser black-backed gull
Larus fuscus
Lesser moorheen
Gallinula angulata
Lesser flamingo
Phoeniconaias minor
Little stint
Calidris minuta
Little ringed plover
Charadrius dubius
Little bittern
Ixobrychus minutus
Marsh sandpiper
Tringa glareola
Montagu’s harrier
Circus pygargus
Mosque swallow
Hirundo senegalensis
Snipe spp
Gallinago spp
Osprey
Pandion haliaetus
Olivaceous warbler
Hippolais pallida
Pallid harrier
Circus macrourus
Pintailed whydah
Vidua macroura
Pied wheatear
Oenanthe pleschanka
Pulvous whistling duck
Dendrocygna bicolor
Purple heron
Ardea purpurea
Stripped swallow
Hirundo abyssinica
Red knobbed coot
Fulica cristata (local)
Red-necked pharalope
Phararopus lobatus
Ruff
Philomachus pugnax
Red-backed shrike
Lanius cullurio
54
Red rumped swallow
Hirundo daurica
Rock thrush
Monticola solatiralia
Red tailed shrike
Lanius cristacus
Ringed plover
Charadrius hiaticula
Sacred ibis
Threskiornis aethiopicus
Sanderling
Calidris alba
Southern pochard
Netter erythrophthalma
Spur winged goose
Plectropterus gambensis
Spurwing plover
Hoplopterus spinosus
Spotted crake
Porzana porzana
Spotted red shank
Tringa erythropus
Spotted flycatcher
Muscicapa striata
Sedge warbler
Acrocephalus schoenobaenus
Steppe buzzard
Buteo buteo
Steppe eagle
Aquila nipalensis
Three banded plover
Charadrius tricollaris
White backed duck
Thalasornis leuconotus
White stork
Ciconia ciconia
Shoveler
Anas clypeata
Roughwing swallow
Psalidoprocne albiceps
White winged black tern
Chridonias leucopterus
White throated bee eater
Aerops albicollis
White winged widowbird
Euplectes albonotatus
White faced whistling duck
Dendrocygna viduata
Willow warbler
Phylloscopus trichilus
Wire tailed swallow
Hirundo smithii
Wood sandpiper
Tringa glareola
Woolly necked stork
Ciconia episcopus
Yellow billed duck
Anas undulata
Yellow billed stork
Mycteria ibis
Yellow wagtail
Motacilla flava
Wigeon
Anas penelope
Source: National Museums of Kenya Ornithology Department
55
A PPENDIX 3:
Appendix 3: ALIEN INVASIVE SPECIES (WATER WEEDS)
Common Name
Scientific
Water fern
Salvinia molesta
Water hyacinth
Eichhornia crassipes
Water lettuce
Pistia stratiotes
Source: Lake Naivasha Riparian Association
56
A PPENDIX 4:
Appendix 4: QUESTIONNAIRE
LAKE NAIVASHA RIPARIAN ASSOCIATION (LNRA)
STUDY OF IMPACTS OF INVASIVE WEEDS ON WATERBIRDS IN
THE LAKE NAIVASHA RAMSAR SITE
The purpose of this study is to survey the interactions between alien invasive weeds, such as water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and Salvinia molesta, and migratory waterfowl species in Lake
Naivasha, primarily by collating the views of residents and stakeholders. The specific objectives are
to:
1
Develop a local view of the changes that have taken place in Lake Naivasha over the years
which were brought about by invasive aquatic plant species,
2
Identify the impacts of these invasive plant species on migratory waterfowl;
3
Identify and analyse the management interventions that have been undertaken to address
the weeds- and indirectly, the water birds.
You have been identified as a useful informant to assist the LNRA to achieve this mission. Kindly
respond to the queries below. If you need more writing space you can attach more paper. A list of
migratory waterfowl species is appended at the back of this questionnaire for your reference.
Name: ______________________________________________
Contact:
_______________________________________
Physical address: ____________________________________
How long have you been around the area of Lake Naivasha (whether resident, employment, frequent
visitor or other interest)?
________________ years
(since 19_______ )
What is your interest in Lake Naivasha? (e.g., fishing, resident, tourism etc)
______________________________________________________________________
1.
THE PRESENT SITUATION
a. List aquatic the plant species you consider to be invasive in (or alien to) Lake Naivasha:
1. ___________________________________
57
2. ___________________________________
3. ___________________________________
4. ___________________________________
Where applicable for all the questions below please give details for each species listed above.
b. How can you describe the present distribution of invasive species in the Lake (e.g., evenly
distributed around the lake, only on lake edge, only on certain shore etc)?
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
c. Density, i.e., how much area does it cover where it occurs?
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
d. Health of the species where it occurs:
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
e. Are the invasive species distributed in association with other invasive or local plant species?
(name the other associated plants)
(SPECIES A)
2.
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
THE PAST SITUATION
a. When would you say these plants were first observed in the Lake Naivasha ecosystem?
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
58
(SPECIES C)
b. How can you describe their establishment patterns? (e.g., was dormant for 7 years then
suddenly exploded)
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
c. At the peak of the plants’ coverage, what was the approximate cover? (as a percentage of the
entire lake, or only on the fringes?)
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
d. How have the plants behaved since their peak to date?
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
e. In your opinion is/ was there a relationship between lake level and the invasive weeds? (e.g., a
declining level often implies reduced weed cover, etc). (PTO)
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
f. Are there relationships between the invasive weeds and animals found in the lake? (whether these
animals are endemic = indigenous, or exotic). (e.g., snails inhabit the roots of xx species).
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
g. Describe any relationships between the invasive weeds and other plants in the lake.
59
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
h. What in your opinion are the perceived and actual impacts of the invasive weeds on the lake
ecology in general (i.e., what are the perceived changes in the lake’s ecology that can be attributed
to the invasions of the alien species)?
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
i. Describe any management measures that you are aware of that have been taken to control the
weeds in the lake (e.g., chemical sprays, manual removal etc), and explain whether or not these
measures were successful.
(SPECIES A)
3.
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
RELATIONSHIPS TO MIGRATORY WATERBIRDS
a. What have been the impacts of the invasions of the water plants on resident and migratory
waterbirds? Please indicate in terms of feeding, roosting, nesting, and migratory patterns and
habitats.
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
b. Have there been changes in the diversity (number) of resident and migratory waterbird species
since the invasion of these species? (you can list new waterbird species observed, or those that
have declined or moved out).
(SPECIES A)
(SPECIES B)
60
(SPECIES C)
c. What are the actual or perceived impacts of other invasive species (particularly animals such as
crayfish and coypu) on resident and migratory birds and their habitats?
(SPECIES A)
4.
(SPECIES B)
(SPECIES C)
PLEASE PROVIDE ANY OTHER RELEVANT INFORMATION
Courtesy of the Lake Naivasha Riparian Association
61
A PPENDIX 5:
Appendix 5: DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF INVASIVE WEEDS AROUND LAKE NAIVASHA
SITE NAME
1
Crescent Isl. bay
GPS POSITION
WATER HYACINTH
SALVINIA
S 00 46 041 E
Not present, except some
None
036 25 044 (50m
left stranded on dry ground
observed
east of tip of
by receding shoreline
ASSOCIATED
ASSOCIATED
BIRDS
PLANTS
N/A
N/A
SITE DESCRIPTION
Well protected from
winds. Deepest part of the
lake, being a submerged
Crescent/ Goat
crator. Rocky and sandy
Islands facing the
shore.
main land)
2
Yatch Club:
S 00 46 329 E
Fisheries jetty
036 24 839
Burch’s Marina
Rocky, sandy shore.
Present but stranded on
Not observed
N/A
N/A
dry ground, not continuous.
3
KWS Hippo Camp
S 00’ 44 682 E
None on water, all
036’ 25 334
stranded on dry ground,
Very shallow area, muddy
littoral zone.
“
N/A
N/A
“
and drying up.
4
Central fish
S 00’ 43 946 E
Present, mostly on muddy
None
Many birds just
Muddy shore. Livestock
landing shore
036’ 24 552
ground (mud flats) but
observed
north of the site
and wildlife (bufallo)
some in water. Width
(due to recently
frequent the area.
varies between 2 - 15m,
exposed
62
and is not evenly
mudflats?)
distributed or continuous.
Also present in the channel
5
Main Malewa
S 00’ 43 722 E
Plenty, mostly on mud-flats.
Very few
Biggest diversity
Good growth of papyrus
Very shallow because of
mouth
036’ 21 019
% cover approx. 70%
plants
and numbers
along the shore, also
influx of mud via the river.
where it occurs. Width
observed,
observed here
plenty of cassia in one
Quite undisturbed, ideal
varies 150-80m, but some
mostly small
than anywhere
area. Few small pockets
for birds.
sections are open mud.
plants within
else (see list in
of papyrus within the
WH in the incoming river
the WH on the
draft)
WH. The other common
channel healthier.
mud.
plants include the
Insignificant.
unidentified sedge,
Spaheranthus and
Ludwigia. Others are
(listed in draft).
Between Malewa
WH 50m in width
& Gilgil rivers
6
Just east of Gilgil
S 00’ 43 470 E
WH approx. 200m width,
Many pelicans
mouth (1/2 km E)
036’ 20 325
but many water pools in-
>100, and other
between. No floating mats
birds
on the open water.
7
Gilgil mouth
S 00’ 43 165 E
036’ 20 073
“
Few individual
Lots of birds,
small plants
mostly on isolated
observed
small WH mats
(see list in draft).
63
Thick papyrus behind
Sps similar to
those off Malewa
mouth. Many
white-necked
cormorants, white
winged black
terns and grey
headed gulls.
8
Loldia jetty
S 00’ 43 115 E
WH 15-25m wide. Approx.
Very few very
Most of the birds
Papyrus 5-40 m wide.
Influence of wind
036’ 19 654
80% cover but not healthy.
young salvinia
common at
Cyperus sedge approx.
important in gatnering the
Malewa also
10% cover.
WH here as with Malewa-
present here.
Gilgil. Rocky in places,
Most
mostly muddy or sandy.
Quite undisturbed.
South of Loldia
3-10m width, increasing to
Most common
Off Loldia hill papyrus
House/jetty
10-20m south of the Loldia
birds are squacco
very thin (due to steep
hill. Off Loldia farm store,
heron, sacred ibis
slope), but further south
WH approx. 30m wide. Few
it widens
scattered individual WH
plants away from the
shoreline mats, on the
lake.
9
Peter Low’s jetty
S 00’ 43 330 E
WH 50-70m wide but not
Fewer than
036’ 18 530
very thick dense). Many
Malewa-Gilgil-
64
Similar to off Loldia
indiv plants floating on the
Loldia. Mostly pied
2
lake, or in mats <im .
kingfisher,
longtailed
cormorant, Afr.
Jacana and
squacco heron.
10
Kasarani
S 00’ 43 595 E
WH 80-100m wide, approx
Very few small
Mostly sacred ibis.
few papyrus clumps
Fairly shallow but not as
036’ 18 084
80% cover, few with purple
salvinia
Also great white
coming up within the
off the rivers or off Burch’s
flowers (not a common
egret, longtoed
WH. Where undisturbed
marina.
feature),
plover, squacco
papyrus very healthy,
heron, hadada
100-300m wide. Others:
ibis and grey
commelina
heron.
benghalensis,
hdyrocotyl, ludwigia,
…Cyperus pectinatus, C.
dives, Leersia (2%).
Kasarani-Ol
WH wide, 80-100m all the
Very few little
Within the small
Plenti of papyrus (100
Suswa-Korongo
way to Ol Suswa. Many
Salvinia.
bay, a good No. of
200+ m) except where
birds off Olerai hill but not
birds esp. sacred
burnt recently. Within
like at Northswamp. No
ibis, great white
WH: C. pectinatus 5%,
WH round the papyrus isl.
egret and
young papyrus, C. dives,
Off Ol Suswa. Very little off
squacco heron.
Pignostacchis,
Korongo, approc. 2m. in
Ludwigia, Leersia.
the small bay soutrh of the
65
island, WH= 85%. Signs of
weevil bites as with other
areas of the lake.
11
Between Korongo
S 00’ 45 235 E
Narrow WH < 1-4m except
Squacco heron,
and Rema Isl.
036’ 17 244 (off
where hidden: approx 10m.
longtoed, pied
Rema Isl.)
kingfisher
common.
12
South of Icely hill
S 00’ 46 200 E
10-15m wide.
036’ 17 355
Sacred ibis, Afr.
Hippos did not allow
Jacana & goliath
better survey. Approx.
heron observed.
30m papyrus with very
healthy cassia behind it.
13
Kibokoni
S 00’ 46 360 E
Minimal WH, < 1m wide.
036’ 17 660
Black crake and
Big papyrus mat,
jacana observed
probably another
here.
grounded isl. Edge of
papyrus mostly grasses.
Ipomea creeping on the
papyrus.
14
West of Hippo
S 00’ 46 615 E
WH 2-6m. closer to Hippo
None
Common
Little papyrus (steep
Bay-like. Rocky shore with
Point
036’ 17 976
Point, no WH: little left on
observed.
moorhen, goliath
slope). Further towards
steep sections.
heron, glossy ibis
Hippo Point, very little
common.
papyrus approx 5m
dry ground (drying).
wide, thick cassia
behind. Also sesbania.
15
Hippo Point
S 00’ 47 266 E
66
036’ 19 000
Oserian Bay
16
WH 2-6m wide.
Fisherman’s
S 00 49 482 E
Camp
036 20 173
WH at 2-10m wide.
Few drying
Most common
Papyrus healthy but
Undisturbed shore. Muddy
Salvinia
birds.
limited by the slope.
with detritus.
observed next
Most common plants.
to th KenGen
Water lilies in the pond
water pump.
in Oserian.
Very few
Most common
Papyrus present and
young Salvinia
plants.
healthy except where
plants
interfered with e.g.,
observed on
Fisheagle inn. Most
recently
common plants present.
Shallow muddy shore.
exposed mud.
17
Kwa Muhia
S 00’ 49 535 E
WH approx 5-10m wide,
036’ 20 607
rooted.
Not observed
Blacksmith plover,
Papyrus and Ipomea
Afr jacana, black
belt. Others:
crake, marsh
Commelina,
sandpiper
pignostecchys,
Shallow muddy shore.
sphaeranthus, C.
pectinatus, Ludwigia.
18
Sher near red
S 00’ 49 258 E
WH approx. 5-10m wide,
Few scattered
Coot, yellow-billed
Papyrus present but
house
036 21 825
mostly rooted.
Salvinia plants
stork, Egyptian
cleared in places. Dike
observed.
goose, jacana,
restricts extent. Other
intermediate
plants in locality:
egret, glossy ibis,
ses bania, C. dives.
long-toed plover
67
“
seen.
19
Joan Root’s shore
S 00 48 784 E
Approx. 5m wide but in
None
Black crake
036 22 883
patches rather than
observed.
continuous.
20
Kijabe Farm
S 00 47 389 036
Width approx. 5m, some
23 901
rooted and some in mats/
healthy. Others: C. dives,
Sphaeranthus.
patches
Outside Crescent
Papyrus/Ipomea fringe
None observed
Island
Source: The Lake Naivasha Riparian Association
68
“
AN EVALUATION OF THE IMPACT OF INVASIVE
WEEDS ON IMPORTANT MIGRATORY
WATERBIRD SITES AND
THEIR REHABILTATION:
THE CASE OF THE KAFUE FLATS
IUCN ZAMBIA
AN EVALUATION OF THE IMPACT OF
INVASIVE WEEDS ON IMPORTANT
MIGRATORY WATERBIRD SITES AND
THEIR REHABILTATION;
THE CASE OF THE KAFUE FLATS
Dr. H. N. Chabwela. University of Zambia, Department of Biological
Sciences, P.O.BOX 32379, Lusaka, ZAMBIA
G. K. Kalyocha, C/O Scorpio Eco-Consultants LTD. Private Bag 42
Chipata, ZAMBIA
December 11th 2003
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.0
INTRODUCTION
This study was an evaluation of the impact of invasive weeds on important migratory waterbird
sites. In particular, the study focused on how invasive aquatic weeds affect the sites and how the
use of the sites as a waterbird habitat area has been addressed and impacted by the
rehabilitation activities. This followed a request by AEWA to IUCN-ELC to undertake these
studies regionally on the degradation of wetlands in Africa that are of importance to migratory
waterbirds, through their degradation by invasive aquatic weeds. The impacts of aquatic invasive
weeds on migratory waterbirds have been noted to occur either through the direct removal or
alteration of their habitats or by effects on the food chain. This can completely change the
ecological character of these wetlands.
The report discusses the findings of the evaluation of the impact of invasive weeds on important
migratory waterbird sites and their rehabilitation in Kafue Flats, Zambia. The data gathering was
carried out in October and November 2002, and in March 2003. This was done through field
visits, literature reviews and interviews with stakeholders. The study specific objectives were:
a) To contribute to the documentation of recent experiences in the restoration of
waterbird habitats, where those habitats have been degraded by alien invasive
weeds.
b) To provide a detailed case study of rehabilitation of wetlands of the Kafue Flats,
Zambia, with regard to the manner in which the use of the site as waterbird habitat
has been impacted and addressed by these rehabilitation activities.
c) To increase knowledge and awareness of the invasive aquatic weed impact on the
migratory waterbird habitats among major local and national stakeholders in Zambia.
This report represents the last part of the three-part study. It comprises a review of
documentation available relating to the study and implementation of AEWA in the selected sites
in Zambia. It also provides a detailed account on issues of conservation and the impact of
rehabilitation on the Kafue Flats wetland.
Publications on aspects of Kafue Basin at large are numerous, but this is the first report to bring
out concerns on the conservation of the Kafue Flats wetland as a special habitat for aquatic birds.
Findings in this study are expected to be of considerable significance to the implementation of the
AEWA and Ramsar Convention. The report is divided in to five chapters, focusing mainly on:
-
Conservation and socio-economic issues;
Pollution and eutrophication;
Invasive weeds and their impact;
Invasive weeds and their impact on migratory birds;
Implications of weed control and rehabilitation on birds;
Weed control measures and evaluation;
Recommendations for future action.
Because of limited resources and time, much of the ground was not covered, especially Area C.
However, fairly detailed studies were carried out in areas A and B between Kafue Bridge and
Lochinvar National Park.
2.0
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITES
Kafue Flats wetland is located in Southern Zambia and is among the most important wetlands in
the country. It has a total area of approximately 6,500 km², consisting of flood plains, swamps and
shallow lakes. The wetland is significant for its abundant bird life, fisheries, wildlife, agriculture,
water resources and tourism. Six vegetation zones constitute the habitat types: Levees and
lagoons, flood plain grasslands, water meadows, termitaria grasslands and woodlands. At least
i
127 mammalian species have been recorded in the area but most important for commercial
purposes are the Kafue Lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) and Zebra (Equus buchelli). In general,
records show 69 known species of reptiles, 27 species of amphibians and 77 species of fishes.
Very little is known about invertebrates.
Bird life is represented by nearly 428 species, of which 125 species are predominantly wetland
species, and about 52 are migratory species. Migratory species include White stork (Ciconia
ciconia), Abdim’s stork (C. abdimii) and Sand Pipers, Plovers, Terns, swifts, and Swallows.
Although the wetland has some limited protection through Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon National
Parks, and three Game Management Areas, it is severely threatened. Major environmental issues
affecting the Kafue Flats are:
-
3.0
Water regulation and lack of normal flooding due to dam developments;
Over-exploitation of wildlife and fisheries;
Agricultural development;
Increasing human population;
Pollution and proliferation of invasive weeds, mainly Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes, Mimosa pigra, and Salvania molesta).
STUDY METHODS
The methods of study were through literature review, interviews of stakeholders, and field
visits. Three populations were sampled through questionnaires on socio-economics and
on assessing people’s understanding of ecological issues.
4.0
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1
Socio-economic Issues
The human population estimated at 1,211,319 composed of Tonga and Ila people in the Kafue
Flats is the largest compared to the entire Kafue Basin. It is also growing at a faster rate (3.2%
per annum) than the national rate (3.0% per annum) due to high birth rates and immigration of
outsiders as fishermen and labourers from other tribes (Lozi, Luuvale and Bemba). The
settlement pattern in the flood plain particularly in the fishing camps is temporal (38%)
characterized by lack of tenure or no permanent land rights. About 62% have permanent
residence. Most of the population has been in the area for the last 10 years (67%), while 25% has
been in the area for over 20 years. The population’s main source of income is fishing (40%),
while agriculture (24%) and trading (20%) are ratified low. Surprisingly, livestock production
accounts only for 10%.
The large and increasing population coupled with lack of tenure of fishing population entails
abuse and pressure on wetland resources. Pressure on resources in the Flats is also being
exacerbated by poverty and the low level of development in the area. This is symbolized by poor
or limited access to adequate social and physical infrastructure, limited access to electricity and
clean water supply and good sanitation, occurrence of floods and drought affecting crop
production, and limited land for agriculture. Although infrastructure investments in hydro-power
generation in the area are substantial, the majority of the communities depend on trees for their
energy needs. This has some implications on deforestation, run-off rates and land degradation.
Land use activities that take place in the Flats have implications on the conservation of this area.
The Tonga and Ila keep large herds of cattle mainly for social power and a source of wealth other
than as a source of energy, income or meat protein. The cattle, which are grazed on the flood
plain in a transhumance manner together with wildlife, are causing overgrazing of the rangeland,
especially since the grazing area has been reduced by changes in flooding regime. Overgrazing
is evidenced by the extensive growth of Dicrostachys cinerea, an indicator weed species in
Lochnivar National Park where cattle and wildlife are grazed.
ii
The Kafue Flats are important for agriculture. Maize is the main source of carbohydrates and
forms the area’s primary source of income. However, due to the generally acidic soils on the
flood plain periphery, maize growing is dependent on clearing of woodlands for new fields,
fertilizers and agro-chemical usage. With high concentration and increasing human population on
the flood plain periphery/plateau, maize growing has implications on deforestation, soil erosion,
and run-off on the periphery; sediment transport, nitrogen and phosphorous transport into the
flood plain. Commercial agriculture, particularly irrigated sugar cane growing at Nakambala in
Mazabuka on the other hand, depends on high water demand and abstraction. Cultivation of
large tracts of land for maize and sugar cane in the wetland disturbs the natural grassland
system, and thus reduces the ability of the wetland to perform filtering functional value. Apart
from commercially produced sugar and maize, the major crop grown in the Kafue Flats is ground
nuts although cassava and sweet potatoes are also important.
Most major issues as perceived by the people sampled are poor accessibility (34%), poor health
facilities (31) lack of schools (31) and poor access to water (30%). Other items listed as serious
social issues include lack of floods and lack of land.
Hunting of game is another important activity in the area, a source of meat protein and income.
Although legalized, the illegal form of harvesting of game animals still exists. Due to cultural
factors difficulties and cost of obtaining licenses, increasing poor economic conditions, food
insecurity and weak wildlife management and monitoring systems, poaching is responsible for the
drastic reduction of animal numbers, particularly lechwe, in the area. Poaching was being done
by outsiders from urban areas (legal hungers), the local people (fishermen) and those living in the
periphery of the Flats.
Forestry resources are important in the rural economy of the area. Trees on the periphery of the
Flats are cut for the construction of buildings, timber production, charcoal production, firewood
and cultivation. Other uses include collection of wild fruits, mushrooms, and caterpillars, despite
this importance, increase in pressure as a result of the above uses and in combination with tree
cutting for agriculture on the Periphery of Flats was causing deforestation.
Bush fires are a common occurrence in the study area. However, most of these take place in the
late dry season in the woodland area, which are important habitats for kudu, buffalo, duiker,
klipspringer and grysbok, and caused by surrounding communities. Due to poor management
capacity, fires are an important management problem in the Lochnivar Park.
4.2
Invasive weeds and their impact
At least 11 plants have been recorded as weed plants, but most invasive plants are the Water
Hyacinth and Salvinia molesta. Cerafophyllum dermesum, Ludwigia stolonifera, Typha sp
Phragmites sp. Ultrialaria sp are also important.
The most invasive non-aquatic weed plant is Mimosa pigra which is rapidly expanding in
Lochinvar National Park. Dichrostachys cinerea and Ambrosia maritima are also becoming a
threat to the wildlife habitat. Information based on literature review indicates that weeds can be a
considerable nuisance to economies, especially posing a threat to installations such as
hydropower generation, bridges, pump stations, and a serious impediment to waterways. Aquatic
weeds interfere with various other water uses including water abstraction, fishing and
transportation. Aquatic weeds are also known to change the hydrobiology of an aquatic system,
and based on these observations, it was very evident that weeds (Water Hyacinth, and Mimosa
pigra) have a serious impact on bird habitats causing an alteration of the habitat and loss of
biodiversity, as well as loss of land value and breeding functions of birds. Detailed studies are
never the less needed on this issue.
4.3
Impact of aquatic weeds on waterbird ecology
Whereas the status of most birds remains unknown, at least 52 species are migratory species
including the White stork, Abdim’s stork, Open-bill Stork, and some species of Plovers, Spoon
iii
Bill, Terms, Swifts and Swallows. Although no detailed studies were done on birds’ distribution,
breeding and feeding habits, nevertheless, the present survey revealed that the major distribution
of birds is concentrated in the Chunga lagoon, Malema stream, Kaindo area and westwards to
the Namalyo area. Concentrations of birds in the northern part of the Kafue Flats occur along the
Luwato lagoon, Namunyona lagoon and the area near Muwezwa. While the exact impact of
weeds on birds needs to be studied for the most part, possible impacts include: loss of nesting
sites, loss of feeding sites, loss of cover exposure to predation and failure to mate. It is obvious
that both Water Hyacinth and Mimosa pigra are potential threats to birds. However, future studies
are needed in this area.
4.4
Site rehabilitation and weed control site rehabilitation of the Kafue Flats. This was
mainly considered at two levels:
a)
Prescribed flooding to mimic natural flooding for the restoration of the flood plain. This
has not been possible to achieve.
b)
Weed control by removing Water Hyacinth from the area, and this was done mainly to
protect installations for power generation, bridges and pump stations, and it was confined
to the area between Mazabuka and the Kafue Gorge.
Weed control in Kafue Flats has been limited to mechanical control methods (using various
simple tools to remove the plant) and biological control methods. Four biological control agents
were introduced between 1995 and 1998 for control of Water Hyacinth in Kafue Flats between
Kafue Gorge and Nakambala in Mazabuka. The bioagents were:
-
Mottled Water Hyacinth Weevil (Neochetina eitchorniae);
Chevroned Water Hyacinth Weevil (Neochetina Bruchi Hustache;
Water Hyacinth Leaf-sucking Mirrid Bug (Eccritotasus catarinensis).
The absence of monitoring and evaluation of the effect of these agents made it difficult to
determine their success. It is not clear whether the reduction of the weed in the Kafue Flats
below Mazabuka can be attributed to the bioagents.
Although detailed investigations were not possible in this survey, the impact of weed control on
waterbirds was considered at several levels:
-
A change in or removal of vegetation as a result of weed treatment (mechanical or
chemical) may alter the bird habitat;
Human disturbance associated with weed treatment can cause displacement of
waterbirds;
Direct impact and contact with treated vegetation or direct contact with herbicide;
Feeding on chemical contaminated organisms may cause cumulative effects in birds.
No measures have ever been put in place to control Momosa pigra, although the weed is growing
very rapidly. The remaining weeds are not yet a threat in Kafue Flats.
5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations
This report has examined various issues affecting waterbirds in the Kafue Flats, and this has
been done under the request of AEWA. The study has demonstrated that currently the area
remains very important for conservation of birds, despite various conflicts between conservation
and human activities. The impact of weeds on aquatic birds in Kafue Flats remains speculative at
present and needs detailed studies on this matter. The impact of rehabilitation activities are not
fully assessed, however, it is quite clear that any disturbance to the habitat will naturally affect
organisms. Specific recommendations from this study are:
iv
a. Socio-economic issues
The management of wetlands would need the incorporation of socio-economic issues
particularly those that affect people’s livelihoods. Reviews and the social survey in this
study have shown considerable need to address people’s needs if the conservation is to
succeed. Clearly, the rapidly growing population and increasing poverty could have a
serious impact on the Kafue Flats. It is important that special attention is given to the
pattern of settlements as opposed to birds’ major habitats.
b. Weed management and monitoring of weed control practices are essential in Kafue Flats.
The current study has shown that very little has been done to understand the impact of
weeds on ecology of birds. Essentially, the management of weeds in Kafue Flats has
only concentrated on Water Hyacinth, indicating that this has focused on a single issue. It
would be advisable that the Kafue Flats could be managed as a single system. Among
the weeds requiring considerable attention is the Mimosa pigra which is expanding at a
rapid rate, and which is very difficult to eradicate. Unless the spread of the weed is
halted, much of the waterbird habitat in Lochinvar National Park will be lost.
c.
Research and monitoring
The study has revealed that much work has to be done in Kafue Flats. By the time of
writing, there had not been any monitoring system in place to monitor activities in the
area. Both weed eradication activities and water regulation have no monitoring plan on
either the performance of the restoration process and the impact of restoration on other
components of the ecosystem. It is recommended that a project is conceived which will
ensure monitoring and evaluation of a) implementation of weed control b) impact on
birds, particularly the bird habitat c) behaviour of migratory bird species e) water quality
and socio-economic studies.
d. Community involvement and public awareness
Whereas this item has not been fully discussed, from the reviews and discussions with
people, it is clear that effective future activities will need full participation of all
stakeholders, and in particular local communities. Results of the present studies have
revealed that current activities in weed control have not considered local people. For the
most part, local involvement has been confined to CBNRM, and through Partners for
Wetlands Programme. It is the view of this study that weed management and
conservation of waterbirds will require not only the general participation, but also public
awareness.
e. Legal and institutional framework
The study has shown that though adequate legal framework is available for the
conservation of waterbirds, it is important that various pieces of legislation are
harmonized together with the need to integrate this with various conventions.
Nevertheless, at present, implementation of the AEWA agreement in Kafue Flats is
possible without any need for other legislation.
f.
Donor support for future work
It is the general understanding of this report that donor assistance in Kafue Flats has
been largely uncoordinated. This has been the case because of the sectoral nature
activities in the area. Secondly, projects have been started, implemented and terminated,
even when they are good and useful projects. For the most part, much of the donor funds
have been on developmental projects, mainly in hydropower development and irrigated
agriculture. Conservation projects have been limited. Based on the findings in this study,
it is essential that future donor assistance should include a large component of
v
conservation and community development. Successful conservation will depend on how
well socio-economic and wetlands habitat issues are addressed.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The consultancy wishes to commend IUCN and the sponsors for carrying out this study. It is the
hope of the consultancy that this study will mark the beginning of comprehensive research,
inventories and ecological assessments on birds and other wetland species in Zambia.
The consultancy is particularly grateful to all the people in Kafue Flats who assisted in various
ways to make this study possible. In particular, our thanks go to the senior officer, Mr. Thaulo and
his members of staff of ZAWA at Lochinvar National Park Station, for their great assistance in
guiding us and providing field information. The consultancy wishes to thank all field assistants
who were at one time in our team in the field: Ms. Moono Munkombwe, Mr. Todd Johnson, Mr.
Remmy Choongo and Mr. Innocent Malambo.
The consultancy is very grateful to all local officials, Chiefs (Hamusonde and Choongo),
Headmen, Villagers, Fishers and Paddlers, and to all officials of Government and institutions,
especially Zambia Wildlife Authority, Environmental Council of Zambia, Department of Fisheries,
World Wide Fund for Nature, and all those who participated in the interviews. We would like to
extend our thanks to all those who were interviewed for giving up their time in order to attend to
us, and all those who answered our questions. We recognize also the amount of local
(indigenous) knowledge of wetlands and birds as quite substantial and the consultancy hopes
that future research and management programmes will incorporate such resources.
Our sincere thanks go to the Country Programme Coordinator, Mrs. G. Richadson-Temm (later
Mr. E. Hachileka) and Mrs. Mweene, for their commitment and patience, and the friendly manner
in which this study was facilitated.
This report was compiled with the assistance of P. Chabwela and B. Chabwela. The consultancy
takes note of their excellent work in typing, data analysis and graphics, to bring this document to
its final form.
vii
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ADMADE
AEWA
BOD
CBD
CBNRM
CITES
CMS
COD
ECZ
ESP
GMA
GRZ
HQs
ITCZ
IUCN
IWRMS
KAFGEN
LIRDP
MENR
MTENR
NAP
NCSR
NCZ
NEAP
NGO
NPWS
PFAP
TDS
ToRs
TSS
UNDP
UNDP-GEF
UNFAO
WRAP
WWF
ZAWA
ZESCO
ZFAP
Administrative Management Design
African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement
Biological Oxygen Demand
Convention on Biological Diversity
Community Based Natural Resource Management
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Environmental Council of Zambia
Environmental Support Programme
Game Management Area
Government of the Republic of Zambia
Head Quarters
Intertropical Convergence Zone
International Union for the Conservation of Nature
Integrated Water Resource Management Strategy
Kafue Generation
Luangwa Integrated Resource Development Programme
Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources
Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources
National Action Plan
National Commission for scientific Research
Nitrogen Chemicals of Zambia
National Environment Action Plan
Non Governmental Organization
National Parks and Wildlife Services
Provincial Forest Action Plan
Total Dissolved Substances
Terms of Reference
Total suspended Solids
United Nations Development Programme
United Nations Development Programme – Global Environmental
Facility
United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization
Water Resources Action Plan
World Wide Fund for Nature
Zambia Wildlife Authority
Zambia Electricity Supply Corporation
Zambia Forestry Action Plan
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY……………………………………………………………………….
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………………..
LIST OF ACRONYMS………………………………………………………………………….
LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………...
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………….
LIST OF APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………..
i
vii
viii
xi
xi
xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………..
1.1 BACKGROUND AND SCIENTIFIC RATIONALE…………………………………...
1.2 STUDY OBJECTIVES…………………………………………………………………..
CHAPTER TWO: DESCRIPTION OF STUDY SITE………………………………………..
2.1 SELECTED STUDY SITES……………………………………………………………..
2.2 LOCATIONAL ASPECTS………………………………………………………………
2.3 BIOPHYSICAL FEATURES……………………………………………………………
2.3.1 Geology, Geomorphology and Soils…………………………………………………
2.3.2 Climate…………………………………………………………………………………
2.3.3 Hydrology……………………………………………………………………………….
2.3.4 Vegetation and Habitat………………………………………………………………
2.3.5 Important Fauna of the Kafue Flats…………………………………………………
2.3.6 Fish………………………………………………………………………………………
2.3.7 Invertebrates……………………………………………………………………………
3.0 ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND ISSUES AFFECTING
CONSERVATION………………………………………………………………………..
3.1 ECOLOGICAL VALUES OF THE KAFUE FLATS………………………………….
3.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND LAND RESOURCE USE SYSTEMS…………………
3.2.1 Dam Development and their Impact…………………………………………………
3.2.2 Human Population and Settlements…………………………………………………
3.2.3 Economic Activities and Land-Use Practices………………………………………
3.2.4 Bush Fires………………………………………………………………………………
3.2.5 Land-Use Conflicts and Tenure………………………………………………………
3.2.6 Water Resources Demand……………………………………………………………
3.3 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT AND AWARENESS……………………………….
3.4 LEGAL, POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK…………………………
3.4.1 Conventions, Treaties and Agreements……………………………………………
3.4.2 Legal and Institutional Arrangements………………………………………………
3.5 POLLUTION AND EUTROPHICATION……………………………………………..
CHAPTER FOUR: STUDY METHODS…………………………………………………….
4.1 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………..
4.2 USE OF MAPS………………………..………………………………………………
4.3 FIELD DATA COLLECTION………………………………………………………….
4.3.1 Field visits………………………………………………………………………………
4.3.2 Ecological Survey……………………………………………………………………
4.3.3 Socio-economic Survey………………………………………………………………
4.3.4 Meetings………………………………………………………………………………...
4.4 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………………
CHAPTER FIVE: STUDY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION………………………………….
5.1 LIVELIHOODS AND PEOPLES PERCEPTIONS……………………………………
5.1.1 Human Settlements……………………………………………………………………
5.1.2 Livelihood and Poverty……………………………………………………………...
5.1.3 Agriculture………………………………………………………………………………
5.1.4 Weed Awareness…………………………………………………………………….
5.1.5 Management of the Kafue Flats Wetland……………………………………………
5.2 INVASIVE WEEDS AND THEIR IMPACT…………………………………………..
5.2.1 Aquatic Weeds Water Hyacinth………………………………………………………
5.2.2 Mimosa pigra…………………………………………………………………………...
1
1
3
6
6
7
10
10
11
12
18
23
25
26
ix
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30
32
33
38
39
40
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42
42
44
48
52
52
52
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52
53
54
54
55
56
56
56
57
58
59
59
59
59
61
5.2.3 Salvinia molesta………………………………………………………………………..
5.2.4 Other Aquatic Weeds………………………………………………………………….
5.2.5 Other Terrestrial Weed Plants………………………………………………………..
5.3 IMPACT OF INVASIVE WEEDS ON WATERBIRD ECOLOGY………………….
5.3.1 Seasonal Migrations and Habitats…………………………………………………
5.4 IMPLICATIONS ON THE WETLANDS FOODCHAIN……………………………..
5.4.1 Impacts on Bird Populations…………………………………………………………
5.5 SITE REHABILITATION AND THEIR IMPACT ON WATERBIRDS……………
5.5.1 Restoration Consideration……………………………………………………………
5.5.2 Mechanical and Physical Control……………………………………………………
5.5.3 Biological Control………………………………………………………………………
5.5.4 Chemical Control………………………………………………………………………
5.5.5 Pollution Management………………………………………………………………
5.5.6 Local Technologies…………………………………………………………………….
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS………………………….
6.1
CONCLUSIONS……………...………………………………………………………..
6.2
RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………….…………………………..
7.0
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………
8.0
APPENDICES………………………………………………………………………….
x
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66
66
70
73
74
74
78
79
82
82
83
83
83
85
89
102
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Kafue Flood Plain…………………………………………………………………………………….
Location of Specific Study Sites…………………………………………………………………….
Kafue Hydrograph at Itezhitezhi before (Natural) and after (regulated) for an average
year……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Schematic cross section of the Kafue River North Bank at Mutchabi, showing the major
vegetation zones………………………………………………………………………………………..
Causes of settlements…………………………………………………………………………………
Sources of income……………………………………………………………………………………..
Areas and Habitats of major concentration of birds in the Kafue flats……………………………
Simplified food web of a fresh water wetland (Kafue Flats)………………………………………..
5
9
17
19
57
58
69
71
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1
Table 2
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Protection area status of the Kafue Flats region as covered by National Parks and
GMAs………………………………………………………………………………………………….....
Annual monthly rainfall (mm) at Itezhitezhi (ZESCO, 1996)……………………………………….
Distribution and status of Large Mammal species………………………………………………….
Various environmental laws, institutions and their mandates……………………………………..
Water quality of surface and Ground water, Lower Kafue………………………….....................
A list of invasive and potential weeds and their distribution, impact and control methods in
Kafue Flats………………………………………………………………………………………………
Estimated numbers of selected waterbirds observed on the Kafue Flats………………………..
Impact of invasive plants on native plants and bird species……………………………………….
Selected bird species and their food habits………………………………………….....................
Characteristics of less mature, more mature, and disturbed ecosystems………………………..
Summary of advantages and disadvantages of weed control methods………………………….
Potential impact of restoration activities on bird behaviour………………………………………..
List of biological control agents and year introduced………………………………………...........
Biological control agents and kind of damage inflicted on water hyacinth……………………….
xi
8
15
24
48
51
65
67
68
70
72
77
79
80
80
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
Appendix 8
Appendix 9
Appendix 10
Appendix 11
Appendix 12a
Appendix 12b
Appendix 13
Appendix 14
Appendix 15
Terms of reference…………………………………………………….............................................
Protected area system of the Kafue flats based on the wildlife act…………………………........
Geological map of southern Zambia including the Kafue flats…………………………………….
Aquatic and flood plain plants of the Kafue flats……………………………………………………
A preliminary checklist of resident bird species occurring in the Kafue flats region, habitat,
frequency and status……………………………..........................................................................
A preliminary checklist of migratory bird species occurring in the Kafue flats region, habitat,
frequency and status…………………………………………………………………………………...
Some reptiles and amphibians commonly known to occur within the Kafue flats
region……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Fishes of the Kafue river and the associated wetlands…………………………………………….
Policy Matrix for Fulfilling Zambian Commitments to Conventions Regarding Management of
Water Habitats………………………………………………………………………………………….
Policy and Legal Matrix for the protection and management of environment and Natural
Resources…………………………………....................................................................................
Socio-economic and ecological survey questionnaire………………………………………….....
List of interviewee for socio-economic survey………………………………………………………
People and institutions interviewed………………………………………………………………….
Water hyacinth distribution in the 1990s…………………………………………………………….
Weevil release sites……………………………………………………………………………………
Proposed weed control programme………………………………………………………………….
xii
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105
106
107
110
118
120
123
125
130
134
140
141
142
143
144
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND AND SCIENTIFIC RATIONALE:
The working plan of African-Eurasian Waterbirds Agreement (AEWA) called for the development
of case studies detailing recent experiences in the restoration of water bird habitats, where alien
invasive weeds have degraded those habitats. The AEWA is a technical agreement under the
Bonn Convention that aims to encourage international cooperation in the conservation of
migratory birds. The Convention was a brainchild of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment (1972), which recognizes the need for countries to cooperate in the
conservation of animals that migrate across national boundaries or between areas of national
jurisdiction and the high seas. The AEWA came into force in 1983, with the primary goal of
providing protection to migratory terrestrial, marine, and avian species over the whole of their
range. Migratory species depend on the suitability of their wintering grounds. Current trends,
however, indicate that suitable sites are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic activities that
lead to habitat degradation, e.g., cultivation in wetlands. Worse still, it has long been held that
migratory species legally do not fall within the jurisdiction of one particular country; therefore, no
single state could be held responsible for their well-being. This is where international agreements
and conventions become important.
This background forms the basis of concern relating to wetland habitats, their degradation by
alien invasive species and the need for their restoration. A study of experiences in the restoration
of water bird habitats is crucial to the interests and functions of these agreements. For instance,
the problem of proliferation of invasive weeds, vis-à-vis, invading migratory water bird habitats in
many tropical wetland areas, especially those of international importance, is well known; and, has
recently raised great concern due to their effects on changing the ecological character of these
wetlands. The impacts on the migratory water birds may occur either through the direct removal
or alteration of their habitats, or by effects on the food chain. This concern has therefore attracted
international attention and interest AEWA, Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), Ramsar
Convention and the Convention of Migratory Species (CMS) towards conserving degraded
wetlands habitats.
This study was carried out in Kafue Flats wetland, and the reasons for selecting this area as a
study site are discussed in section 2.0 of this report. The Kafue Flats flood plain wetland (Fig. 1)
has an area of about 6,500 Km2, and is one of the major wetland areas in Zambia. Other wetland
areas include Bangweulu Swamps (11,000 Km2), Zambezi Flood Plain (9,000 Km2), MweruLuapula (4,500 Km2), Chambeshi Flats (3,500 Km2), Lukanga Swamps (2,500 Km2), Busanga
Plains (2,000 Km2) and Mweru-wantipa (1,300 Km2).
1
The Kafue Flats are classified as such, due to their hydrological, landscape and vegetation
(grassland) characteristics. The Flats are inundated annually, have low gradient with poorly
drained soils, and characterized by grass species of Acroceras macrum, Leersia hexandra,
Setaria sp., Vetiveria nigritana, Oryza barthii, Panicum repens and Echinocholoa sp. Widely
accepted definition and types/classifications of wetlands are provided by Chabwela (1994,
adapted from Ramsar Convention and Cowardin, et al, 1979).
Current knowledge and information on the Kafue Flats indicate that the Flats are among the most
important and productive ecosystems in Zambia. They are world wide renowned as a habitat for
an exceptionally rich and varied avi-fauna (WWF-Zambia, undated), including migratory water
birds of international importance.
The Kafue Flats are an important conservation area, and together with Bangweulu Swamps they
are recognized as Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention. Despite
the ecological importance, rich natural resource base, economic significance of these resources,
and functional values of the Kafue Flats ecosystem, the area is reported to be the most
ecologically disturbed wetland in Zambia (Chabwela, 1994; Chabwela 1986; Kalunga, 1996). The
major issues affecting the conservation status of the Kafue Flats include the following:
•
Changes in the Flooding regime due to the construction of the two dams on the Kafue
River;
•
Legal, institutional and management problems;
•
Socio-economic systems, land-use conflicts, and over-utilization of resources;
•
Limited information and research;
•
Limited community involvement and awareness;
•
Pollution and Eutrophication;
•
Weeds infestation
Aquatic weeds like water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Typha latifolia and Cyperus papyrus
were first observed in the lower Kafue River around the railway bridge area in the 1970s
(Kalunga, 1996 after Chapman, 1971; Magadza, 1977); while woody shrub weeds like Mimosa
pigra and Dicrostachys cinerea had been observed in the Lochinvar National Park in the 1960s
during the FAO Multi-Purpose Survey (1968) of the Kafue Flats.
Although information on most of the issues and how they affect ecological management in the
Kafue Flats is somewhat documented and available (Howard and Williams, 1978; Chabwela, et al
1994; Jeffery et al., 1986), there is currently an information void on the weeds problem. More
specifically, the relationship between weeds infestations and their impact on wildlife habitats and
2
the overall ecosystem has not been studied. As recently as 1986, experts have noted that the
whole question of growth of undesirable plants in the Kafue Flats rangeland has not been
investigated (Chabwela 1986), although, the problem of weeds infestation in the area had been
identified, 2-3 decades ago.
This question of weed proliferation and their impact on wildlife habitats is the basis of this
study. The study aims to investigate and examine how invasive aquatic weeds affect
migratory water-bird sites and how the use of the site as water-bird habitat has been
addressed and impacted by rehabilitation activities in the Kafue Flats. This report output
has resulted from the initial research activity conducted in Zambia, Kafue Flats, which area
has been selected as a case study site for the project
1.2 STUDY OBJECTIVES
This study is part of a larger AEWA project, and it focuses on how invasive aquatic weeds affect
migratory Waterbirds sites. It also examines how the water bird area has been impacted by
rehabilitation activities in the Kafue Flats in Zambia (see detailed ToR in Appendix 1.)
The study site has been chosen for a number of reasons. First, in this stretch the Environmental
Council of Zambia is carrying out some experimental removal of the weeds.
Second, the Kafue Flats, listed as among the wetlands of international importance under the
Ramsar Convention, have exceptionally rich and varied avifauna arising out of the wide range of
habitats existing within the Lochinvar National Park and the northern part of the Flats in Blue
Lagoon National Park. These areas are have extremely high primary productivity, and thus
support many different wetland birds; for some species. They are important as moulting area in
the post-breeding period; and, some waterbirds migrate between Lochnivar, Europe and Asia;
others come from different parts of Africa to spend part of the year at Lochinvar and other parts of
the Kafue Flats.
The specific objectives of the study were:
a) To contribute to the documentation of recent experiences in the restoration of water
bird habitats, where those habitats have been degraded by alien invasive weeds.
b) To provide a detailed case study of rehabilitation of wetlands of the Kafue Flats,
3
Zambia, with regard to the manner in which the use of the site as water bird habitat
has been impacted and addressed by these rehabilitation activities.
c) To increase knowledge and awareness of the invasive aquatic weed impact on the
migratory water bird habitats among major local and national stakeholders in Zambia
The study also sought:
•
To identify and record critical biological issues affecting the water birds migratory
patterns and habitats vis-à-vis the invasive aquatic weeds in the research area;
•
To identify and examine information of key legal frameworks (policies, conventions
etc.) that are regulating the protection, management and use of the water bird sites;
and
•
To examine experimental rehabilitation activities/instruments used in the in affected
areas to address invasive aquatic weeds.
4
Figure 1. Kafue Flood Plain
5
2.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY SITE
The description and analysis of the study area present a picture that brings factors that affect
conservation and management in general and wetlands in particular. The linkages between
socio-economic developments and conservation are clearly underlined.
2.1
SELECTED STUDY SITES
Specific study sites were confined to three areas in the Kafue Flats (Fig.2). One site covers the
Lower Kafue River stretch between the Kafue Gorge through the Kafue Road and Railway
Bridges to Mazabuka Town. The other site is confined to the Lochinvar National Park and the
surrounding GMA both to the east and west of the park falling in particular, in the areas of chief
Choongo and Haamusonde (Figure 2). Letter A on the map represents the lower Kafue River
Stretch, and B represents the Lochinvar site and C represents the Blue Lagoon National Park.
The choice of these particular sites in the Kafue Flats is based on a number of considerations.
First, the lower Kafue River stretch is an area that has been infested with weeds, especially
Water Hyacinth, and is an area also which is associated with heavy pollution in the river resulting
from various human activities such as agriculture, sewerage waste, industry, human settlements,
mining, fishing. The pollution problem is said to be responsible for the weed proliferation in this
area. As a result, this is an area where a number of experimental weed control activities and
impact studies have been undertaken (Kalunga, 1996; ECZ 1998). The area, therefore, provides
a sound basis of information for studying the weed problem and the effectiveness of control
measures.
Second, the Kafue Flats, especially the Lochnivar National Park is world wide renowned as a
habitat for an exceptionally rich and varied avi-fauna (WWF-Zambia, undated), including
migratory water birds of international importance, especially in the Lochinvar National Park. About
428 species have been noted to occur in Lochinvar (Ibid.). The waterline zone, shallow lagoons,
ox-bow lakes, levees and swamps provide good habitats and are most productive, and attract a
variety of birds including migratory water birds from Europe, Asia and from within southern Africa.
The different kinds of birds occurring in the Flats use the area for breeding, feeding, molting,
roosting, etc. The area is one of the few remaining habitats for the increasingly endangered
wattled cranes (Bugeramus carunculatus). Kafue Flats currently host about 1,000 birds of this
species, the only viable population in Zambia whose total population stands at 4,000, i.e.; about
half of the world totals (Kamweneshe, et al, 2002a). In the 1980s, the population of wattled
cranes was double the present and much of it was still in the Kafue Flats.
6
The Flats are also a home for one of the most important animal species of Kafue Lechwe (Kobus
leche kafuensis), a threatened and endemic mammal species. The estimated population of
Lechwe was about 100,000 in the 1970s, but due to a number of factors, e.g., poaching; it has
dwindled to about 40,000 herds in 2002 (Kamweneshe, et al, 2002b).
In addition to being a special habitat for bird life and animal life, Lochinvar and the surrounding
areas have been observed to be increasingly becoming infested with both aquatic weeds (water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), papyrus reeds; (Cyperus papyrus), and Typha sp, Salvinia
molesta, etc.), and woody shrub weeds (e.g., Mimosa pigra thickets).
Third, there is anecdotal evidence suggesting that weed infestation, in combination with other
factors appears to be affecting the ecology of bird and mammal life. It is indicated that the big fish
eating bird species such as Pelicans and Storks dependent on the open and muddy waterline and
shallow waters of ox-bow lakes and lagoons may have been displaced as a result of mimosa
(Knight Piel’sod Consulting, 2002). Unlike the lower Kafue River stretch, the Lochinvar area has
had no detailed studies on weeds or any form of organized control efforts to rehabilitate the bird
habitat. For these reasons, the Lochinvar area appears to need special attention, and was
chosen as a site for this study.
2.2
LOCATION and LEGAL STATUS
The Kafue Flats are located in southern Zambia, about 50 km from Lusaka, and between
latitudes 15o11’-16o11’ and longitude 26o-28o16’. It is part of the Kafue River Basin (155,000 sq
km), and Kafue Gorge binds it to the west and by Itezhi-tezhi Gorge Dam to the east. Between
these two gorges the Flats are about 250 km long and 60 km at its widest point.
Nearly 50% of the Kafue Flats Wetlands is under the protected area system, see Appendix 2. As
shown in Table 1, a total of 6,400 km2 is under protection through National Parks and Wildlife
Act. The two national parks; Lochinvar (410km2), Blue Lagoon (450km2), and the two Game
Management Areas; Kafue Flats GMA (5,175km2) and Mazabuka GMA (254km2) provide some
form of protection to the area. About 30% of Namwala GMA (108km2) is directly linked to the
protection of the Kafue Flats. Unfortunately, however, this protection status is concerned only with
wildlife, as fisheries, forests and water resources are not covered by this protected area system.
Although relevant pieces of legislation are available to regulate the exploitation of such resources,
effective management has not been realized as resources continue to be degraded.
7
Both Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon National Parks are designated Ramsar sites, meaning that they
are areas recognized as sites for international importance in the conservation of wetlands. The
agreement provides for the contracting parties (such as Zambia) to manage the sites through the
principle of wise use (Ramsar, 1993), and subject the sites to the International Agreement.
Furthermore, the nearest towns servicing the Kafue Flats are surrounded by a number of
settlements of Kafue, Mazabuka, Monze, Namwala and Mumbwa are the largest.
Table 1. Protection area status of the Kafue Flats region as covered by National Parks and
GMAs
Name of Area
Blue Lagoon National Park
Lochinvar National Park
Kafue Flats GMA
Mazabuka GMA
Namwala GMA (only 30%)
Area (km2)
450
410
5,175
254
108
Protection status
Total protection, including Ramsar site
Total protection, including Ramsar site
Wildlife. Land largely communal
Wildlife. Land largely communal
Wildlife. Land largely communal
8
Figure 2. Location of specific study sites
9
2.3
BIOPHYSICAL FEATURES
2.3.1 Geology, geomorphology and Soils
Geologically, the whole of Kafue Basin represents one of the ancient landmasses of the African
Continent (Handlos, 1978) and the underlying rock materials of much of this area are mainly the
complexes of Katanga sediments of the upper (late) Precambrian age (700 million years ago).
However, the rocks around the Kafue Gorge are of basement complex materials of the lower
Precambrian era (800 million years), mainly composed of quartz, quartzite, gneiss, granite and
schist (Appendix 3). Much of the Kafue Flats are underlain by recent sedimentary materials of
Karoo alluvium dating back to the Jurassic and Tertiary periods (Money, 1975).
Over a geological time scale, it appears that the Kafue Basin had been subjected to rather gentle
pressures resulting in gradual uplift and subsidence, resulting in an undulating landscape of
‘swells’ and depressions (Handlos, 1978). These activities could probably have resulted into the
formation of the Flats (depression), and this area could have been under water forming a great
lake, which is now buried. These geological activities could have also twisted the Kafue River
from its confluence at Zambezi to where it is today (Chabwela, 1986).
Geomorphologically, the Kafue Flats are part of the Central African Plateau, with an altitude of
about 1,000 – 1,200m asl. The meandering Kafue River through the gentle sloping flood plain
traverses the Flats over a distance of about 250km up to the Kafue Gorge. The normal fall
between Itezhi-tezhi and the Kafue Gorge is only 15m over 400-km distance. After the Gorge, the
river moves a distance of 25km where it reaches the confluence with the Zambezi, dropping to an
altitude of 370m ASL. That means the River drops sharply by 600-700m within a distance of 25
km.
In the meander belt, the river creates a complex micro-relief characterized by lagoons, ox-bow
lakes, and abandoned river channels, marshes and levees. In normal years, these features are
annually flooded. However, after the impoundment at Kafue Gorge, much of the eastern half of
the Kafue Flats is permanently inundated. Longitudinally, the meander zone is succeeded by an
expanse of the flood plain with shallow gradient, which much of it is also flooded during the rainy
(flood) season.
At the fringes of the flood plain terrain, a ring of termitaria landscape occurs. Anthills and termite
mounds characterize this landscape. The termitaria landscape is classified into two. Above the
level of prolonged flooding, and where tree growth is restricted, large termitaria develop due to
the activity of Odontotermes sp and reach a height of well over two meters. Small termitaria, less
than a meter high, built by activities of Cubiterme spp are a conspicuous part of the landscape in
10
some areas (Handlos, 1978).
Around the sides of the large termitaria, in some places, depressions occur, and these hold water
in the rainy season and remain wet during the drier parts of the year. These seasonal pools have
been noted to be an important feature in the landscape as they provide a series of microhabitats
for semi-aquatic plants and animals (Ibid.). Rising above the termitaria relief is the transitional
escarpment zone characterized by hills and steep slopes, which gives way to a more gentle
undulating plateau zone.
The types of soils that have developed in the Flats have been due to the function of interacting
factors: parent material, geomorphology, and rate of weathering. The parent Karoo or Katanga
rocks have, however, not affected the soils that have developed in the meander-flood plain zone,
but are mainly from recent alluvial deposits or sediments from seasonal run-off flood water. The
soils are deep dark clays, called montimorillonite, and are capable of holding large quantities of
water. They are rich in carbon, thereby giving the characteristic dark colour. These soils are
poorly drained and hydrate when wet, but dehydrate when dry. This activity of expanding and
shrinking produce a gilgai relief, characterized by big and deep cracks and ‘swelling’ of the areas
between the cracks, creating a rough area in the midst of a generally level terrain.
On the termitaria zone, the soils are poorly drained deep clay-loam; while soils on the escarpment
are shallow, well to excessively drained young gravel- sands, and still rich in base minerals. In
some places, the landscape is associated with rock outcrops. On the plateau, the soils are
heavily leached, which tend to be acidic, poorly to well drained, sandy-clay-loams.
2.3.2 Climate
Data on the climatic situation of the study area described below has been adapted and modified
from the works of Hutchinson (et al, 1975). Department of Meteorology (1981), Handlos (1978),
and Kamwenesha (et al 2002). The climate of the Kafue Flats, like much of Zambia, is marked by
seasonally. There are three distinct seasons; (1) the cool-dry season from (April) May to August;
(2) the hot dry season from September to October; and, (3) the wet-warm season extending for 5
months from November to March.
Due to the generally level surface and uniform latitude on the Flat, the climate prevailing on the
Flats is generally uniform. The average annual rainfall is 800mm, much of it falling in December,
January and February. The rainfall totals in between years varies between 700-900 mm (Table
2), and unreliable within one rainy season. In general, the Inter-tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ), a low-pressure zone, which prevails over the area in November-March, controls the
11
rainfall pattern. The low-pressure zone is an area in the atmosphere where the moist Congo air
mass meets the dry south trade winds to produce large-scale rainfall events. Where the soils are
bare, these rains cause high run-off, soil erosion and flooding in the Flats. As from April to
October, the ITCZ shifts to the north, and a high-pressure zone prevails in the Kafue Basin, which
does not produce rain. In recent years, due to a combination of the effects El niño and
deforestation, the rainfall pattern has changed. The rainfall is even very unreliable, producing
drought conditions almost every year since 1991/2 rainy season.
Like most parts in Zambia, the temperatures prevailing in the Kafue Flats are generally warm, but
cooler than in the rift valley areas. The variation is due to differences in altitude, the Flats are on
higher (plateau) elevation than the low-lying valley areas. On the Flats, mean monthly
temperature range from 14oC in June/July to 27.5o C in October; the mean maximum and
minimum temperature range from 16o C to 34o C in October; and, 7o C to 24oC in July
respectively. The mean monthly temperatures in the Luangwa or Zambezi valley range from 19o
C in June to 30o C in October. However, on the Flats, frost days or days of minimum
temperatures below 0o C in the coldest months of June and July are very rare.
The rate of evaporation, except in the peak rainfall months of January, February and March, is
higher than rainfall. Potential evaporation is in the region of 1,700 – 2,200 mm. This indicates that
there are only three months of water surplus in the year; and, there is generally water deficit in 9
months of the year for plant growth. Factors influencing this high rate of evaporation include the
following: vast extent of shallow floodwaters across the flats; presence of plants especially the
Water Hyacinth weed, which increases the surface area exposed to the loss of water through
transpiration; solar radiation and wind. High water losses have implication on water availability in
the River for the various uses (hydropower generation, irrigation, domestic uses, industry, etc).
As for the two latter factors, sunshine is in the vicinity of 3,000 hrs per year; and wind at their
greatest speed reaches the velocities of 100-115 km per hr. Much of the winds and sunshine hrs
occurs in the seven dry months (April-October) of the year. As for winds, these speeds are an
important factor in the ecology of the area, i.e., distributing small seeds, spores, and nutrients
over the Flats.
2.3.3
Hydrology, Water Use Management and Hydropower
The Kafue River and tributaries originating from the surrounding plateau area drain the Flats.
Most of these tributaries once used to be perennial, but are now ephemeral. Water flow is
seasonal and flashy, based on run-off rainwater. They include Mbuma, Mwembeshi, Nkala,
Lukomezi, Nansenga, Lutale, Nanzhila, Sikaleta, Itu, Nangoma, Banza, Banga and Kaleya
12
streams.
Initial shallow flooding is caused by combined factors of rainfall received during December,
January, and February; drainage impediments; the flashy run-off from the local streams; and
impeded out-flow of water due to narrow channel and gorge at the eastern end of the Flats.
However, after these months, flooding continues in the months of March to June. This is due to
the delay in the discharge of run-off from the Upper Kafue Basin. The upper catchment of the
Kafue Basin, which covers about 2/3 of the total catchment, receives more rainfall of about 1,200
– 1,400 mm annually and the rainfall season is longer, up to April (May).
The rainfall water and run-off from the tributaries in the upper catchment accumulate in the Kafue
River and during peak flow periods, upper Kafue waters spread and over bank as floods.
However, much of the flood is attenuated in the Busanga and Lukanga Swamps. This reduces
and delays flood peaks down stream (Kamwenesha, 2002). From here, water moves slowly
southwards until it reaches a peak at Itezhi-tezhi Gorge in April. Finally, due to the low gradient,
water flows slowly across the Flats reaching a peak at the Kafue Gorge some time in May-July,
well after the local rains on the Flats have ended (Ibid.).
The flood in the Flats occurs because of the volume of water that flows in the Kafue channel at
Itezhi-tezhi. The normal channel of the river is estimated to be able to carry about 170 m3/s of
water, but during the height of flood, 2,500 m3/s of water may be flowing into the river, resulting in
over-bank spills and flood in the Flats. During very wet years, up to 5,650 sq km of flood plain is
inundated. The historical annual peak flood that has been recorded in the Flats is 500 m3/s.
With its suitable natural site for a large storage reservoir utilizing a 400m drop in short distance,
the Kafue Gorge was dammed with underground power station (Fig. 1). The dam is a gravity
rock-fill with a crest height of 50m at 981.5 m asl. Six turbines are installed to generate about 900
MW at full capacity, and with a maximum discharge of 252-m3/s. Total reservoir capacity is 800
million m3, with a total dead storage of 20 million m3. This corresponds to a full retention level of
976.6 from December through March to July; but operating at normal level of 975.3 from August
to November (Balasubrahmanyam, et al, 1978). Due to high evaporative losses and low water
levels in the dry season in the Flats (as reported above), the above potential was to be fulfilled by
storage and regulated releases from upstream especially during the dry years (Ibid.). In
maintaining the required head of water in the reservoir through the Kafue Gorge Dam, this has
resulted into inundation of the eastern half of the Kafue Flats up to Lochinvar Park. The Kafue
Gorge Dam permanently inundates an area of about 600-1,600 sq km of former seasonally
inundated flood plain. Such that according to the results of a recent aerial survey by Knight
Piel’sod (September 2002), the inundated area appeared to be a vast ‘inland’ lake, and could be
13
considered as part of the Kafue Reservoir.
14
Table 2. Annual and monthly rainfall (mm) at Itezhitezhi (ZESCO, 1996)
Year
1979/80
1980/81
1981/82
1982/83
1983/84
1984/85
1985/86
1986/87
1987/88
1988/89
1989/90
1990/91
Mean
Max
Min
Oct
20.8
1.8
18.0
34.0
16.3
15.5
0.0
58.5
12.0
0.0
10.5
0.0
Nov
145.9
104.7
71.8
114.8
60.4
45.0
34.9
43.0
13.0
0.0
40.0
87.0
Dec
330.0
328.8
55.0
81.0
118.2
99.8
208.5
224.8
178.0
59.5
192.6
15.6
58.5
0
63.4
145.9
0
170.6
330
55
Jan
56.0
228.0
250.8
195.0
48.6
139.7
197.0
104.5
172.5
303.6
222.0
Feb
141.3
335.0
177.4
58.0
121.6
154.5
133.0
80.0
84.0
189.0
133.4
Mar
104.0
92.1
1.0
38.4
160.7
45.5
86.0
40.5
38.5
46.0
97.3
174.3
303.6
48.6
146.1
335
58
68.2
160.7
1
15
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
12.2
15.0
3.0
0.5
0.0
5.5
83.0
0.0
0.0
6.5
75.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
4.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
18.3
83
0
0.4
4.5
0
0.4
4.5
0
0.0
0
0
0.0
0
0
0.5
5
0
Total
810.2
1105.4
582.0
526.2
525.8
505.5
742.4
551.3
498.0
604.6
771.3
656.6
1105.4
498
Stage II development at Itezhi-tezhi provided for the necessary backing storage reservoir. The
reservoir has a gross capacity of 5,700 million m3, corresponding to the full retention level of
1029.5m. Provisions were also made in a way that the annual flooding, which was a definite
requirement for preserving the ecological balance in the area, the operation of Itezhitezhi would
be simulated through provision of control of the flooding. The pattern of flooding would be
modified especially during drier years (Balasubrahmanyam, et al, 1978). In normal and betterthan-normal years, Itezhitezhi would not adversely influence the peak and extent of flooding in the
Flats since the capacity of the reservoir is a fraction of the yield in such year (Ibid.). It was
therefore envisaged that the operation of the reservoir would not result in a significant departure
from normal.
However, in drier years, and to ensure that the interest of power generation did not drastically and
detrimentally override ecological considerations, it was stipulated to allow for the release of 300
m3/s in March of any year so as to maintain minimum head of water at the Kafue Gorge Dam.
Despite these measures, the envisaged negative effects of the Stage II development became
imminent after commissioning of the project.
The planned ecological freshet, defined as ecological release, of 300 m3/s in March of every year
has never been released (Kamwenesha, 2002). Except during periods of exceptional run-off from
the upper Kafue Catchment, the releases have been around 168 m3/s. These releases have
mainly been dictated by hydropower generation needs. As a result, the extent of flooding in the
western portion of the Flats has been reduced, and peak floods have been reduced by 27%
during the months of April-June (Ibid.). Actually it has also been observed that some areas in the
western part of Flats no longer become flooded during the wet season in drier years (Partners of
Wetlands Newsletter, undated); while, in the whole of the Flats, extreme drought no longer
accounts. In sum, the general pattern is that the depth and area extent, duration and frequency of
flooding in the whole of the Kafue Flats have been reduced by Itezhi-tezhi Dam. This pattern is in
contrast with the natural flooding regimes before impoundment at Itezhi-tezhi. Figure 3 depicts
these changes in the hydrological pattern (Chabwela et al, 1998; Kamweneshe, 2002).
16
Figure 3. Kafue Hydrograph at Itezhi-tezhi before (Natural) and after (regulated) for an average year
17
2.3.4 Vegetation and habitat types
The vegetation systems of the Kafue Flats region have been well documented (UNFAO, 1968;
Douthwaite and Van Lavieren, 1977; Rees, 1978; Handlos, 1998; Chabwela and Siwela, 1986;
Ellenbroek, 1987; Chabwela and Ellenbroek, 1990) as primarily consisting of (a) levees and
lagoons (b) flood plain grasslands (c) water meadows (d) Termitaria grasslands and (e)
woodlands (Fig 4). These vegetation types constitute the major habitat types for wildlife, and are
described in the succeeding sub-sections (Fig. 4).
2.2.4.1 Levees and Lagoons
Levees are topographically higher areas, which are not flooded during hydrologically normal
years. The levees are dominated by tall grasses such as Echinochloa sp. Vossia cuspidata
(Griff.) In the vicinity of fishermen villages, Levees are dominated by Sorghum verticillifrorum
(Steud.) Stapf, while is some scattered places, trees of the species Acacia albida Del. and the
palm Borassus aethiopum Mart occur.
The lagoons are mainly found along the riverine meander belt. They are usually permanently
inundated, abandoned river courses with an open connection to the main river. The vegetation of
the lagoons varies from mats of floating species such as Aeschynomene fluitans Peter, rooted
water lilies communities with Nymphaea lotus L, and Nymphaea caerulea Savlgny to submerged
vegetation with Utricularia foliosa L. The lagoons are often fringed with tall grasses such as
Vossia cuspidata, Echinochloa sp. and Oryza longistaminata (Chev. & Roehr.)
18
Figure 4. Schematic cross section of the Kafue River North Bank at Mutchabi, showing the major vegetation zones: 1. Levees and
Lagoons; 2. Tall Grass floodplain grassland; 3. Water meadows; 4. Termitaria grasslands and 5. Woodland
19
2.2.4.2 Flood plain grasslands
Vossia-Oryza grassland is the most abundant vegetation type in the study area. Of these areas
are permanently flooded. In general, the vegetation is composed of Vossia cuspidata, Leersia
hexandra Sw, Oryza barthi A. Chev., Cyperus esculentus, Eleocharis fistulosa Schultes,
Acroceras macrum, Perotis patens and Cyperus digitatus. Abandoned water channels, lagoons
and Oxbow lakes are commonly covered by Aegchynomene fluitans Peter, Nyamphaea capensis
Thunb and Nymphoides indica, but sedges such as Cyperus papyrus L and Typha capensis
Rohrb are frequent. However, the common plant species on levees, banks and sand bars are
Phragmites mauritanus (Cav) Trin. et Steud, Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) Beaur, E. pyramidalis,
Sacciolepis africana, vossia cuspidata, Oryza barthi, Leersia denudata, Acroceras macrum,
Panicum repens, Paspalum commersonii Lam and Sorghum verticilliflorum which are also
associated with Cyperus esculentus, C. rotundus, Eleocharis fistulosa, Fimbristylis Complanata
,Fuirena glomerata, Rhynchospora mauritii, and Skirpus cubensis Poepp. Rich of sedge plants.
Commonly abundant herb species however, include Cassia mimosoides L, Cleome monophylla
L, Commelina sp., Euphorbia prostrata, Heliotropium baclei D. var. rostratun Johnst., Polygonum
limbatum Meish and Sesbania sesban (L) Merr. var. nubica.
2.2.4.3 Water meadows
The water meadows occur on the edges of the floodplain where they are inundated only for a
short period during high water levels. The main species constituting the water meadows are
short, small leaved grasses, and these include Panicum repens L. Leersia denudata Launert.
Acroceras macrum Stapf and Paspalum obtusifolium (Delile) N. D. Simpson. Locally, Oryza
longistaminata may also be abundant. (See Plate 1)
Acroceras grassland is an intermediate zone between Setaria and Vossia-Oryza grasslands.
During periods when floods recede, most herbage collapses and covers the soils with thick mats
whose underneath may remain moist throughout the dry-season. This grassland is mostly
dominated by Acroceras macrum, Panicum repens, Eulalia granulata Polygonum Sp., Perotis
patens Gand, and Rhynchospora mauritii Steud, Sedges such as Cyperus esculentus L, C.
rotundus L, Fimbristylis complanata (Retz.).
Link, and herbs such as Ipomoea acquatica,
Phyllanthus pentandrus Schumach. et Thonn are usually conspicuous.
20
Plate1: Flood plain habitat-water meadow
Setaria grassland is generally transitional to the Termitaria vegetation type, but it is annually
flooded. Pure stands of Setaria sphacelata and Setaria eylessi, occur in some areas, but where
the vegetation is open, the dominant species are Vetiveria nigritana (Bent) Stapf, Echinochloa
pyramidalis, Eulalia geniculata, Panicum repens L., Polygonum sp., Paspalum polystachyum and
Barachlaria euriciformis.
2.2.4.4 Termitaria grasslands
It is vegetation which is fairly extensive, and while it may be wooded (Plate 2), it is predominantly
grassland. The soils are grey brown alluvial with clay loam texture. This vegetation type is
identified by numerous termite mounds (Termitaria), which vary with size and height. The woody
cover shows dominance of Piliostigma thonningii, Lonchocarpus capassa, Combretum
ghasalense, Albizia anthelmintica, Acacia seyal, A sieberana and A. gerradii. However,
Brysocarpus orientalis (Baill.) Bak., Combretum obovatum F. Hoffm and Ficus sycomorus are
also present. The ground cover is generally dominated by Digitaria milinjiana, Setaria sphacelata
(Schumach.), Brachiaria regulosa Stapf, Panicum maximum, Sporobolus sp. and Eulalia
geniculata Stapf. The area is only inundated in periods of floods as well as from local storms.
2.2.4.5 Woodlands
The woodlands surrounding the Kafue Flats are made up of several distinct vegetation type; i.e.,
Acacia-Albizia Woodland, Acacia- Combretum Woodland, Mopane Wood and Brachystegia
Woodland.
21
The Acacia-Albizia Woodland type occurs on black clay soils in drier areas which occasionally
may be flooded, bordering the Temitaria zone. This woodland is characterized by major plant
species such as Acacia polyacantha Wild, Albizia harvey Forum, Combretum ghasalense Engl.
et. Diets and Albizia anthelmintica A. Brogn in the overstorey canopy cover. However, also
commonly sighted woody species are Acacia albida Del., A. nilotica (L) Wild et Del., Seyal Del.,
Borassus aethipum Mart, Dicrostachys cinerea CL7 Wight et Ain, Ficus sycamorus L,
Lonchocarpus capassa Rolfe, PiliostigmaThonningii (Schum) Mrihe-Redh, Stereospermum
kunthianum Charm, and Ziziphus abyssinrca A. Rich.
Plate 2: Termitaria woodland
The ground cover vegetation shows predominance of Setaria elegies Set and Digitaria milinjiana
(Endle) Staff, but also common species include Camilia sp., Panicum maximum Jacq, Rottboellia
exaltata L.f., Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst) Echinochloa pyramidalis (Lam.) Hitchc. et Chase and
E. colonum.
The Acacia-Combretum Woodland occurs only in limited areas on red sandy soils. While it
borders the Termitaria zone, it does not get flooded. The most dominant plant species are Acacia
sieberana DC, Combretum ghasalense, Markhamia obtusifolia (Bak.) Sprague, Acacia gerrardii
Benth, A. seyal. Lonchocarpus capassa.Ziziphus abyssinica, Sclerocarya caffra Sond,
Ostryoderris stuhlumannii (Taub.) Dun et Baker and Grewia bicolor Juss. Although their
occurrence is comparatively insignificant, woody species such as Acacia polycantha, Azanza
garckeana (F. Hoffm.) Excell et Hilic., Capparis tomentosa Lam., Dicrostachys cinerea,
Pilliostigma thonningii and Monothotaxis obovata (Benth). Ricinodendrion rautanenii, L. have
22
been identified with this vegetation type. The ground cover mostly consists of Digitaria milinjiana,
Hyparrhenia. sp Anderss, Andropogon gayanus Kunth, Tristachya superba (De Not), Scheweinf
and Aschers, Heteropogon contortis (L.) Roem et Schultes and Sorghum versicolor Anderss.
The Mopane woodland occurs in limited pockets typified with species such as Colophosperum
mopane, Albizia Harvey, A. Althementica, Loncocarpus capassa, Sterculia africana, Grewia
bicolor, Combretum imberbe, Adansonia digitaria and Lannea stilmannii.
The Brachystegia woodland is most dominant in Zambia on the main plateau region. Common
species include Brachystegia boehmii, Isoberlinia sp., Julbernadia sp., Pterocarpus angolonsis,
Sterculia quiquoloba, Terminalia sericea and Strychnos spinosa
2.3.5
Important Fauna of the Kafue Flats:
As indicated earlier, the Kafue Flats are well known for their bird life. At least 400 species of birds
(Appendices 5 and 6) have been recorded within the Kafue Flats region (Brooke, 1966; Dorsett,
1966; UNFAO, 1968; Osborne, 1973; Douthwaite, 1978). Of the 400 species that occur in the
Kafue Flats, about 31% (125 species) are wetland species. About 60 species are migrant birds.
Based on the checklist by Broadley (1971) and studies by Simbotwe and Patterson (1983),
Simbotwe and Friend (1986), there are three orders (Tesudines, Crocodylia, Squamata) and 69
known species of reptiles in Kafue Flats, but only one order Anura, and 27 known species of
Amphibians which have been recorded in Kafue Flats. Except for the species belonging to the
order Squamata, nearly all reptiles are aquatic. Large species of the reptiles are the Nile crocodile
(Cocodilus niloticus), Savanna monitor (Veranus exnthematicus), Python (Python sebae) and
Pelusois sp. The species of amphibians worth noting include Bufo sp., Xenopus sp., and
Pyxicephalus sp. Small reptiles and amphibians provide a major food source for birds in the area
(Handlos, 1982). A checklist of reptiles and amphibians is given in Appendix 7.
In general, large mammal populations in the Kafue Flats region have significantly declined. A
number of species (Elephants, Eland) that used to occur in the Kafue Flats have disappeared and
have either moved westward to the Kafue National Park or have been eliminated through habitat
loss, human encroachment and excessive hunting. However, this does not mean that the area is
devoid of mammal species. When small mammals and bats are included, there are at least 13
orders, 35 families and 127 species in Kafue Flats region (Sheppe and Osborne, 1971; Ansell,
1978).
23
Table 3. Distribution and status of Large Mammal species
Common Name Scientific Name
Zebra
Bush pig
Warthog
Habitat
Termitaria, Meadows, flood plain
Equus burchelli
grasslands
Termitaria, Woodland
Potamochoerus porcus
Phacochoerus aethiopicus Termitaria, Woodland
Hippopotamus
Buffalo
Kudu
Sitatunga
Bush buck
Hippopotamus amphibius
Syncerus affer
Tragelaphus stripsiceros
Tragelaphus spekei
Tragelaphus scriptus
Lagoons, Main river channel
Termitaria, Woodland
Woodland
Levees, lagoons
Woodland
Wildebeest
Impala
Connochaetes taurinus
Aepyceros melampus
Termitaria
Termitaria
Lechwe
Reedbuck
Oribi
Grysbok
Common duiker
Kobus leche
Redunca arundinum
Ourebia ourebi
Raphicerus sharrpei
Sylvicarpa grimmia
Levees, lagoons, Grasslands, Termitaria
Termitaria
Termitaria
Termitaria, Woodland
Woodland
Shappe and Osborne (1971)
24
Status
Mostly confined in GMAs and National parks.
Numbers Considerably reduced.
Distributed and populations are stable
Restricted to national Parks and very rarely observed
Population drastically declined and restricted in GMA
and national park
Distributed only in the National parks
Severely reduced and confined to the National parks
Population severely reduced
Confined to national parks
Confined to southern part of the Kafue Flats in GMA
and National park
Mainly in Lochinvar National Park
Distributed mainly in National Park and GMAs.
Population is declining
Confined to National Parks
Common in National Park and GMAs
Common in National Park and GMA
Wide spread
The list in Table 3 shows the remaining large mammal species in Kafue Flats, their status and
distribution.
Although the Lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) and Zebra (Equus burchelli), are most important,
other common species include Sitatinga (Tragelaphus spekei), Wilde beest (Connochates
taurinus), Reedbuck (Redunca arundinum), Oribi (Ourebia ourebia), Buffalo
(Syncerus caffer), Bush buck (Tragelaphus scriptus), Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
and Kudu (Tragelaphus stripsiceros).
There is a general concern following a drastic decline of most species, in particular the Lechwe,
whose population trends indicate considerable decline especially the lechwe which used to be
over 100,000 in the 1970’s, and have within 30years declined to less than 40,000. Because the
Kafue lechwe is the only subspecies in Zambia, it remains severely threatened. It is also
important to point out that other species such as Wildebeest and Kudu are at the point of
extinction in the area. All major carnivores have been eliminated from the Kafue Flats.
2.3.6
Fish
The Kafue flats fishery is one of the most productive and important sources of fish to urban
centres such as Lusaka, Monze, Mazabuka, Kafue and Mumbwa. The average annual yield is
7,700 metric tons per year (Subramaniam, 1992). People utilise the fish resources on both
subsistence and commercial bases. Between 61 and 77 species have been recorded in the
Kafue system (Muyanga and Chipungu, 1982; Mudenda, 1998). Of these, 21 to 23 species are
commercially important, with the most important being Oreochromis andersonii, Oreochromis
macrochir, Tilapia rendalli, Tilapia sparmanii, labeo molybdinus, Calarias gariepinus, Clarias
ngamensis, Serranochromis angusticeps, Schilbe mystus, Hepsetus odoe. Less important
species
include
Serronochromis
robustus,
Serranochromis
thumbergi,
Serranochromis
macrocephahis, Haplochromis carlottae, Haplochromis codringtoni, Haplochromis giardi,
Synodontis macro stigma, Alestes lateralis, Marcusenius macrolepidotus, Petrocephalus
catostoma, Mormyrus lacerda. A list of fishes in Kafue Flats is given in Appendix 8.
The Oreochromis niloticus species farmed in Mazabuka area has accidentally escaped into the
Kafue River and is spreading westwards along the Kafue flats (Mudenda, 1998). The new exotic
species is related with the indigenous cichlids and is very likely breeding them. The accidental
introduction of the exotic species such as Oreochromis niloticus is ecologically irreversible and
can change the fish biodiversity. There is the need to study the impact of the Oreochromis
niloticus on the ichthyofauna of the Kafue fisheries.
25
2.3.7
Invertebrates
Although the most numerous group of animals, very little work has been done on invertebrates in
Kafue Flats. However, Handlos (1982) citing Larvey (1971) described a selected number of
Phylla Mollusca and Arthropoda as they relate to hydrobiology. The mollusca species present in
the area include Bulinus globosus, Coelatura sp., Cleopatra sp., Biomphalaria sp., Pila sp.,
Limnaea natalensis, Physopsis sp., Planorbis sp., Melanoides sp., and Lanistes sp. The
Arthropoda of the group Insecta indicated the occurrence of five orders, i.e., Ephemeroptera,
Odonata, Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Diptera, represented by about 10 families. Obviously the
group is very large and significant for the food chain in the Kafue Flats. It is vital that future
studies take into account detailed research on this very important group of animals.
26
3.0
ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS AND ISSUES
AFFECTING CONSERVATION
3.1
ECOLOGICAL VALUES OF THE KAFUE FLATS
A number of papers have addressed a broad range of wetland functions (Sather and Smith, 1984;
Dugan, 1990), and equally the question of wetlands values has been extensively explored.
Wetlands, however, remain environments largely neglected in Zambia. As in many wetlands
Kafue Flats are valuable ecosystems and perform a number of important functions.
(i)
Ground water re-charge
This function occurs when water moves from the wetland down into the under ground
aquifer (Dugan, 1990). Water reaching the aquifer is usually clearer than the surface
water. This function is also responsible for re-charging streams or rivers as subsurface
flows. Understanding of this function, however, is limited by the lack of knowledge in this
subject.
(ii)
Ground water discharge
This function occurs when water which was stored underground is released and becomes
surface water. This function accounts for the formation of most palustrine wetlands such
as springs and dambos. In the high areas of Zambia, ground water discharge function is
most significant particularly in sustaining river systems as head water dambos.
(iii)
Flood control
This function occurs when channel precipitation and surface run-off are stored in a
wetland, thereby reducing velocity and volume of flow. It also plays a delaying and
reducing role of the flood peak.
Wetlands such as the Kafue Flats act as natural
reservoirs, and thereby minimizing flood risks. Nevertheless, characteristics which play a
role in attenuating floods include size of the wetland, its location in the drainage basin,
substrate, and vegetation.
(iv)
Water quality
Water quality may decline due to pollution, eutrophication and siltation. Wetlands are
known to have great importance in maintaining water quality because of their ability to
27
function as filters for removing pollutants and sediments from moving water. This is
possible for a number of reasons (Sather and Smith, 1984; Chabwela, 1991). First, water
passing through a wetland is reduced in velocity. Second, decomposition of organic
substances by microorganisms. Third; metabolic activities of plants and animals. Fourth,
photosynthesis. And fifth, sediment binding particles.
(v)
Sediment
Sediment is the major pollutant of water in most river systems. Since wetlands occur in
depressions, sediment is usually forced to settle, while only clean water is allowed to flow
down the stream.
The capacity of this function, however, varies with slope, age of
wetland and sediment input. This function is extremely important in an area following
increased removal of vegetation in watersheds.
(vi)
Waste water treatment
This function is dependant on several factors (Sather and Smith, 1984; Chabwela, 1991):
•
High rate of primary productivity as plants may use pollutants for productivity;
•
High rates of accumulation of pollutants are readily absorbed by mineral and organic
sediments which then become buried in the substrate;
•
Anaerobic conditions within the bottom sediments permit the conversion of soluble
forms of heavy metal to insoluble form and the elimination of nitrogen through
denitrification;
•
High population of decomposers, which convert pollutants to harmless form.
This function could be important in areas near towns with problems of effluent such as
Mazabuka and Kafue.
(vii)
Toxic substances
Groups of substances entering the environment come through various sources, primarily
those from agrochemicals, pesticides, dust fall, industrial emissions, effluent and
dumping. It is believed that one of the primary functions of wetlands is to eliminate such
substances or reduce their levels of toxicity.
Among the ways through which toxic
substances are reduced include ion- exchange and absorption of sediment and organic
compounds, precipitation as oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, phosphates and sulphides,
and plant uptake. This function is important in mining and highly settled areas.
28
(viii)
Nutrient retention
This function refers to nutrient storage, mostly of nitrogen and phosphorus. This function
occurs through chemical reactions in the sediments and by regulating the flow of nutrient
substances (Sather and Smith, 1984). Thus nutrients are trapped when water is slow
and released downstream only as the flow of water increases significantly enough.
Although both of these substances have their reservoirs in the atmosphere (Nitrogen)
and rocks and mining (Phosphorous), they are commonly released into the system
through agrochemical application, and urban run-off waste water. Once in excess, these
chemicals become pollutants as they degrade water quality through growth enhancement
of algae bloom and other unwanted aquatic weeds; a condition referred to as
eutrophication. This condition is responsible for the excessive growth of water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) in Kafue Flats.
(ix) Food chain support function
A food chain is the transfer of food energy from the source in the plants through a series
of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten (Chabwela, 1994). Both grazing and
detritus food chains are significant in the wetlands ecosystems. Handlos (1982) and
Drijiver and Marchand (1985) described wetlands food web, and clearly this shows the
importance of each element and the complexity of a wetland ecosystem.
Although little is known about the productivity of wetlands, studies by Grimsdell and Bell
(1975) in the Bangweulu Swamp, Rees (1978) and Ellenbroek (1987) estimated a total
animal above ground production as ranging from 17 – 690g/m2 as compared to Lukanga
swamps, which ranged from 173.6 – 290.1g/m2 (Chabwela, 1998). Production of course
would vary considerably with the season, wetland type and grazing intensity.
(x) Biodiversity
Since wetlands form an overlapping environment, they carry the largest number of flora in
Zambia. Although invertebrate species are not well known in wetlands, a large number of
them support good concentrations of wildlife. Wetlands provide good habitats for most
species of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and fish (Appendices 3-5).
Plant
species have been fully investigated in the Kafue Flats (FAO, 1968). It can, therefore, be
stated that wetlands are important genebanks for a large number of species and may
serve as sources or genetic materials for genetic improvement in crops and domestic
animals.
29
3.2
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND LAND/RESOURCE-USE SYSTEMS
3.2.1 Dam Developments and their impact
With the impoundment of the Kafue River, first at Kafue Gorge in 1972 as Stage I development,
and second at Itezhi-tezhi in 1978 as Stage II, this has produced hydrological changes in the
Flats, resulting in drastic alteration of the flow and flood patterns. This in turn has produced the
following impacts.
Lack of rain season flooding
The lack of flooding has been one of the major problems in the Kafue Flats:
1) Under the flood plain conditions, a flood plain is required to be flooded at least
for some time during the flooding period. This condition is important for the flood
plain ecology for fish, wildlife and vegetation.
2) Seasonal flooding is also needed for the flood recession farming and livestock
grazing.
3) Lack of flooding has also promoted the growth of woody weeds in the area
where flooding does not occur. There is evidence now of the expanding invasive
plants species mainly the Mimosa pigra and Dichrostachys cinerea. A loss of this
area means a decline of grazing land for cattle and wildlife.
4) Wattled Cranes require an expanse of shallow-flooded plains for nesting. It
seems wattled cranes do not breed during years of little or no flooding. While
information is limited, it is certain that the flood regime has affected the breeding
and feeding patterns of the wattled cranes. The birds, which widely used to nest
in the protected areas, have now moved into areas outside the National Park
where protection cannot be assured.
5) Productivity of lechwe has drastically declined through loss of leks for
breeding.
6) With only a few exceptions most species of fish on the Kafue floodplain breed
in shallow water along river channels in lagoons and floodplain. For example,
Oreochromis
macrochir,
Oreochromis
andersonii,
Tilapia
rendalli
and
Seranochromis species breed in shallow water along riverbanks and in lagoons.
Clarias ngamensis, Clarias gariepinus and Barbus species favour shallow
floodwater away from the river channel. Because the flood plain is now subject
to lower flood levels and multiple inundations, the fish breeding and distribution
have been severely affected:
−
by the short residence time of water on the floodplain.
30
−
because water level recedes rapidly, by increased vulnerability of fingerlings
to preying birds and animals.
Dry season flooding
The dry season flooding has been the most critical issue in the Kafue Flats, and this has
resulted in the following:
a) Loss of land for grazing for wildlife and cattle
b) Loss of plant quality for grazing
c) Loss of dry season flood recession farming
d) Productivity changes in the livestock grazing ranges.
Nearly half of the Kafue Flats wetland is grazed through the “Kuwila” system. However,
this practice has become less dependable because of poor flood patterns. Between
August and November during the dry season more water is released from Itezhi-Tezhi
dam which inundates the grazing ground. Consequently, the herds of cattle are pushed in
the areas with poor grazing forage. In addition, the lack of good grazing grounds makes
the cattle vulnerable to cattle disease, and since early 1990s, cattle population has
drastically declined in Kafue Flats.
Irregular flooding
The problem of flooding in Kafue Flats is also attributed to the irregular releases of water
from Itezhitezhi dam.
Water is released on demand for the hydroelectric power
generation at the Kafue Gorge. This problem has continued and has severely affected a
number of activities:
a) breeding and distribution of birds and other wildlife species such as lechwe,
b) breeding and distribution of fish,
c) disturbance of the grazing patterns of livestock and wildlife,
d) Food plants and animals: Nymphea capensis, which is dominant in Lagoons grounds
as floods build up, produces seeds on which species of ducks and gees greatly depend.
Waterbirds depend on plant materials, invertebrates and vertebrates such as fish as their
main sources of food.
Timing and duration of floods have been unpredictable since the construction of the dams
to present, this condition is critical for the catchment.
Permanent inundation of the eastern part
Nearly 20% of the flood plain in the eastern side of the Kafue Flats has been permanently
inundated from the backwater due to the Kafue Gorge. This has resulted in a loss of
habitat for birds, and grazing land for cattle and wildlife, particularly in the Blue Lagoon
31
area. In addition, this factor has severely affected the fisheries in Kafue Flats through
reduction of fish catches, as land for construction of seasonal fishing camps has been
lost. These camps are established by fishers to spread effort and to get closer to the
resource during the dry season. Furthermore, access to lagoons and other fishing areas
previously available for beach seining have been lost. Failure to gain access to these
lucrative fishing grounds has drastically affected annual fish production.
In sum, Chabwela (1986) concludes that these irregularities in the flooding regime have
had serious consequences on grazing patterns of cattle and wildlife, migratory pattern of
lechwe, fish and avi-fauna ecology, and growth of weeds. Hence, the planned future
Stage III developments on the Kafue River for the hydro-power plants at Itezhi-tezhi and
down stream Kafue Gorge; and irrigation schemes in the Flats will certainly have further
serious implications on the Kafue Flats ecosystem. Careful planning, augmented by
detailed EIAs should be given priority in the development of the Flats.
3.2.2 Human Population and Settlements
Knight Piel’sod (2002) tried to extrapolate the human population data from the 1990 Census
using district population statistics within the sub catchment boundaries. From this, it has been
established that the Kafue Flats Catchment has the biggest share of human population compared
to the entire Kafue Basin, estimated to stand at 1,211,319 people. However, much of this
population is in the periphery of the Flats, while a limited and sparse population occurs in the
wetland proper on the levees along the Kafue River (Chabwela, 1986). The population growth
rate is that of Southern Province estimated at 3.2%, slightly higher than the national growth rate
of 3.0%. Factors responsible for the high growth rate are twofold; high birth rates and immigration
in the Flats, and these will continue to influence the growth of the population for sometime. In the
long term, though the population in the Flats is sparse, this increase in population has implication
on services provision and availability of land resources for human survival.
The principal ethnic groups in the study are the Tonga, Ila and Batwa people. In areas
surrounding the Lochinvar Park, south of the Kafue River, these groups fall under four main
Chiefs, viz.; Choongo, Haamusonde and Mwanachingwala for the Tonga and Nalubamba for the
Ila. In addition to these local groups, there is a population of immigrants in the Flats. These come
from afar, from other provinces but within Zambia. They include mainly people belonging to the
Lozi, Luvale and Bemba tribal groups, coming into the area as mainly laborers and fishermen. It
is believed that the Batwa are the original inhabitants. They live on the swamps and river levees,
and subsist on fishing; generally living a lifestyle different from the Tonga and Ila. They are
regarded as being between pigmies and bushmen. The origins of the Tonga and Ila, however, are
32
not well known; but according to Kalapula (1986), they could have come from the east or
northeast, arriving on the scene much earlier than the Bantu migrants from the Luba-Lunda
empires of Katanga.
The settlements of the Tonga and Ila resident on the periphery of the Flats are permanent;
however, the villages are extremely dispersed. This is because the Tonga and the Ila are
pastoralists and agriculturists requiring large areas of land for animal grazing and crop cultivation.
Thus, the periphery area has a ‘shibuki’ system of settlement, where one headman controls
several headmen and homesteads (Chabwela, et al, 1994).
In the fishing camps, settlement is also permanent, but the majority of the residents (the
fishermen) are not permanent. They rarely stay in one fishing camp for more than three years,
and also shift to their wet season temporal homesteads on the periphery of the Flats. According
to the survey, it was noted that most of the fishermen had not stayed in the fishing camps for a
minimum of 5 years. They also have no permanent land rights. In fact most of them have no land
except for the space on which they have constructed their temporal shelters. The indigenous
people who have land rights stay away from the river and in the main are not fishermen (Knight
Pielsod, 2002).
Though no figures were ascertained to depict population trends, it was clear from field
observations and anecdotal reports that the population in the fishing camps was expanding/
increasing each year with new immigrants. There is no restriction on new settlers/ immigrants as
long as the fishermen obtained a fishing permit, such that new camps were developing. A case in
point is the development of new fishing camp called Chitakataka, on the eastern border of the
Lochinvar, with over 200 fishing residents.
Given the settlement pattern and high population growth rates in the study area, coupled with
increasing fishermen population, the problem of pressure on resources is certainly becoming
serious.
3.2.3 Economic Activities and Land-use Practices
Ranges of traditional economic activities have been noted to characterize the local economy on
the Flats (Kalapula 1986; Rennie 1978; Chabwela 1986). These include the following:
3.2.3.1 Agriculture
The traditional economic activities include transhumance cattle husbandry (Plate 8), where cattle
herders live in the flood plain for at least 6 months in the dry season, and during the wet season
33
cattle are moved to their permanent homes on the flood plain periphery/ plateau where they are
grazed. A total of about 100,000 herds, with an average of 13.1 animals per adult Ila male, were
reported to graze on the Flats in the 1970s (Kalapula, 1986). At present, this number, however,
could have somewhat reduced due to animal disease out-break. Apart from cattle, the Tonga-Ila
people also keep other types of livestock.
Cattle among the Tonga-Ila are not kept as source of protein or income as such, though they
provide curdled milk and cash in difficult years, but are kept as means to wealth, and therefore
political and social power. They are also used as bride wealth and some as oxen for draught
power. This phenomenon was also revealed by the survey, which showed that only 10% of the
cattle owning respondents revealed that livestock (cattle) was their source of income. Given the
large herd of cattle grazing on the flood plain, coupled with the already reduced grazing area as
result of changes in flooding regime, the traditional practice of keeping cattle has implications on
the carrying capacity of the range land. Overgrazing is therefore a result as evidenced by the
proliferation of weed plants, Dicrostachys cinerea, an indicator species of overgrazing in the
Lochinvar Park and surrounding area where wildlife and cattle are grazed. The main crops being
cultivated include maize and groundnuts.
In addition to rain-fed agriculture, commercial irrigated agriculture for sugarcane growing is also
practiced at large scale in Mazabuka at Nakambala. The abstraction of water in the flood plain for
this purpose has implications on water demands for other uses as sugarcane crop alone
demands a lot of water. The cultivation of large tracts of land in the wetland for sugarcane
growing also disturbs the natural grassland system, and thus reduces the ability of the wetland to
perform the filtering functional value (Chabwela, 1994), resulting in easy movement of pollutants
and sediments into the flood plain.
3.2.3.2 Fishing
Fishing is another principal economic activity in the Kafue Flats (Plate 3). Fishing, in general, is
mostly regarded by the local people as a poor man’s occupation and is undertaken by outsiders
and the Batwa people. However, the local people are increasingly participating in this niche as
fish traders (mongers). Though data on the trends in numbers of fishermen, fishing camps and
fish traders, has not yet been ascertained, the activity to intensifying. This is demonstrated by the
development of new fishing camps and the presence of new settlers in the camps. During the
study, it was noted that a new camp called Chitakataka had been established during the past 2-3
years. In addition to changes in flood regime which has led to the loss of habitats (Muyanga and
Chipungu, 1978); this increase in number of fishermen (fishing intensity) and use of bad fishing
methods are posing pressure on the productivity of the fishery. Fish catches have been noted to
be on the decline (Chabwela, 1986; Knight Pielsod, 2002). The relationship between the intensity
34
of fishing activities and other facets of the ecosystem (wildlife, bird life) needs to be investigated.
This is because during the study, it was observed that in areas where fishing activities were
concentrated in the floodplain, this is where also a variety of bird populations were densest.
Plate 3: Fishing harbour at Namalyo
3.2.3.3 Hunting
Another branch of productive activities is hunting. Hunting provides protein food (meat), and a
source of income. Traditionally, hunting is a source of political leverage and wealth (Rennie,
1978). The Chila was an organized traditional way of hunting by the Tonga-Ila people. It was a
hunting ceremony involving over 1,000 men, using spears and dogs to attack a head of buffalo or
lechwe. During one hunting event it is estimated that about 20-50 heads of buffalo or 200-300
lechwe were slaughtered. Chila hunting was later considered illegal by the colonial government
as illegal, and because of massive destruction of animals, it was abolished in the 1950s. This
method of hunting was replaced by a legalized system of hunting regulated through licensing and
quotas. The different types of licensed hunting (district, national, safari, culling, special license
hunting) have been discussed in detail including their limitations and advantages elsewhere
(Kalyocha, 1998; Chabwela, 1986). In short the licensing system is aimed at controlling illegal
unsustainable off-take, and to ensure adequate supply of meat and increased revenue generation
from legal hunting. This system, however, has posed many limitations in terms of accessibility by
the local communities. These limitations include the following in the main:
•
The numbers of animals allocated on quotas are usually unequally distributed, and biased
towards outsiders (hunters from urban areas and safari hunters) other than local community;
35
•
The numbers on quotas are also usually limited as they are based on conservative and
ecological considerations;
•
The majority of the local hunters are unable to hunt due to their poor economic status and the
expenses involved to meet the requirements for licensed hunting (e.g.; own a gun, travel to
Lusaka to obtain a license, buy a license, hunting expenses, etc.);
•
The period permitted for hunting by the local communities is limited to only 4 months in a year
(September – December), compared to 8 months (May – December) permitted for safari
hunting; and,
•
Except for the year 2002 where district and national license hunting was permitted, all other
types of licensed hunting have been banned for the past couple of years, and according to
Mwima (1997) large scale license hunting through culling was also only last done in 1997
involving the removal of 40 zebra and 130 lechwe
Evidence of poaching is not easy to quantify formally (Marks 1979; Marks, et al, 1984). However
deducing from informal interviews with the local people and game scouts, and scanty
ethnographic literature; it is clear that illegal hunting of game animals has continued unabated
and is on the increase in the Kafue Flats. Thus, though the questionnaire survey revealed only
one respondent as being engaged in hunting of birds and wild animals, there was a lot of illegal
hunting activities going on undetected.
In the Luangwa Valley, it was found that due to improved law-enforcement effort, instead of using
guns which are detectable, illegal hunters had changed their hunting tactics using snares which
can even kill untargeted species (Kalyocha, 1998). On the Flats, it was also revealed that in the
fishing camps, some fishermen were engaged in poaching, using fishing nets for capturing birds
(spurwing) and animals (lechwe). In villages on the periphery of the Flats especially during
abnormal floods when lechwe graze beyond the normal flood plain feeding range near villages,
poachers were using snares (Mwenya and Kaweche 1978). In addition, due to limited lawenforcement, licensed hunters were also still reported to be over-hunting using guns over and
above the number of animals permitted on licenses.
This demonstrates that hunting is an important livelihood activity, which cannot easily be
suppressed with conventional law-enforcement. With increasing household economic pressures
and food insecurity situation in the area (as already noted above), it is still being undertaken
illegally undercover. Poaching pressure is reported to be emanating both from within the area and
from Lusaka. Kalyocha (1998) found out that the main source of illegal bush meat in Lusaka was
36
Kafue Flats, and animals affected were lechwe, zebra, hippo and buffalo. In most cases, if not all,
bush meat dried or smoked, was brought by vendors who use trains into Lusaka and concealed
in fish bundles, charcoal bags or under loads of timber (ibid.). Kamwenesha (2002) and Mwenya
and Kaweche (1978) accounts largely for the drastic reduction of the numbers of lechwe from
100,000 in the 1970s to 40,000 today, to heavy poaching. In the survey, 40% of the respondents
confirmed and attributed the decline in animal population status to poaching. This situation has
been worsened by the weak wildlife management and monitoring systems to contain and
measure the intensity of the scourge. Despite the area being declared as a protected area
system, much of this area is unmanaged. The restructuring programme in ZAWA has left only
seven game scouts; all based at Lochinvar Park HQs, to manage the entire southern half of the
Kafue Flats.
3.2.3.4 Forestry Utilization
Another livelihood activity on the Flats is forestry resource utilization. According to the survey, it
was found out that communities utilize/ cut trees particularly on the periphery of the Flats for
construction of buildings charcoal production, firewood, handcraft and cultivation. This confirms
earlier findings by other people (Knight Pielsod, 2002; Rennie, 1978). Other uses include wild fruit
collecting, mushrooms, birds, caterpillars and timber production (ibid.). It was established that
though forest resources were important for the above uses, increase in pressure on the resource
for these purposes in combination with tree cutting for agriculture on the periphery of the Flats
was causing deforestation (Knight Pielsod, 2002). This had implications on the flood plain ecology
(Chabwela, 1986). It is argued that as a result of deforestation, the soils are exposed to direct rain
wash, such that most of the streams had become ephemeral, and recently constructed dams had
silted (Chabwela, 1986). Drought, which is particularly severe in Southern Province, has
compounded the problem and the limited supply of water for both livestock and domestic
consumption’s is now severe (ibid.).
3.2.3.5 Tourism/ Recreation
Given the vast wildlife (including bird life) resources occurring on the Flats; tourism, based on this
resource (wildlife), in form of sport hunting (safaris) and photography, has great potential
(Chabwela, 1986). The Lochinvar Park, is actually international renowned as bird watchers
paradise.
However, the tourism potential has not been fully realized. Currently, there is only one tented
tourist facility (with limited bed size) and a poorly maintained community campsite in the
Lochinvar Park. The old lodge building at the Park HQs has been abandoned, disused and tends
to be an eyesore in this vicinity. Although efforts by Partners for Wetlands Project in recent years
37
towards rehabilitation of infrastructure and promotion of Eco-tourism are acknowledgeable (M.
Chundama, pers. Commun; Partners for Wetlands Newsletter, March 2002, Issue no. 2),
accessibility in the Park in general, except for air strip, is still seasonal and problematic due to
poor road development.
Apart from poor infrastructure; the use of the park for grazing and the existence of transport
routes across the Park permitting heavy traffic movements and other human disturbances;
coupled with limited park management capacity by ZAWA, undermine the development of Ecotourism in the area.
3.2.3.6 Water transport
Water transport is an important activity in the economy of the communities inhabiting the Flats.
The communities depend on water for communications as most areas especially between fishing
camps are virtually inaccessible and road infrastructure is undeveloped in this area. However, it
has been established that through water transport, particularly boat movements, this is one of the
responsible agents for dispersal of invasive weeds like water hyacinth (Wittenberg and Cock,
2001). Our observations supported by informal interviews in the study support this assertion at
Chitakataka fishing camp, a relatively new camp along the Malema stream.
3.2.4 Bush Fires
Occurrence of bush fires has been described as part of the Zambian culture (Chabwela, 1994;
Handlos, 1978). The purposes of setting fires are multiple, but in the range lands (late) fires could
be used for improving the range through providing late dry season grazing (NCS, 1985). In
general, fires are used to burn accumulated dry vegetation and allow for regeneration of fresh
material, and many plants are specially adapted, and may even be dependent on fire for their
survival and well-being.
The effects of fire on the wetlands have not been well investigated. However, the effects of fire on
woodland vegetation, especially in miombo during the late dry season is known (Chidumayo,
1995). Fierce and therefore most damaging fires occur during the late dry season because of the
favourable fire conditions: high quantities of extreme dry litter biomass. All fires kill shoots of
seedlings and young regeneration. Therefore occurrence of uncontrolled late fires annually can
suppress regeneration (ibid.), and can convert woodlands into grasslands. In the study area, in
the Lochinvar Park, this type of woodland occurs in the southern part of the Park and it is an
important habitat for kudu, buffalo, duiker, grysbok, and klipspringer. During the study, it was
reported that due to poor management capacity, these fires, caused by surrounding villages,
38
occur annually; and are an important management problem in the Park, and may alter this
important habitat to grassland.
3.2.5 Land-use Conflicts and Tenure
The above section has shown the complexity of the forms of economic activities and the forms of
land-use practices that exist in the Flats. The section has also shown the impact of these
practices on the ecology of the Flats. In addition to these problems this section shows a number
of conflicts that have ensued over the use of the land due to different requirements of the various
forms of land-use.
Some of the land-use conflicts that exist include livestock grazing verses wildlife conservation.
Further to the problem of reduced grazing area as result of changes in the flooding regime, the
demarcation of the area as a national park has also greatly limited the total grazing ground. This
has usually led to conflicts between wildlife conservation and local people. In particular cattle are
usually grazed in the Park together with wildlife, and the conjuncture effect has been overgrazing. Other activities conflicting with the requirements of wildlife conservation (including
tourism) are uncontrolled late bush burning, uncontrolled human and vehicular movements in the
Park which activities are affecting the habitats.
Other land-use conflicts noted to prevail (Subramaniam, 1986) are that caused by the multiple
use of the flood plain for hydropower, water supply, cattle grazing, wildlife, agriculture and
industries. These uses at times have produced conflicts with fisheries interest. The hydropower
development in particular has produced changes in the hydrological status of the Kafue Flats.
The major changes in particular are the reduction in the area flooded during the rainy season,
delayed and prolonged flood period, increase in permanently flooded areas, and reduction in the
amplitude of water level fluctuation and velocity of flow. These changes in the flood regime have
affected the breeding behaviour, growth and survival of fish stocks particularly the bream (Ibid.).
In turn, this disruption of fish reproductive cycle could or is affecting the population of birds that
feed on the fish.
On the upper margins of the flood plain, the main conflict that exists is that of water (forest)
conservation verses agricultural development and tree cutting. Whilst watershed conservation is
important for maintaining ecological and hydrological processes, the development of agriculture
for various without conservation measures has had implications on deforestation, and
consequently problems of pollution and sedimentation. These land-use conflicts undermine
conservation; the need for an integrated land-use policy and planning is crucial for the Kafue
Flats.
39
3.2.6 Water Resources Demand
Water is an important resource in the area for the various uses. The fishing industry depends on
natural water regime to replenish the fish stocks. The NPs rely on water to maintain the wetland
habitat, wildlife and birds on which tourism depends. The sugar estates in Mazabuka need water
for irrigation; and cattle herders require water for their livestock; and water companies in the
surrounding towns need water in the Kafue River for a supply of clean water. While ZESCO
needs sufficient water in the dam reservoirs for electricity supply as a national priority. Evapotranspiration through the weeds also claims many water losses. In all, the main issue facing the
Flats is water is not enough, and there is need for an efficient and equitable use of water in the
light of competing demands. In future, the development of the hydropower station at Itezhi-Tezhi
and abstraction of water for irrigation will complicate this problem. The need to regulate the water
outflow at the dams to meet the socio-economic and environmental needs is imperative. The
effort by WWF Partners for Wetlands Project is facilitating in meeting this two- pronged need (M.
Chundama, pers. Commun.) is critical and important. The need for an integrated water resources
management is strongly stressed.
It has been established that the main cause of these land-use problems is land- tenure
(Chabwela, 1994). In Zambia, there are three forms of tenure: state land, private lands and
reserve (tribal) land. Apart from the park, which is state land, much of the land is a GMA, which
land is under traditional chiefs. On traditional land, although land ownership is acquired through
allocation by a headman or the chief, and by clearing the land for settlement and agriculture,
individuals have no entitlement. In the absence of entitlement and full ownership, resources have
to open access by community members, and this regime the resources are subject to over-use
and abuse.
3.3
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT AND AWARENESS
In Zambia, it has been argued that, among other factors, the failure to involve local communities
in resource management and benefit sharing by past conservation and development efforts is the
key cause to resources degradation (Dalal Claytone, et al, 1984; Larsen, et al, 1985; Chabwela,
1986; Bell and Lungu, 1987; Lungu, 1990). This neglect by conservation agencies precipitated
negative attitudes among the local communities towards conservation; and local communities
have, hence, been at variance with these agencies. Past management systems are partly,
therefore, to blame for causing the current poor status of natural resources. This understanding
40
among conservationists resulted in addressing the issue of community involvement as a
fundamental solution to the problem of resource degradation.
This thinking has resulted in the development of community based resource management
approaches. The pioneer programs have been in the wildlife sector, where the ADMADE, LIRDP
and the Wetlands Conservation Project were first initiated in the 1980s. Since then, this
philosophy has spread to other sectors such as forestry, fisheries and water.
The Wetlands Conservation Project operated in two project sites: Kafue Flats and Bangweulu
Swamps. Using the ADMADE model, the project development systems for communities in
resource management through the Village Scout Program; Establishment of community based
management structures; revenue sharing mechanisms; and skills and leadership training
programs for communities; and establishment of resource-used based enterprises for supply of
meat and incomes for rural development
In the Kafue Flats, the community problems that led to the implementation of the project are
those already reported above summarized here as poverty, poor socio-economic development
infrastructure, and community limitations with regard to hunting licenses. Other problems include
limited access to resources, environmental degradation, remoteness and isolation, problems
related to water regulation; and lack of awareness. As regards awareness, it was clear from the
interviews that the communities were aware about the various problems affecting them; but were
not aware about how to tackle them, how they should be involved, and the roles of the various
institutions including themselves. However, most of them knew about ZAWA and Fisheries. This
indicates the strong presence of these institutions in the area.
These are the main problems, which the project attempted to address in the Kafue Flats. Despite
the project, these problems remain largely unresolved to date. The details of the failure of this
project is beyond the scope of this study, but overall it appears the Department of NPWS (now
ZAWA) had not been able to assume responsibilities and management systems established by
the project, particularly towards the creation of genuine community based management.
However, the WWF Partners for Wetlands Project is working towards consensus building among
various stake-holders including the local communities to promote sustainable-use investments in
wetlands management. The main activities include:
•
Facilitation of the implementation of the Integrated Water Resources Management through
application of a water usage mode that strikes a balance between ZESCO’s power
generation needs, the environment, and other users such as cattle grazers, farmers, and
even wildlife, through a consultative process;
41
•
Establishment of a Conservation Zone in Chief Mwanachingwala’s area: Among the
stakeholders (local communities and their Chief Mwanachingwala, ZAWA, and estate
sugarcane growers) are to establish a conservation area that lies between the sugar
plantations and the river. The area will allow for the introduction of game animals (lechwe and
sitatunga) and the establishment of the wetland’s wastewater purification function by using
reed beds;
•
Tourism Development: The project is promoting Eco-tourism through support towards
rehabilitation of key infrastructure, e.g.; important roads, airstrip and causeway and boundary
demarcation in the two parks.
The evaluation of the impact of the project is beyond the scope of this study, however, field
investigations showed considerable resentment among key stakeholders, e.g., ZAWA and the
communities, as the project has not yet shown any meaningful and positive results for the
intended beneficiaries. The project is expected to make the needed infrastructure improvements
and stimulate tourism and steer resource conservation in the area.
3.4
LEGAL, POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
3.4.1 Conventions, Treaties and Agreements
Zambia places high priority to the conservation and management of environmental resources,
and wetland ecosystems are not an exception.
On the international scene, this commitment is demonstrated by being party to over 16
international environmental conventions. Apart from just being party to these conventions,
Zambia has also attempted to implement some of the conventions through domestication of the
key elements of the conventions into the Zambian Law, and the formulation and implementation
of policies, programmes and projects that take into account the principles of the conventions. The
levels of domestication for the various conventions are, however, at different scales.
In accordance with the country’s priorities, Five conventions have been selected as being of
relevance to Zambia (MENR, 2002), and indeed relevant to the management of the Kafue Flats
Wetland system:
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (1992): According to this convention, biodiversity is
defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial,
42
marine and other aquatic ecosystems; this includes diversity within species (genetic diversity),
between species and of ecosystems. The CBD’s principal objectives are to ensure conservation
of biological diversity; sustainable use of its components; and, fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. Zambia is implementing these
principles through the Departments of Forestry, Fisheries and ZAWA.
Notwithstanding the
problems related to institutional weaknesses (UNDP, 2002), these departments’ policies and their
principal Acts at least emphasize on managing and maintaining biodiversity, and sustainable use
of these resource for the betterment of future generations, and promotion of community
participation in biodiversity management. Other developments related to the CBD implementation
in Zambia are that of the formulation of the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan
(NBSAP) (1998). NBSAP has six themes through which projects are to be developed and
implemented.
Both CBD and NBSAP provides a policy framework intended to address the
threats to biological conservation, including invasive species and its cause (pollution) (Aongola,
2002); and the Kafue Flats being a centre of biodiversity of economic importance but under
threat, its conservation is within this policy framework and priority. However, full implementation
of NBSAP is yet to be fulfilled. Nonetheless, one project on reclassification and sustainable
management of Zambia’s protected area system has since been developed and funding secured
from UNDP-GEF for its implementation.
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). The convention is
concerned about the serious effects of land degradation and drought, as caused by human
activities and climatic variation in arid and semi-arid areas. One of the provinces experiencing this
problem is Southern Province. This issue is therefore of direct relevance to Kafue Flats. The
elements of this convention cut across the mandates of a number of sectoral institutions. The
principal ones being; Forestry Department, Department of Agriculture, ECZ, ZAWA, Water Affairs
Department, Energy Department and the overall Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural
Resources (MTENR). The National Action Plan (NAP) to implement the UNCCD has since been
developed, but funding is yet to be secured to draw and implement projects identified in the plan.
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
(CITES). This convention is subject of a regional agreement, to assist in national implementation
in Africa -- the Lusaka Agreement on Enforcement Operations Directed at Illegal Trade in
Wild Flora and Fauna.
ZAWA is the management authority under this Convention in Zambia,
recognizes that animals and plants are valuable, and are irreplaceable and need to be protected
through international cooperation. The convention focuses on control of trade as means of
conserving endangered species. Although the wildlife, forestry and fisheries Acts have
incorporated some aspects of the CITES Convention, especially provision of lists of protected
animals, procedures and penalties; there are still gaps in the provisions of current domestic
43
legislation and problems in implementing the convention due to, among other things, lack of
effective monitoring systems and weak law-enforcement.
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat or
the Ramsar Convention. The convention is concerned about the increasing threat on wetlands
due to factors such as poor conservation and usage, and yet wetlands have functional values and
are important habitats for unique species of plants and animals and centre’s for economic
activities. ECZ is the principal government institution entrusted with the responsibility of the
convention’s administration, WWF is currently the lead NGO in terms of support. The process of
domestication of the convention has included the establishment of a national steering committee,
the preparation of the National Wetlands Strategy and Action Plan (NWSAP) (2001) and the
preparation of the Wetlands Policy. The wetland strategy is to be implemented over a 10-year
period. As with other conventions, the implementation of the strategy is being impeded by lack of
funding, general lack of awareness, inadequate legislation and law-enforcement capacity,
inadequate inter-sectoral coordination mechanisms and lack of appropriate technology and skilled
personnel. There is also an institutional conflict between ZAWA, Fisheries, Water Affairs and
ECZ, as to who is the appropriate technical authority over wetlands.
Zambia’s implementation of The UNESCO Convention for the Protection of World Cultural
and Natural Heritage, is administered by the National Heritage Conservation Commission as
focal point. This Convention is concerned about the conservation and protection of internationally
important sites of scientific or cultural value. Domestic legislation covers some of the issues of
this convention. For instance, the Wildlife Act of 1998 provides for the establishment of national
parks and other protected areas as national heritage sites, and the National Heritage
Conservation Act of 1989 provides for the preservation of natural and cultural heritage. Although
a number of national heritage sites have been identified in accordance with the convention, there
is generally lack of financial resources and limited capacity and expertise in terms of identifying
and protecting heritage sites. Awareness among the communities with regard to the value and
protection of heritage sites is limited.
Appendix 9 shows the Conventions, the institutions implementing them; and the extent and
problems of Domestication the convention
3.4.2 Legal and institutional arrangements
At the national and local level, Zambia has about 32 institutions with pieces of legislation
governing environmental management (Appendix10). However, government departments of
direct relevance to the management of the Kafue Flats, are listed below. Other organizations
currently working in the Flats include the University of Zambia conducting research on vegetation
44
changes; Zambia Crane and Wetlands Conservation Project; and the Partners for Wetlands
Project under World Wildlife Fund – Zambia (WWF); and the Zambia Chambers of Commerce
and Industry (ZACCI) working on pollution abatement. In general, though the Environmental
Council of Zambia (ECZ) was established in 1990 to coordinate environmental protection and
natural resources management efforts, while the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural
Resources (1994) has the overall mandate; management of resources is still sector specific.
Given this large array of institutions responsible for environmental management, it clearly
indicates that issues of conflict of power, coordination and integration in a specific geographical
area with multiple land-uses are complicated. The prevalence of this situation works against the
achievement of positive returns of any effort.
Furthermore, like any formerly colonized state in Africa, Zambia inherited colonial environmental
management laws that emphasized centralized administration and restrictive protection of
resources aimed entirely at preservation of resources. Utilization was enforced through a
licensing system. Furthermore, these laws provided for and resulted in the designation of
harvesting seasons and some areas into protected areas. For instance, game reserves and
controlled hunting areas, which are now present national parks and game management areas as
regards wildlife; national forests and local forest reserves as for forestry, and major fisheries as
for fish resources. Some of these colonial laws still exist e.g., the Water Act (1948), though there
have been some reviews in legislation through subsidiary legislation. However, most of the old
Acts have also since been repealed. The various environmental laws, institutions and their
mandates are listed below in Table 4.
The reviews and repealing of some of these pieces of legislation have been necessitated by the
failure of these laws to contain illegal over exploitation and lack of appreciation of resources. The
main weaknesses in some of these pieces of legislation have been identified (Kalyocha, 2000;
UNDP, 2002) to include the following but not limited to;
•
Lack of recognition of the strength of local communities and other stake – holders with regard
to natural resources management and benefit sharing from these resources. Such that most
of these conventional laws tended to alienate local communities from resource utilization and
in turn the local communities with difficulty socio-economic conditions have cooperated with
outsiders to involve themselves in illegal activities for commercial gain. In short,
decentralization or devolution of management functions to the local levels (communities and
local authorities) was not enshrined in law.
However, in recent years, the departments of Wildlife, Fisheries, Water and Forestry have
recognized this shortfall, and their principal policies spell out the need for decentralization.
45
The Decentralization Act (1980, 1993), on the other hand, though in place has had problems
of implementation due to lack of support to reform; and the GRZ Decentralization Policy is
still in draft. There is, however, a policy objective and positive commitment on the part of
Government to decentralize systems of administration and development.
•
There has been limited recognition of the economic value of natural resources, such that in
most cases, these resources have been undervalued, and thus there have been no
incentives for protecting and managing the resources.
•
Most of these pieces of legislation have had sectoral approach to resource management.
Such that, there has been limited inter-sectoral co-ordination, and the different sectors have
tended to enforce the law in isolation, but striving to meet the same goals and objectives of
resource management. Therefore, they have different mandates over natural ecosystems
and have in some cases resulted in conflicts.
•
Despite emphasis on law- enforcement and preservation by conventional management
systems, there has been limited capacity on the part of government in terms of provision of
adequate human resource and financial capacity to either implement envisaged changes or
enforce the law. Such that most of the operations are grounding to a halt and illegal
harvesting of resources has proceeded unabated. For instance, intensive poaching, illegal
harvesting of timber, abrogation of fish bans still continue uncontrolled in the Kafue Flats.
•
The past laws have never taken into consideration, the changing economic and social
circumstances with regard to resource use patterns, which aspects have had a serious effect
on the status of natural resources. The statutory fees, taxes, penalties and fines imposed on
natural resources uses are too meagre to discourage illegal harvesting or encourage
sustainable-use, given a high demand drive in urban areas and sometimes even outside the
country. The immediate examples are charcoal, timber, game meat or trophy.
•
In recognition of these shortfalls, Zambia has, in recent years, made major strides towards
providing a policy framework for the sound management of the environment and natural
resources. These efforts include the following:
o
Review of National Conservation Strategy (NCS) (1985) and formulation and
adoption of the NEAP (1994) as the main policy framework for the sustainable
conservation of the environment.
46
o
Formulation and implementation of the Environmental Support Programme (ESP)
(1997) as the vehicle for implementing the NEAP,
o
Formulation and implementation of the Zambia Forestry Support Programme
(ZFAP) (1998) and Provincial Forestry Action Programme (PFAP) (1999);
o
Formulation of Zambia Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (ZBSAP) (1999);
and,
o
Review and formulation of the various sectoral natural resources management
policies and plans to bring them in line with the Agenda 21 (of the Rio Summit)
and in particular to ensure the sustainable conservation and management of
Zambia’s environment and biodiversity.
Sectors in which policy requirements have been reviewed include the wildlife, forestry, fisheries,
tourism, agriculture, water and energy. Despite these developments, there are still some
inadequacies in these sectoral policies, and there is still need for further review of these sectoral
policies and the development of a holistic umbrella environmental policy (see UNDP, 2002 for
details). As regards the development of an overall policy, this process has since been initiated by
the Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Natural Resources.
47
Table 4. Various environmental laws, institutions and their mandates
Institution
Department of NPWS, ZAWA
Legislation
Wildlife Act, No. 12 1998
Department of Forests
Forests Act, No 199,1997
Department of Water Affairs
Water Board
Water Act, 1948
Water Act, 1948
Department of fisheries
Fisheries Act, No. 200,1994
National Water Supply and
Sanitation Council
Water Supply and Sanitation
Act.1997
Environmental Council of Zambia
Environmental protection and
Pollution Control Act,1990
Natural resources and
conservation Act, No. 315
Agriculture land Act
Ministry of Environment &
Natural resources
Department of Agriculture
National Heritage and
Conservation Commission
Ministry of Local Government
and Housing
Ministry of Health
Health Act
Department of Lands
Lands Act, 1995
3.5
National Heritage and
Conservation Act, 1989
Local Government Act,1991
Activities / Mandate
Management and conservation of wildlife
and estates
Management and conservation of forests
and their estate
Manage and develop water resources
Allocation and administration of water
rights
Manage, develop and conserve fisheries
resources
Enforcement of wastewater effluent
standards and granting of water supply
and sanitation services licenses.
Protection of the environment and control
of pollution
Protection and conservation of natural
resources
Management
of
land
resources;
Regulation of uses of chemicals and
fertilizers; regulation of land use practices
and ensuring of public healthy standards
Identify and protect national heritage sites
Control of domestic and industrial
effluents and solid water disposal
Enforcement of public health standards to
curb water pollution.
Regulation of land ownership
POLLUTION AND EUTROPHICATION
In addition to the issues presented and discussed above, Kafue Flats faces an intertwined
problem of water pollution and eutrophication. Pollution can simply be defined here as a
substance in a wrong place, wrong quantities and wrong time (Chabwela, 1994). Water pollution
is critical for the Kafue Flats. It has been noted to have profound effects on water quality, fish and
causes eutrophication. Eutrophication is the enrichment of water with nutrients especially nitrogen
and phosphorous. This process leads to the enhancement of plant growth including weeds,
especially water hyacinth (Kalunga, 1996), or depletion of oxygen levels as plant decomposes.
That means, when water plants die and rot in water bodies, they increase the values of many
water quality parameters, especially in stagnant water; such as Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Dissolved Solids
(TDS), etc. These parameters, when at high levels, cause colour water, bad odours and tastes of
water thereby impairing the quality of (drinking) water. In this section, we detail the causes,
extent, and dynamics of the problem of pollution/ eutrophication in relation to water quality.
48
Based on nutrient loading studies by NWRMP (1995), Kalunga (1996), and ECZ (2002), it is clear
that spatially, there are three areas of pollution in the Kafue River. Pollution starts from the
Copperbelt towns through the Flats with their agricultural production activities, down to Kafue
Town and its industries and sewerage systems, with all the wastewater draining away into the
Kafue River. From the Coperbelt, upstream, most of the pollution comes from mining operations
and associated industries. Pollution is in form of heavy metals and chemicals. The concentration
of heavy metal pollutants, particularly lead in the upper Kafue is reported to very high by world
standards. However, other chemical indicators are low. Apart from the Copperbelt, another more
restricted lead source is gun shooting in the Lochinvar and Blue Lagoon National Parks. High
lead values have been observed in Lechwe and fish through feeding on material exposed to lead,
and this could be affecting their productivity, see below.
In the lower Kafue, the combination of the above and effluents from various other sources locally
are responsible for poor water quality in the area, as shown by some of the water quality
indicators in the Table 4 below. Using the data in Table 5, it is clear that some of the parameters
were within range of ECZ standards. These include pH, temperature, and copper. Dissolved
oxygen was unacceptably low, below ECZ guidelines. Nitrogen and phosphorous at some points
were beyond warning levels.
According to the works of ECZ in collaboration with University of Zambia (1997- 2001) and
Kalunga (1996), it is established that the concentration of these nutrients, are responsible for
aquatic weed proliferation, especially water hyacinth. However the water hyacinth consumes
these nutrients, including heavy metals such as cobalt, lead, cadmium and chromium. This factor
together with the flow from Itezhi-tezhi dilutes the concentrations of nutrients and metals to levels
that would have been alarmingly high and poisonous to man and aqua life if the weeds were not
there. The weed, therefore is an important biological sieve of pollutants. Consequently, control,
other eradication should be the main focus, as long as the water body continues to receive
pollutants.
Apart from the problem of pollution promoting weed growth, TDS and TSS values from the data
are also above the ECZ standards, and these affect the quality of drinking water. The presence of
pollutants in the river implies that the water companies that supply domestic water from the Kafue
have to incur extra costs in bringing the quality of water to acceptable standards. This cost may in
turn be passed on to the consumer.
Through the same studies, the main sources of pollution within the lower Kafue have been
identified as follows:
49
•
Nakambala Sugar Estate and other related agricultural activities related to sugarcane
growing using fertilizers; Nitrogen Chemicals of Zambia (NCZ), Kafue Fish Farm, and
municipal sewerage treatment waste water from the townships are the main contributors of
nutrients, particularly nitrogen/ nitrates.
•
Phosphorous and phosphates are discharged by local phosphorous loading from human
activities along the river such as use of phosphate based detergents for laundry and
discharge of such waters into the river. Other sources include the production of yeast from
Lee Yeast Factory in Kafue Town.
•
The sources of TDS and TSS were Bata Tannery, NCZ, Lee Yeast and National Breweries.
Other factors affecting water quality are high sediment loads resulting from high run-off and soil
erosion due to deforestation in the sub-catchments. It is noted that river sediments serve as traps
for various anthropogenic pollutants including heavy metals, especially lead (Knight Pielsod,
2002). This causes toxicity of river sediments. As shown above, Research on the Kafue river
(Knight Pielsod, 2002 after Mwase, 1994) has proved that fish can feed on these sediments with
toxic substances and this toxicity affect fish breeding, particularly zebra fish. The levels of toxicity,
however, were higher in the upstream than in lower Kafue.
From the above, it is clear that the problem of pollution is a serious one. It affects water quality;
and in turn; causes weed infestation and affects fish productivity. Weed infestation has socioeconomic and ecological consequences. These concerns stress the strong need to implement
control measures. Because of its ability to regulate the level of pollution in the water body,
complete eradication of the weed may not be necessary advocated.
50
Table 5. Water quality of surface and Ground water, Lower Kafue
Parameter
ECZ
Reg.
Limits
Average Values
Surface Water
Temperature
PH
Conductivity
D.O (mg/l)
Ammonia(mg/l)
Nitrates(mg/l)
Phosphorus(mg/l)
Potassium(mg/l)
Calcium(mg/l)
Magnesium(mg/l)
Iron(mg/l)
COD(mg/l)
BOD(mg/l)
40
6--9
4300
5.0
10.0
50
1.0
NR
NR
500
2.0
90
50
Kafue River
Discharge
23.4
7.1
225
2.3
0.3
11.1
0.3
3.0
28.9
13.1
0.2
75
10.0
23.4
7.7
485
3.9
0.6
36.0
1.6
18.6
56.9
26.9
0.6
137
51
Groundwater
Nakambala
Estates
25.5
7.1
1613
1.5
0.50
51.0
1.40
20.0
166
88.8
NA
113
14
Source: ECZ, 2000. Kafue River Nutrient Loading Study Vol. 1 (Table 7.1)
NR= No ECZ Regulations; NA= Not Analyzed
51
Kafue Fish
Farm
23.9
7.00
2109
1.60
1.60
73.8
2.07
17.6
121
79.0
NA
1043
150
Kafue
Sewerage
25.1
6.69
595
0.75
0.27
15.6
1.84
14.9
37.3
46.9
NA
86
16
Nitrogen
Chemicals
25.6
6.80
1791
1.30
0.50
30.2
2.12
19.2
105
79.8
NA
110
28
4.0 STUDY METHODS
Based on the terms of reference of the study, the following was employed to obtain the necessary
information for documentation of the study, viz.; literature review, map interpretations, meetings
with stakeholders, field observations, and questionnaire survey.
4.1
LITERATURE REVIEW
Literature review was the initial activity to be embarked on under the study. It involved searches,
collation and review of existing and relevant available materials on the study area and subject
matter. Searches and collation were made by visiting relevant government departments,
parastatal institutions, Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and private researchers. The
search was partly facilitated by referring to the available bibliographies that had been prepared for
the area under the Kafue Basin Research Committee (Turner, 1984), and of geographical writing
on Zambia (William, 1982). Review of documents made available to the study team was
undertaken through deskwork.
The documents that were made available were reviewed, and where necessary, they have been
cited as references in the Chapters of this report. A list of references cited is attached to this
report.
4.2
USE OF MAPS
The study made use of the existing maps from the Survey Department, especially on land-use,
vegetation, topography, soils and Geology. Relevant topographic maps at the scale of 1: 50,000
and 1:250,000 where necessary, were used for reference in the field.
4.3
FIELD DATA COLLECTION
4.3.1 Field visits
We conducted three field visits in October and November 2002, and in February 2003 in
Southern Kafue Flats, and we carried out one field visit in March, 2003 in the Northern Kafue
flats. This involved an initial field reconnaissance survey which was undertaken prior to
commencement of fieldwork.
52
4.3.2 Ecological Survey
The initial plan of activities was to undertake aerial survey(s), boat survey(s) and ground
survey(s) to supplement literature information, where there were identified data gaps, with
baseline information. These activities were to be conducted in both rainy and dry seasons to
ascertain information on temporal (seasonal) variations (if any) on the study parameters. The
aerial surveys could not be undertaken due to financial limitations of the study. No field
measurements or laboratory analyses were also undertaken at this stage of the research, but
could appropriately be undertaken in the future development phases of this current work.
We carried out ground surveys for 4 days by walking, and driving along a transect line between
Chitakataka fishing camp and Nabumbe fishing camp covering the entire perimeter along the
Chunga Lake and Lagoons in the
Lochinwar National Park and Kafue Flats GMA, in the
Southern part of the Kafue Flats. We used field glasses (binoculars) to identity bird species
present in the area during the study period. These studies were concentrated in the Chitakataka,
Nyimba, Hippo corner, Chunga, Likenga, Namalyo and Nabumbe areas. We were assisted by
two Wildlife Police officers (wildlife scouts) in carrying out field observations.
We used a similar approach, but for a limited period in the Northern part of the Kafue Flats. This
was confined to the Blue Lagoon in the Nakenda area and along the cause way inside the Blue
Lagoon National Park. In both cases, we observed the bird species present and habitat suitability
for various bird species. The other information collected during the field survey was on the
following parameters:
•
Identification of the extent of presence of weeds in the area.
•
Relative impact of weeds by area coverage on bird habitats.
•
Human activities such as fishing, hunting, bushfires, cattle grazing in the study area
•
Identification of bird breeding areas, feeding and roosting areas.
We under took a boat survey, using a banana boat, in the Chunga Lagoon at Likenga point. We
traversed the lake and swamp area for approximately 3 hours. This was important for identifying
various aquatic birds that were common in the area. We did not carry out any ecological
quantitative observations due to the limited resources and period of study.
During the study visits, we carried out observations on the presence of the weed from the Kafue
Gorge through the Kafue Bridge, Nanga Farm, Nakambala Farm to the Lochinvar and Blue
Lagoon National Parks.
We obtained additional information on weed occurrence through
discussions with people in the area.
53
4.3.3 Socio-economic Survey
We used a questionnaire (Appendix11) to obtain and describe baseline information on the socioeconomic and human livelihood issues in relation to conservation in the Kafue Flats. We carried
out face-to-face structural interviews with the help of five assistants who directly entered
responses on data sheet for each person interviewed. The sampling framework was stratified
according to localities and activities of communities:
•
Permanent Villages which consists of people who are traditionally farmers and live
outside the flood plain
•
Fishing villages within the flood plain; at Chitakataka.
•
Fishing village at Likenga (Plate 4)
•
Fishing village at Namalyo.
•
The sampled communities were from Chiefs Hamsonde and Choongo in the areas adjacent to
the Lochinvar National Park. The people interviewed included cattle herders, farmers, villagers
and their headmen, fishermen and fishmongers. These were selected at random within each
locality. The list of people interviewed using the questionnaire is given in Appendix12a.
Plate 4: Likenga fishing village
4.3.4 Meetings
A number of meetings were also held with a number of institutions as stakeholders during the
study. The purpose of these meetings was twofold, viz.;
54
1. Courtesy calls and introductions of the study and the study team to stakeholders for purpose
of awareness.
2. Informal interviews with the institutions/stakeholders so as to obtain further information to fillup data gaps.
The main stake holder institutions visited for the purpose were the following;
WWF – Zambia office,
ZAWA
Fisheries Department
University of Zambia, Biology and Geography Departments;
ECZ
The Leadership, Chiefs Choongo and Haamusonde
Zambia Crane and Wetland Conservation of Zambia
ZESCO
Area counsellor, Chief Choongo’s area, Monze District
The list of individuals interviewed is given in Appendix 12b. There were, however, still a number
of other stakeholders, i.e., groups of people who had an interest in the flood plain, who needed to
be contacted, but due to limited time and resources these could not be visited.
4.4
Data Analysis
The data collected from the questionnaire were coded according to responses and were analyzed
and pooled using a statistical computer programme, Excel, and presented in the form of
frequencies averages and diagrams.
55
5.0 STUDY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter focuses on results and discussions on a) socio-economic issues, b) general impact
of invasive weeds c) impact of invasive weeds on water birds and d) impact of site rehabilitation
on water birds
5.1 LIVELIHOOD AND PEOPLES PERCEPTIONS
5.1.1 Human settlements in Kafue Flats
According to this survey, 43% of people interviewed during the study had household sizes of
ranging from 4-7, while 27% had household sizes of between 8-11 people; and, 4% had
household sizes of 12 people and above. Only 19%, the remainder had household sizes of
between 0 and 3 people. These results underscore that the majority of the people in this part of
the country have large households of over 4 people, above the national average of 4.8 people per
household. Where farming is predominant, children and women are a primary source of labour on
small farms.
Of the population interviewed, 62% have permanent residence while 38% are temporarily living in
the flats. However, much of the population consists of very new people, being less than 10 years
in the area (67%), and only 25% have been in the area for more than 20 years. Most people
immigrate into the area for the purpose of fishing (50%) while native (31%) , farming (17%) and
2% on transfer make up much of the remaining population.(Fig.5)
56
Figure: 5. Causes of Settlements among communities in Kafue flats
Causes of settlement
2%
Native
31%
Farming
Grazing
Fishing
50%
Transfer
17%
0%
5.1.2 Livelihood and Poverty
According to this survey, 31% of the people interviewed reported that exacerbating the pressure
on the resources, is the level of development and poverty among the local population, symbolized
by poor or lack of access to adequate social infrastructure (education, health, etc.); 37% reported
poor status of physical infrastructure (e.g. roads, boreholes); and 13% reported occurrence of
drought affecting crop production; Others reported limited land for agriculture (10%), and floods
(9%). In addition, majority of the people, 59%, had access to unsafe sources of water supply
(shallow wells and streams), and only the minority, 41%, had access to safe water sources
(boreholes). Underdevelopment of the area is also indicated by limited access to electricity by the
local communities. Despite the infrastructure investments in hydropower generation in the area,
the majority of the communities relied heavily on trees as energy sources. Knight Pielsod (2002)
showed that in Namwala, which borders Itezh-tezhi, only about 8% had access to electricity for
lighting while 72% relied on firewood instead. This was compared to 65% of the households in
Chililabombwe, a community very far way from electricity source, which had access to electricity.
This underscores the disadvantages of the people who live in the Flats, and indicates that the
hydropower development was not a people cantered development.
At household level, the level of underdevelopment/ poverty is also deepened by limited access to
agricultural inputs and capital resources, food insecurity and low levels of incomes. According to
the current study, the main source of income in the area is fishing (40%), followed by agriculture
57
(24%) and trading (20%) (Fig. 6). Livestock production accounts for 10%. However, one of the
most striking finding was that even the fishermen who were generally thought to be relatively
better economically as they earned on average of K50, 000 per day for their daily fish sales
during the fishing season, were among the poor segment of the community. Informal interviews
indicated that the majority of the fishermen had no savings, did not own meaningful household
assets, and their expenditure was mainly on apparels. This aspect, however, needs further
investigation, particularly their life styles.
Figure: 6. Sources of Income among communities in Kafue flats
Income Source
3%
agriculture
24%
20%
hunting
fishing
charcoal
0%
livestock
trading
10%
employment
3%
40%
5.1.3 Agriculture
Yet another important traditional economic activity is rain-fed crop farming, particularly maize
growing (34%), both at sub-commercial using oxen and tractors, and subsistence farming using
hoe. To supplement diets or as risk-avoiding strategy, about half of the respondents (50%) grew
other crops either in association or in different fields include sweet potatoes (18%), groundnuts
(20%), fruits, beans, cassava (7%), and vegetables. Farming (maize) is the main source of
income and carbohydrate for the majority of the households in the study area (Plate 9),
particularly on the flood plain periphery. In the flood plain, people are involved in low returns
agricultural activities at small scale. Due to the generally acidic soils on the flood plain periphery,
maize growing is dependent on clearing of woodlands for new fields, fertilizers and agrochemicals usage. With the high concentration and increasing human population on the flood plain
periphery/ plateau, maize growing has implications on deforestation, soil erosion, and run-off on
the periphery; and sediment transport, nitrogen and phosphorus movement into the flood plain
58
(Kalunga, 1996; and ECZ 2001). In fact 34% of the survey respondents reported the increasing
loss of trees in the area as a result of agricultural activities.
5.1.4.
Weed Awareness
Out of the people interviewed if they were aware of the weeds in the Kafue Flats, 61% indicated
awareness of the Water Hyacinth while only 2% had seen Mimosa pigra.
Mimosa pigra is dominant in the National Park.
This is because
However, 85% of the people interviewed
considered Dichrostachys cinerea as the main threat compared to 10% who thought that Water
Hyacinth would pose a serious threat to the Wetland.
5.1.5.
Management of the Kafue Flats Wetland.
Most people interviewed did not think that policies of conservation were satisfactory. However,
opinions were equally divided on which institution was most effectively present in Kafue Flats.
The Department of Fisheries (39%) and ZAWA (39%) were considered to be doing a good job,
but only 18% considered Water Affairs to be important. When a similar question was raised on
who should be most concerned about the management of Kafue Flats, most respondents
considered ZAWA (36%) and Fisheries (31%) should be most concerned, but 20% were of the
opinion that all citizens must be involved.
5.2 INVASIVE WEEDS AND THEIR IMPACT
There are at least 12 plant species regarded as weeds and threats to the Kafue Flats wetland and
of these nine are aquatic, while three occur in the flood plain. These are summarized in Table 6.
The weeds of major concern are the Eichhornia crassipes (Water Hyacinth), Salvinia molesta
(Kariba weed) and Mimosa pigra (Cat claw), and this report focuses on these three as serious
problem plants.
5.2.1 Aquatic Weeds- Eichhornia crassipes (Marts) Solms (Water Hyacinth)
Distribution: Water hyacinth in Zambia it is common in Zambezi and Kafue rivers. In the Kafue
Flats the plants distribution ranges from the Kafue Gorge Hydroelectric dam to the Chunga Lake
in the main river channels, lagoons as well as in streams (Plate5). Previously, high populations of
59
the plant used to occur in Lagoons, along the Kafue River between Mazabuka and Kafue Gorge
dam (Appendix 13). However, following interventions between 1995 and 1998, the population of
water hyacinth has drastically declined.
Plate5: Water Hyacinth
Environmental and economic impacts of Water Hyacinth:
As a result of its rapid growth and large biomass, E. crassipes has a wide range of detrimental
effects (Waterhouse, 1994; Jamil, 2003).
Whereas E. crassipes may have positive effects, most of these are reported in literature to be
overshadowed by the following negative impacts (ECZ, 1998; Jamil, 2003; Lembi, 2003):
•
Interference to hydropower generation. The plant has been a serious risk to the mechanical
damage to hydroelectric installations at the Kafue Gorge. Water hyacinth has also been a
threat to bridges and water pumping installations in the Kafue Flats.
•
Excess evapotranspiration, causing wastage of water that would otherwise be used for
irrigation, drinking, fisheries and hydropower generation. While this factor has not been fully
investigated in the Kafue Flats, elsewhere, the loss of water can be up to 13 times that from a
free water source (Jamil, 2003).
•
Physical interference with fishing and transportation. According to the results of our current
studies, most fishers communities interviewed considered the plant to be a menace to fishing
as it has restricted their access to the fishing grounds as well as interfere with the spread or
retrieval of nets. It was only in among a few individuals who responded that in some cases
the plant was good habitat for fish.
60
•
Water Hyacinth depletes plant aquatic biodiversity by out-competing other plant species.
•
Although it has been known that the plant is important as good habitat for bird species such
as coots, the plant causes considerable loss to wildlife habitat, especially grazing species
such as Lechwe, Sitatunga and birds.
•
Changing the ecology of the water body by shading, which reduces light penetration thus,
affecting phytoplankton production. It also depletes nutrients from the water and oxygen from
the air. Although patchy distribution of water hyacinth is beneficial for fishing, its extensive
infestations especially in shallow water are certainly detrimental. Fish production is greatly
reduced due to deoxygenation.
•
Water Hyacinth causes changes in water chemistry by lowering pH and Oxygen
concentration, and by increasing Carbon Dioxide levels. This greatly affects the food chain.
•
Water Hyacinth has been known to be a good breeding place for various animals such as
snakes, frogs, snail, and most important as breeding areas for mosquitoes and other
organisms associated with human illness, including Schistosomiasis, encephalitis, filarias,
and cholera.
•
Restricting water flow in rivers, irrigation and drainage channels
•
Interference with water supply through blocked piping or hindrance to good access to water.
5.2.2 Mimosa pigra L (Cat Claw Mimosa, Giant sensitive plant)
Distribution: Mimosa is known as a native of Central and South America (Brazil, Venezuela,
Mexico), and in Zambia the plant is seen (in small amounts) in many parts of the country along
some large rivers such as the Luangwa River.
The origin of Mimosa in the Kafue Flats is not known, but records show that it has been in the
area for some time (UNFAO 1968; Rees, 1978; Douthwaite and Van Lavieren, 1978). From the
current survey, results show Mimosa (Plate 6) to be established mainly in the southern part of the
Kafue Flats along the mouth of the Nampongwe streams and westwards to the area just few
kilometres outside the National Park, near Likenga Fishing camp, in the flood plain grassland.
High populations are also along the Chunga Lake and in the eastern part of the National Park to
Malema (Masangu) Stream in the GMA. Mimosa covers at present an area over 6okm2 of the
flood plain grassland, and the plant is rapidly growing.
61
Plate 6: Mimosa pigra
Environmental and Economic Impact: Mimosa is reported as a serious weed of wetlands
wherever it has been introduced. Once established, it forms a dense impenetrable prickly thicket
rendering the area useless for any purpose. Mimosa impacts on the Kafue Flats may include the
following:
•
Loss of pastures for grazing Lechwe and cattle
•
Loss of biodiversity as mimosa dominates the area where it is established, and excludes
all other plants. Over 70% of flood plain grassland has been lost to mimosa in Lochinvar
National Park.
•
Prevents access to water especially cattle and wildlife
•
Mimosa is not a good habitat plant. It does not offer cover for breeding or escape for
wildlife, although based on interviews held with fishers in Chitakataka, it was revealed
that mimosa thickets were useful to breeding pigs.
•
In other parts of the world, the plant has been a hindrance to irrigation as it blocks canals,
and reclaims arable agricultural land.
•
Although the plant can be browsed by some species of animals, particularly in the dry
season, the plant is, however, unpalatable.
•
Mimosa is a serious threat to the aquatic bird habitat. Already, a considerable amount of
the aquatic habitat around Chunga and Nagoya is covered by Mimosa.
5.2.3 Salvinia molesta D. S. Mitchell (Giant Kariba weed)
Distribution: Salvinia molesta (Plate7) is a native plant of Brazil and is wide spread in the tropical
world, generally in latitudes 24 to 32 S. S.molesta is recorded to have been established in
62
Southern Africa as early as 1930, but in Zambia, this weed established itself in the 1950s,
especially in the Copperbelt in Ndola at Kafubu River Dam. It is not clear when S.molesta was
introduced in the Kafue Flats. However, the plant has not spread as much as it has been feared.
Currently, it occurs in the western parts of Chunga Lake, mainly in the Southern Parts of the
Kafue Flats.
Plate 7: Salvinia molesta
Economic and environmental impact: Salvinia molesta is considered as one of the world’s
worst aquatic weed. It is aggressive, competitive species that can impact aquatic environments,
local economies, human health and wildlife. Excessive growth of the plant results in complete
coverage of water sources. The impacts of this weed to be of concern to us are similar to the one
listed for the water hyacinth in 4.2.1 including the following:
-
Degrades the environment by reducing exchange of Oxygen in to the water, further
depleting oxygen content as old growth decomposes. This oxygen is needed for fish and
other aquatic life.
-
Animal habitat most noticeably altered by obliteration of open water. Migrating birds may
not recognize or stop at water bodies covered with S. molesta.
-
S. molesta also interferes with fishing, transportation and water supply and irrigation.
5.2.4
Other Aquatic weeds
Other aquatic species, which are a potential threat to the Kafue Flats, are listed in Table 6. These
are Ceratophyllum dermesum, Ludwigia stolonifera, Typha sp., Phragmites mauritianus, Vosia
63
cuspidata, ultricularia sp., and Trapa sp. However, it is important that management takes note of
the potential of threat these plants pose in the wetland. Once allowed to grow rapidly, they can
cause considerable impact on the environment and local economies in the areas of
transportation, fishing, water supply and water quality. However, aquatic plants such as the
Phragmites mauritianus and Typha sp., are very useful to man as they are harvested as fibre for
construction and handicrafts.
5.2.5
Other terrestrial weed plants
Various species can be classified as weeds in the Kafue Flats wetland. However, of particular
concern are two plants: (1) Dichrostachys cinerea and (2) Ambrosia maritima (Plates 17, 18).
Both of these species thrive well in areas, which are overgrazed or largely disturbed.
Dichrostachys cinerea (Plate8) is a woody species, which normally establishes well in disturbed
soils, especially areas that are overgrazed. The plant is common in the Temitaria zone of the
wetland but also occurs in woodland areas were previously cleared. It is an aggressive plant and
Plate 8: Dichrostachys cinerea
outgrows other plant species. D. cinerea has reclaimed a fairly large area of the Termitaria
habitat, as nothing can use the area once the species has established itself. The plant is thorny
and forms thick impenetrable thicket, which renders it useless for wildlife species. There has been
no attempt to control the weed in the area, but parts where land is to be used for agricultural
purposes; the plant is removed mechanically through cutting and burning.
Ambrosia maritima. This is a herbaceous plant which colonizes well in the flood plain grasslands
in over disturbed areas due to overgrazing, and where flooding is limited. The plant has covered
much of the GMA and part of Lochinvar National Park, and has subsequently reduced the grazing
capacity of much of the flood plain.
64
Table 6. A list of invasive and potential weeds and their distribution, impact and control methods in Kafue Flats
Name
Eichhornia crassipes
Distribution
Kafue Gorge to Chunga Lake
along lagoons, rivers and
stream channels
Status
Largely reduced between
Kafue Gorge and
Mazabuka. Expanding in
other areas
Impact on
Hydropower generation
Fishing
Habitat and biodiversity
Transportation
Water obstruction and
water supply
Fishing
Transportation
Biodiversity
Habitat reduction
Biodiversity
Available management
Mechanical control
Biological control
Chemical control (2,4 D)
Water level regulation
Salvinia molesta
Lake Chunga
Not known
Mimosa pigra
Expanding
Ludwigia stolonifera
Along Chunga Lake,
Nampongwe stream, Flood
plain east of Chunga Lake
Along Chunga Lake areas in
the Northern part of the flood
plain in the Termitaria zone
Along the main river
channels, lagoons and
streams
Chunga Lake, Lagoons
Expanding
Habitat reduction
None
Not a threat at present
Not known and may be a food
plant
None
Scattered in small
communities. Not a threat
-
Fishing
Transportation
None
Utricularia sp.
Chunga Lake, Lagoons
Scattered in small
communities. Not a threat
-
Fishing
Transportation
None
Typha sp.
Widely distributed
Expanding
Phragmites mauritianus
Ceratophyllum demersum
Along streams, main river
Chunga Lake, Lagoons
Declining
Not known
Fishing
Transportation
Habitat reduction
Not known
Fishing
Transportation
Trapa natans
Ambrosia maritima
Lake, Lagoons
Flood plain, grassland
Not known
Expanding
Dichrostachys cinerea
Vossia cuspidata
Not known
Habitat reduction
65
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
5.3
IMPACT OF INVASIVE WEEDS ON WATER BIRDS ECOLOGY
5.3.1 Seasonal Migrations and Habitats
The distribution of most bird species is confined to the two national parks and the GMA (Fig.7) as
much of the Kafue Flats is largely disturbed due to agriculture and human encroachment.
Although no detailed ecological studies have been done on birds in the area, population figures
drawn from recent studies by Kamweneshe and Beilfuss (2002) on large birds indicate existing
large populations of Spurwinged Goose, African open-bill Stork, Intermediate egret, Fulvous
whistling Duck, White-faced whistling Duck, Wattled crane, Little egret and Cattle Egret (Table 7).
Whereas the status of most birds remains unknown, at least 52 species of them are migrant
species, including White Stork (Ciconia ciconia), Abdim’s Stork (L. abdimii), Open-bill Stork
(Anastomas lamelligerus) and some species of plovers, Spoon Bill, Terns, Swifts and Swallows.
Based on our findings, birds were mostly concentrated along the Chunga lagoon, Malema
stream, Kaindo area and westwards in Namalyo area, see Fig. 7). Although the Northern parts
are not fairly covered in the study, bird concentrations are known to occur in Muwezwa
(Namunyona) and Luwato lagoons (Douthwaite, 1982) (Kapokola, pers. comm.). These results
agree with the studies by Douthwaite (1982) which were done during the construction of the two
dams on the Kafue River.
This abundance can be speculated to be attributed to the three areas are important fish habitats,
as there are permanent lagoons, stable, standing and floating vegetation, very productive and
thus have very high population of fish. Fishing activity assists in moving microorganisms used as
food for fish and birds, and important in mixing oxygen, which is important for fish adaptation.
These areas are fairly protected either as part of the National Park or as a GMA. These are areas
which carry very high populations of wildlife species, mainly the Lechwe. Through grazing and
trampling by lechwe, grass mats are removed, enabling birds to feed, roost and nest.
66
Table 7. Estimated numbers of selected waterbirds observed on the Kafue Flats
Species common name
Eastern white pelican
Pink backed pelican
Whitebreasted cormorant
Reed cormorant
Grey heron
Goliath heron
Purple heron
Great egret
Intermediate egret
Little egret
Cattle egret
Yellowbilled stork
African openbilled stork
Abdim's stork
Saddlebilled stork
Marabou stock
Sacred Ibis
African spoonbill
Fulvous whistling-Duck
Whitefaced whistling-Duck
Spur winged goose
Knob-billed Duck
Egyptian goose
Grey Crowned Crane
Wattled Crane
Scientific name
Pelecanus onocrotalus
Pelecanus rufescens
Phalacrocorax carbo
Phalacrocorax africanus
Ardea cinerea
Ardea goliath
Ardea purpurea
Casmerodius albus
Egretta intermedia
Egretta garzetta
Bubulcus ibis
Mycteria ibis
Anastomus lamelligerus
Ciconia abdimii
Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis
Leptoptilos crumeniferus
Threskiomis aethiopicus
Platalea alba
Dendrocygna bicolor
Dendrocygna viduata
Plectropterus gambensis
Sarkidiomis melanotos
Alopochenaegyptiacus
Balearica regulorum
Bugeranus carunculatus
Estimated number
<100
<20
>50
100s
>20
>40
>20
100s
>5000
1000s
1000s
>20
>10,000
<20
<20
>20
100s
>20
1000s
1000s
>20,000
<100
<100
<20
<1000
(Kamweneshe, 2002).
67
Table 8. Impact of invasive plants on native plants and bird species
Weed plant species
Eichhornia crassipes
Occurrence
Lochinvar to Kafue Gorge in
Lagoons, Ponds, Lakes
Mimosa pigra
Covers the entire Lochinvar
National Park area along the
shoreline of Chunga Lagoon and
in GMA
Type of impact
•
Replacement of native plant
vegetation and converting the habitat
to homogenous habitat
•
Reduction of biodiversity as it out
competes native plant species. This
creates less diverse flora
•
Reduction of wildlife habitat and food
•
Change ecosystem processes and
structure
•
Replaced aquatic plants and the flood
plain
•
Reduction of wildlife habitat
•
Ground nesters
Bird species most affected
•
Grazing birds, mostly
ducks and geese
•
Breeding birds such as
floatingSward nesters, Reed
bed nesters
Recommendation
•
Intensive and species
specific studies are needed
•
Restoration of habitat in the
Lochinvar area is essential
•
Both carnivorous and
herbivorous species have
declined
Direct effect on breeding, and
moulting birds
Ground nesters such as
Wattled Cranes, Plovers
Grazing birds
Sward nesting species
•
Restoration of the habitat is
needed
•
•
Direct effect on ground nesters
such as Plovers, Spurwing
geese
Reduction in feeding area
Affects breeders especially
ducks
Good for carnivorous species
Less important for herbivorous
species
•
Need for detailed studies
Control of weed could be
introduced
Further studies are needed
•
Need further studies
•
Not yet well understood
•
•
Salvinia molesta
Chunga lagoon
•
•
Replacement of native plant species
Reduction of biodiversity
•
•
Dichrostachys cinerea
Much of Lochinvar and Blue
Lagoon in disturbed areas
•
•
Replacement of herbaceous plants
Habitat loss
•
Typha sp.
Along lagoons and especially in
Chitakataka and Luwato Lagoon
•
•
•
•
Utricularia sp.
Chunga and other Lagoons
•
•
Highly competitive with other species
Monospecific colonies and may be
very dominant plant species
Loss of habitat
May be good fish habitat
68
•
•
Figure 7. Areas and Habitats of major concentration of birds in the Kafue flats: 1 = Lochinvar National Park and GMA 11; 2 = Blue Lagoon National
Park and part of GMA 11; Mwezwa / Namunyona in GMA 11
69
Table 9. Selected bird species and their food habits
Species
Spurwing Goose
Pigmy Goose
Knob Billed Duck
Egyptian Goose
Red Billed Teal
Faced Whistling Duck
Fulvous Whistling Duck
Sacred Ibis
Glossy Ibis
Open Bill Stork
Greater Flamingos
African Jacana
Lesser Jacana
Black Smith Plover
Practiacole
Cattle Egret
White Pelicans
Fish Eagle
5.4
Food types
Grazing on ripening seeds and grass leaves
Grazing
Grazing
Grazing
Filtering shed seeds
Filtering shed seeds
Filtering shed seeds
Invertebrates from mud
Invertebrate from mud
Mollusks from mud
Filters small invertebrates from water
Invertebrates in floating vegetation
Invertebrates in floating vegetation
Insects on dry ground
Insects in flight
Insects in grass
Fish
Fish
IMPLICATIONS ON THE WETLAND FOOD CHAIN
Food chain is the transfer of energy from the source in the plants through a series of organisms
through repeated eating and being eaten (Odum, 1971). The function is of two forms occurring in
wetland systems: the grazing food chain which starts from green plants through herbivore to
carnivores, and the detritus food chain which goes through dead organic matter and through
microorganisms to detrivores. Food chains are not isolated sequences, but are connected with
each other, forming complex patterns known as the food web (Odum, 1971; Krebs, 1972). A food
chain structure for the Kafue flats was prepared by Handlos (1982), and later improved by Drijver
and Marchand (1985), (Fig. 6). This illustration helps to show why each element in the web is
important, as any shift in the arrangement will not only affect birds, but many other organisms,
including man (Chabwela, 1994).
The ecological structure and function of a wetland ecosystem have been described elsewhere
(Odum, 1971; Welcomme, 1979; Drijver and Marchand, 1985; Howard-williams and Gaudet,
1985), and the Kafue Flats ecosystem (UNFAO, 1968; Handlos, 1982; Ellenbroek, 1984). Life on
a floodplain is subject to a constant cycle of growth and decay, eating and being eaten,
immigration and emigration. This is accomplished, together with abiotic components of the
ecosystem. To get a clear picture of the system, ecosystem models have been developed mainly
to explain the energy and mineral pathways. Details of these models should not concern us in this
report, however, it is important to understand that life of organisms and various processes are
greatly interlinked providing channels of movements of energy and materials through various
70
levels as organisms are serving and being served. While this relationship is dynamic,
nevertheless, its ultimate goal is towards stability or equilibrium. In theory, this is achievable, that
is if the ecosystem remains undisturbed. Through out this process, the system allows for long
term changes of vegetation patterns, animal species composition in a way of succession, from
pioneer stage to a mature and complex one of swamp nature.
Figure 8: Simplified food web of a fresh water wetland (Kafue Flats) modified from Handlos (1982)
Like the many floodplain ecosystems, the climax of the Kafue Flats ecosystem assumes “pulse
stability” through flooding over a longer period (Drijver and Marchand, 1985). This has evolved
through the rhythm of repeated annual inundation and burning, a pattern, which has prohibited
any growth of woody plants. Thus in the absence of sufficient flooding and duration, stability of
the system may not be realized, as the case is at present in Kafue Flats.
71
Essentially, floodplain vegetation (grasses) take up nutrients during the flood phase, and return
them to the soil during dry seasons, thus resulting in the conservation of nutrients in the flood
plain, rather than their being swept down stream dissolved in main waters (Welcomme, 1979).
Furthermore, nutrient return to the soil through decaying, abundant aquatic and emergent
vegetation after the water has receded, and through burnt vegetation and cattle and wildlife
droppings. Aquatic vegetation and plankton quickly take up these nutrients during new floods.
As stated earlier, the Kafue Flats wetland is the most disturbed among other wetlands in Zambia,
and this is primarily as a result of various factors, among which are changes in hydrological
regime; habitat alteration and decline in habitat quality; human population encroachment;
agricultural activities; proliferation of weed, and depletion of biodiversity. Based on our current
studies, results indicate that the impact on the Kafue Flats wetland ecosystem cannot be
attributed to a single, but multiple factors. Limited by the lack of information on these factors, it is
not possible to establish which one was most important.
Although disturbed ecosystems may respond differently, for the most part, they all move from
mature and complex to simple and poor structure (Odum, 1971; Krebs, 1972). Perhaps to answer
the question on how the Kafue Flats wetland has responded to the environmental ‘shock’
(impact), it would be appropriate to consider the effect at several levels. For example, at the
ecosystem level many characteristics, which could be of concern to us, are summarized below,
see Table 10.
Table 10. Characteristics of less mature, more mature, and disturbed ecosystems adapted from
Odum (1971), Krebs (1972).
Ecosystem condition
Characteristic
Community structure
Biomass
Species diversity
Stratification (Pattern diversity)
Energy
Food chain
Nutrient cycling
Selection pressure
Individual populations
Fluctuations
Life cycles
Feeding habits
Life span of individuals
Population control Mechanism
Less mature
Mature
Disturbed
Small
Low
Less (poorly organized)
Large
High
More organized
Small
Low
Disorganized
Linear, short
Open
r-selection (rapid)
Long, web-like
Closed
k-selection (Feed back)
Linear, short
Open
r-selection (rapid)
More pronounced
Short, simple
Generalized
Long
Abiotic
Less pronounced
Long, complex
Specialized
Short
Biotic
Stochastic
Short, simple
Generalized
Long
Abiotic
72
Therefore, we see that ecosystems lose their structure, and functional efficiency when disturbed,
and for the purpose of management, it would mean having to manage an ecosystem from a
predictable to a very unpredictable nature. In this case, more resources would be required for the
same output if a mature system were managed. If this explanation is to go by, then the Kafue
Flats ecosystem would certainly be a more difficult one to manage.
5.4.1 Impacts on bird populations
The major concern in this evaluation study was to examine the implication of these ecological
changes on the life of the Birds in Kafue Flats. Both plant and animal communities have already
been discussed in earlier sections of this report. Two distinct periods are clearly distinguishable in
Kafue Flats through out the year, and these are characterized by bird communities present: dry
and wet seasons. Three categories of bird communities based on their behaviour can be
observed in the Kafue Flats:
a. Breeding (nesting) birds. These are resident and intra-migrant birds. Breeding can be
seasonal either during the wet period or throughout the year.
b. Migratory bird communities. These include paleartic migrant and intra-migrant species. These
are predominantly wintering birds which breed in Europe and come to Africa during the wet
season in Kafue Flats.
c.
Resident bird species. These are non-migrant and breed in Kafue Flats or within the region.
As earlier mentioned, studies on birds in Kafue Flats have been quite limited. Previous records of
birds before dam developments indicate over 400 species of birds as occurring in the Kafue Flats.
However, in the absence of monitoring and further studies, the status of birds in Kafue Flats
cannot be certain.
Birds, like other species, will be affected by disturbances in several ways, through removal of its
habitat and interfering with its breeding. The impact of disturbances on birds in Kafue Flats can
be explained through a number of principles:
1. Animals recognize their habitats by its structure (arrangement) and availability of food.
Habitats seldom remain stable for long, but in a mature ecosystem, these charges co-evolve
with the species, otherwise the species must move out or perish.
2. Breeding failure. Potential mates don’t meet (season isolation) as breeding in animals is
based on timing (mating, nesting, food resources available) and thus any slight departure in
timing; the species will miss the breeding, and thus fail to grow. Therefore, interference with
birds breeding through habitat structural change is a critical matter on most birds breeding in
Kafue Flats.
73
3. Migrant birds come to winter in this region, and migrations have evolved over the years, not
overnight. Therefore, any change in the habitat or interference with the migration routes will
cause serious damage to the bird species arriving from Europe and Asia. Two things may
happen to the species; (i) they may fail to recognize the habitat due to the covering weed or
(ii) they may land, but spend longer time foraging, if the habitat food capacity has been
reduced.
4. Depletion of diversity and food values. Do birds (prey) switch their diet? Migratory or breeding
birds make a decision to migrate or depending on the availability of food. Wetlands that have
been infested with weeds invariably lose their ability to support populations. As earlier
discussed, Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth), for example, greatly interfere with normal
processes of ecosystem development through its aggressive dominance and damaging the
wetlands towards monoculture.
5. Alteration of hydrology of the wetland has serious implications on productivity of plants,
invertebrates, amphibians and fish, resulting in reduction of the structure in the trophic level
important for birds. The proliferation of the weed causes loss of oxygen, increased Carbon
Dioxide, increases pH and it considerably reduces light penetration. These are important
conditions for production of aquatic life.
6. Wetland restoration is the process of restoring ecological functions to degraded Kafue Flats.
As earlier discussed, ecological functions are the interactions between the hydrology, soils,
vegetation, wildlife and other aquatic organisms. The normal response in the management of
any degraded wetland is to reverse the wetland to its original character by changing the water
regimes, reduction in pollution, agricultural activities and weed infestations. From our current
understanding of the issues in the Kafue Flats, tackling issues to improve wetland functions is
an important task requiring considerable resources, time and political will. Our view is that we
should be equally concerned in carrying out restoration work, such as weed removal; as
such, activities will require monitoring and research for the correct decisions to be made.
5. 5
SITE REHABILITATION AND THEIR IMPACT ON WATER BIRDS
5.5.1 Restoration Consideration
Essentially restoration is defined as the “return of an ecosystem to a close approximation of its
condition prior to disturbance” (EPA, 2003). The term also means the re-establishment of predisturbance aquatic functions and related physical, chemical and biological characteristics (Ibid.).
Thus restoration is a holistic process not achieved through the isolated manipulation of individual
items.
74
As indicated earlier, the Kafue Flats are among the most disturbed ecosystems in Zambia
following dam developments, and various land uses including human settlements, agriculture,
wildlife conservation and Fisheries conservation. This has led to declining water quality, poor
flood pattern, over exploitation of natural resources, and in general degraded ecological integrity.
The proliferation of invasive weeds is among the results of excessive disturbance of the wetland.
Arising from these issues, and given the growing problem of the weed which was threatening the
hydropower installations and the bridges on the Kafue River, it was fundamental that the weed be
controlled.
Nevertheless, issues of the Kafue Flats wetland restoration for the most part centred on two main
principles:
Prescribed flooding: This would require flood releases so as to reintroduce the natural
timing, duration, magnitude and frequency of flood waters in a flood-dependent wetland
system such as this one, using natural processes to restore the Kafue wetland character.
This would mean restoration of the wetland natural structure, and function. This principle
has not been actively pursued, as the area has no management system.
Weed control: the restoration would entail reduction of the weed plants (Eichhornia
crassipes, water hyacinth), using various methods. This would lead to drastic decline of
the weed population in the area and a restoration of native plants.
The restoration of the Kafue Flats has not been understood as such, as issues and implications of
restoration as regards the process, principles and practices have not been well linked.
Restoration requires set goals and objectives, and as earlier indicated it has to be done in a
holistic manner. Certainly, the absence of planning and monitoring for restoration clearly indicates
the worry of possible conflict as the programme of the weed control was in no way linked to the
restoration of the Kafue Flats wetland. A successful implementation of restoration will have to
clearly address the relevant issues in a way of bringing together not only all stakeholders, but
also to understand that these issues are very much linked. Perhaps this is one aspect which
needs to be emphasized in order to explain the impact of restoration activities on water birds.
The control of the weed was mainly confined to the Eastern Side (Area A in Fig. 2) of the Kafue
Flats. The activities in the restoration process were also confined to only one weed plant species
(Eichhornia crassipes). Nevertheless, this does not mean the effects of the activities on the Kafue
Flats were not significant.
75
Aquatic weed control in the Kafue River Basin (KRB) has been carried out much earlier, but this
was continued in localized areas in small impoundments. This control was on Salvinia molesta,
until recently when Eichhornia crassipes began to be of major concern.
More general weed control on the Kafue Flats started in 1995, with focus on E. crassipes. Various
weed control measures have been developed to prevent the deterioration of previously
unaffected areas. These control measures or unaffected areas can be broadly categorized into
two, i.e., direct and indirect methods. The direct methods are mechanical/ physical, chemical, and
biological control, while pollution management coupled with awareness education, recycling and
regulations are indirect methods. The choice of any control measure may depend on its costeffectiveness and benefits, but other factors such as causes of weed infestation; sources of
pollution, nature of the environment and socio-economic aspects may influence the choice, such
that there may be no single method that can, alone effectively control the weed. However, the
advantages and disadvantages of each control method are found in Table 11. These control
measures have been confined to one weed species, Eichhornia crassipes. Our analysis below is
based on this species.
The impact of weed control on water birds can be considered at several ways:
−
A change in or removal of vegetation as a result of weed treatment (mechanical or chemical)
may alter the bird habitat.
−
Human disturbance associated with treatment can cause displacement of water birds
−
Direct impact from contact with treated vegetation or direct contact with herbicide
−
Feeding on chemical contaminated organisms may cause cumulative effect in birds
76
Table 11. Summary of advantages and disadvantages of weed control methods
Control
Method
Mechanical
Advantages
Disadvantages
a)
b)
Non-polluting and environmentally sound
Removes nutrients from water and helps in
abatement of eutrophication
Does not harm fish or other aquatic fauna
Possibility of an economically viable
operation through utilization of harvested
plants
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Effective kill of plants and rapid die off
Relative ease of application
Relatively less expensive
Reversibility in case of undesirable effects
a)
c)
d)
Chemical
a)
b)
c)
d)
f)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
Biological
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
Pollution
Abatement
a)
b)
c)
d)
Persistence and lasting effect
Relatively cheap
Reaches inaccessible areas
No pollution of the environment
Longevity of control once the organism has
become established
Constant pressure against the growing weed
Low long-term costs
High effectiveness against specific weeds
Minimum impact on non-target species
In case of fish and grazing mammals, these
become a source of food protein.
a)
Non-polluting and environmentally sound
Reduces nutrients from water and helps in
the abatement of eutrophication
Adds considerable management potential to
water use
Has potential of solving the long-term basis
or permanently.
a)
b)
c)
77
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Slow and time consuming
Difficult to operate in inaccessible places
The process must be repetitive
It is costly
A disposal system is needed for the harvested
plants
Less desirable species may succeed
Necessity of trained personnel for proper use of
chemical agents
Need for stringent quality control and tests for
toxicity, formulation, dilution and method of
application of the chemical agents
Harmful effects of undetected contaminants
Damage of non- target harmless or useful
species and cultivated plants
Necessity of repeated application
Uncertainty of long term effects of repeated
application
Need for sinking of the dead plants to prevent
coverage of water surface and growth. Excessive
enrichment of water with nutrients from dead
plants causing general eutrophication and algae
bloom
Inability to remove nutrients from water bodies
Difficulty in application to inaccessible places
High initial cost
Necessity for simultaneous treatment of all plants
in an area to prevent mix up between treated and
untreated plants
Less desirable species may succeed
Critical to establish host specificity in relation to
target area.
Research intensive and time consuming
Difficulty in naturalization of suitable species
May disturb natural balance
Suitable species are generally exotic
Nutrient enrichment of water can not be abated
Long-term effect not generally known
May bring harmful pathogens through poor
quarantine
Less desirable weeds may succeed
It is an expensive venture
Slow and time consuming
Requires high specific knowledge and trained
manpower.
5.5.2 Mechanical/ Physical Control
Mechanical control can be done manually or use of machinery. From the government side work
on control of weeds was initiated by the Department of Water Affairs in 1969 when a Weed
Clearing Unit was established (ECZ, 1996). Clearing of weed was mainly done between the Road
Bridge and the Kafue Gorge Dam. Mechanical control in combination with chemical control was
used, using sickles and slashes, for clearing the weed. The concern by the Water Affairs was
over possibility of minimizing water losses within the Kafue River system, as the demand for
water abstraction was high among many competing users. The Unit, however, stopped
operations in 1971 after the retrenchment of most of the workers. Control was to be achieved
through the removal of water hyacinth, which is known to significantly cause many water losses
through transpiration and contributing to water losses in the river. Zambia Sugar PLC at
Nakambala Estate, which was concerned about the weed choking the impellers and night storage
dams, applied other early mechanical control initiatives. This involved the erecting of diamond
mesh wires across the canals to trap floating weeds from going into the pumps and storage
dams. It also involved manually removing weeds, which find their way into the intake canals. In
later years, the government deployed the Army, using a harvester, to remove the weed at the
Road Bridge. At the Kafue Gorge Dam, a forklift machine is used throughout to remove weed
from choking the turbines.
In areas where mechanical control methods have been applied, it has been observed that the
profuse of weed growth has continued. It is argued that this method of treatment is symptomatic
and given limited resources especially in Zambia, continuity of treatment has not been possible
(ECZ, 1998). This is probably why the Army pulled out of this project. Furthermore, for
mechanical control to be effective, it has to outpace the biological growth potential of water
hyacinth, its population doubling within 5-8 days. In fact, based on cost calculations by Kalunga
(1996) mechanical control methods are very expensive for a developing country like Zambia
where sector allocation of the national budget to environmental protection is an issue. The other
bottleneck is the transportation and disposal of harvested plant material (Kalunga, 1996). This
method is also not viable where there are large areas of weed coverage and accessibility is
difficult and restricted. However, where weed growth is restricted to a small and easily accessible
area, mechanical control probably is the easiest and cheapest method of control (ECZ, 1998).
Impact on birds
Mechanical methods were used in localized areas mainly near installations, and their impact on
birds might be considered as mainly affecting species with wide distribution in the Kafue Flats.
These areas are not the main habitats for most aquatic bird species. It is our view that if any
78
impact occurred, then it must have been very minimal as the population of aquatic birds is very
low in these areas, see Table 12.
Table12. Potential impact of restoration activities on bird behaviour
Species activity
Breeding
Potential impacts
Not adversely affect
Feeding
May likely affect
Roosting
Not adversely affect
Reasons
Minimal removal of vegetation
in the habitat
Removal of vegetation may
promote food resources
Affected areas are not
important roosting sites
5.5.3 Biological Control
Biological control is the intentional use of populations of upper trophic level organisms (predators
or natural enemies), or it also refers to the natural synthesized substances against pest species
to suppress pest populations. Essentially, this is a manipulation of populations of both the prey
(host or the food) and the predator (herbivores, carnivores, parasites or pathogens). The principle
is for the native plant and bioagent (new species) to co-evolve. Biological control of aquatic plants
has received considerable publicity, and various organisms have been used including waterfowl,
mammals, insects, snails, and fish. Biological control is a technique selected against the
mechanical and chemical weed control methods. The main advantages of biological control are
spelt out in Table 11 and Centre et al, 2003.
Application of biological control methods in Zambia was reported in the 1950’s on the Kariba
weed, in Lake Kariba, and in 1970’s, mainly carried out in the Copperbelt. Although local
reported, the Kafue weed problem became a national issue, because of the risk investigations of
aquatic weeds such as the weed problem in Ndola in the 1980’s. E.crassipes (water hyacinth)
was causing to the hydropower generation at the Kafue Gorge.
By 1993, the Kafue weed
problem had grown immensely as water hyacinth had spread from Kafue Gorge to Mazabuka in
lagoons and the main river channels, thus threatening also the road and railway bridges,
disrupting fishing, and threatening irrigation, municipal and industrial water supply. Details on the
status and impact of water hyacinth are provided in section 5.0 of this report.
The biological control programme for water hyacinth in Zambia or the Kafue Flats started in 1995
when natural enemies of the weed were imported from the Plant Protection Research Institute
(PPRI) in South Africa (Mbata and Chidumayo, 1998). Four species of insect were introduced in
the infested areas of the Kafue Flats between 1996 and 1997 by ECZ. The four species were:
Mottled Water Hyacinth Weevil (Neochetina eichhoniae Warner), Chevroned Water Hyacinth
Weevil (Neochetina bruchi hustache), and Water Hyacinth Leaf-sucking Mirrid Bug (Eccritotarsus
79
catarinensis, Calvalho). These species are regarded as proven effective natural enemies of water
hyacinth, and they are all obligate feeders on the plant and thus would not attack any other crop
(Mbata, 2001). The period during which the species were introduced in Kafue Flats is indicated in
Table 13.
Table 13. List of biological control agents and year introduced (Mbata, 2001)
Biological control agent
Mottled Water Hyacinth Weevil
Neochetina eichhoniae Warner
Chevroned Water Hyacinth Weevil
Neochetina bruchi hustache
Water Hyacinth Moth
Niphograpta albigutalis (Warren)
[=Sameodes albigutalis, (Warren)
Water Hyacinth Leaf-sucking Mirrid Bug
Eccritotarsus catarinensis, (Calvalho)
Year of release
1996
1997
After 1997
After 1997
A total of 50 sites were selected for N. eichhorniae, at which over 21, 000 weevils were released,
and two sites were used at which 435 N. bruchi were released between Kafue Gorge and
Mazabuka (Mbata, 2001). Locations of the sites where weevils were released are indicated in
Appendix 14. Numbers and sites for releases for Sameodes albigutalis and Eccritotarsus
catarinensis have not been reported.
According to Waterhouse (1994), from the information as reviewed by Mbata and Chidumayo
(1998), the kinds of damage these agents inflict on water hyacinth are summarized below (Table
14):
Table 14. Biological control agents and kind of damage inflicted on water hyacinth (Waterhouse,
1994)
Agent
N. eichhorniae
N. bruchi
Phenology
Adult
Larvae tunnel
Larvae pupae
S. albigutalis
Larvae
Type damage on plant
Damage surface of leaf
Feed on stem (rhizome) and crowns of the plant
Use root hairs of water hyacinth for forming
cocoons
Feed on laminae and petioles
Evaluation
A serious drawback of the programme was the absence of monitoring and evaluation on the
impact of the species on water hyacinth. This made it very difficult to determine any further action
on the weed. However, a study carried out by Mbata and Chidumayo (1998) gave several
findings:
a. The weevil population of N. eichhormiae and N. bruchi were very low and from the sample
analysis, there were less than one weevil per plant. High mortality due to cold weather was
considered to be the main factor.
b. Plant damage was very low as feeding was highly correlated with temperatures.
Temperatures were fairly low during the period.
80
c.
There was time lag in phenology between development of plant and N. eichhorniae. The
agent lagged behind and by the time the weevil densities became appreciable in the sites
(November – December, 1999), water hyacinth plant had already flowered and its
inflorescence were dispersing seeds in the water.
d. Although populations were extremely low, the two species, N. eichhormiae and N. bruchi
were established in the area.
e. The status of S. albigutalis and E. catarinensis was not known, giving the conclusion that the
two agents were not established in the sites.
f.
Although the plant is spreading in other areas beyond Mazabuka, its regeneration in areas
where weevils were released has been suppressed.
Whereas the plant populations before and after release of the weevils showed remarkable
difference, it is not clear whether or not this decline was primarily a result of the effort of the
weevils. It is very likely that this decline could also be attributed to a number of other factors:
Water level manipulation. During the period 1999 – 2000, the area experienced
exceedingly very high rainfall, and this led to draw down of water at the Kafue Gorge
dam, consequently flushing the weed below the dam.
-
Control of nutrient loading. An attempt was made to educate stakeholders in Mazabuka
and Kafue town industries to reduce effluent in to the river, and compliance by major
industries to this appeal could have drastically lowered nutrient load in the river and thus
starving the plant.
Therefore, in order to maintain the programme and to lessen risks of future outbreak of the weed,
it is important that monitoring and evaluation should be actively implemented on (a) nutrient
loading of the river to establish water quality to be within the required standards and to check
whether sources of nutrients are complying with the regulations (b) carry out monitoring and
evaluation exercises to determine the status of the weed, and (c) to determine whether there is
any need for boosting the weevil populations.
Impact on birds
Based on our current assessment, it is very unlikely that the impact of weed control using
biological method have serious impact on water bird in Kafue Flats. This is because biological
control method was confined to area A (Fig. 2), which is not very important for bird fauna.
However, we believe that the reduction of water hyacinth (once the control is successful) would
have positive effects on water birds through the promotion of native plant species. The area is
important for plant species such as Nymphaea, Cyperus sp, Phragmites and Vossea sp, which
could provide important habitat for water birds.
81
5.5.4
Chemical control
This control method has only been used in restricted areas around private ponds in the
Mazabuka area, although experimental exercises were done at Kaleya in Mazabuka and in the
lower area by ZESCO. There has been no assessment of the environmental impact. However,
recommendations based on these trials emphasized that the method should not be used in the
Kafue Flats (Mwelwa, Pers. Comm. 2003). In general, however, chemical control methods can
have negative impact on the organisms (Table 11) depending on the levels of toxicity and rate of
decay of the chemical used.
5.5.5
Pollution Management
This method involves application of mechanisms that reduce the level of pollutants (nutrients) in
the water bodies that promote the growth of weeds, in particular, water hyacinth. This entails
reducing nutrient output from pollution sources (e.g., industry, agricultural lands, township and
domestic effluents, etc). In Zambia, through ECZ, management of pollution has been or is being
done in 4 ways, such as setting and enforcement of pollution guidelines (standards); training of
industry in cleaner production technologies; provision of education awareness to communities
and industry; and, promotion of sustainable-use of weeds (stock feeds, compost manure,
medicinal herbs, coolant e.g. for fish). Some of the cleaner production methodologies include
installation of settling ponds and aerators for retention of wastes/ residue material; neutralization
ponds for treatment of acidic and metal bearing discharges, rehabilitation and upgrading of
sewerage treatment facilities; and, recycling of wastes into usable products. As for enforcement
of regulations, the guidelines are now in place, and industries that do not comply in production of
pollutants beyond limits are given penalties. A pollution monitoring system therefore is put in
place. The promotion of sustainable use of weeds, however, is yet to be developed.
In terms of effectiveness, pollution management was found to be effective in the end expressed in
quantity of weed removed compared to the other methods (Kalunga, 1996). Pollution
management does not only attack the symptoms of the weed problem but also acts as a long
term prevention program by reducing nutrient loading into the Kafue River, making it the most
desirable option. According to Kalunga (1996), pollution management has also the least
environment impacts because of its ability to abate eutrophication, the cause of weed growth.
Furthermore, the need for repeated treatment is very low once environmental standards are set
and monitoring program is put in place. However, the cost calculations by Kalunga (1996), show
that this option has the highest costs associated with it due to adoption of new cleaner production
technologies. Nonetheless, in the end, these costs cannot be compared to the total environmental
costs estimated for the water hyacinth control program (ECZ, 1998).
82
5.5.6.
Local technologies for weed control
During the literature and field study, no special local technology was identified for weed control.
Most of people interviewed reported using manual control methods, especially water hyacinth, the
weed obstructed casting of their nets and canoe movements. Furthermore most of the
communities interviewed were aware and knowledgeable about the weeds and could identify and
name them by species. Some of them never identified some plants like Papyrus and Typha as
weeds, but used them for making their huts and mats. ECZ (1998) also reports of fishermen and
fish mongers utilizing weeds as coolants for their fish. Development and evaluation of community
based sustainable methods of utilizing weeds therefore needs attention. Much of aquatic weed
harvesting does not seem to be a serious threat on aquatic birds. This is because utilization of
aquatic plants is very much at subsistence stage.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CONCLUSIONS
This study evaluated the impact of invasive weeds on important migratory water bird sites. In
particular, the study focused on how invasive aquatic weeds affect migratory water bird sites and
on how the use of the sites as a water bird habitat area has been addressed and impacted by the
rehabilitation activities. Its basic conclusions are:
a) The impacts of aquatic invasive weeds on migratory water birds have been noted to
occur either through the direct removal or alteration of their habitats or by the effects on
the food chain. These can completely change the ecological character of these wetlands.
However, the lack of monitoring and evaluation of activities such as the experimental
rehabilitation activities on control of weeds is an indication of serious operational
problems both in manpower and funding which need to be addressed. Monitoring and
evaluation are important tools in measuring the effectiveness of interventional measures.
Threats such as fishing, hunting, pollution, human settlements and dam developments
require some rigorous monitoring and evaluation programme.
b) The Kafue Flats area is dominated by the Ila and Tonga people, but with considerable
mixed immigrant populations who inhabit the flood plain primarily for fishing. Our study
has revealed that the human population is rapidly expanding and is among the highest in
the country. The results also show that social services and food production are declining,
83
incidence of diseases is increasing, declining fisheries and wildlife species, growing land
use conflict, and that the area has no adequate infrastructure are issues that pose
serious threats to the wetland. However, their specific impacts should be investigated to
confirm these findings.
c) While results show that Water Hyacinth population distribution seem to have been
confined to the lower part of the Flats, the sighting of the weed in the Malema stream and
Chung lake is an indication that the weed is spreading, and should be checked. Mimosa
pigra is the most invasive at the moment in the Lochinvar National Park area and part of
the surrounding GMA. However, the exact rate of expansion of this weed needs to be
evaluated.
d) Major important aquatic bird habitats are in the lagoons and back swamps mainly in the
areas south of the Kafue Flats in the Lochinvar area from Chitakataka fishing camp to
Nabumbe Fishing camp, and at Nakenda, Namunyona and Luwato lagoons in the North
part of the Kafue Flats. It was interesting to note that these were also important fishing
areas. While our conclusion may be speculative, we believe that fishing is beneficial to
birds. However future studies are required to confirm our observation.
e) Gaps in the relevant pieces of legislation and the sectoral approach to conservation and
management of the resources in the Kafue Flats is a clear indication that both the area
and resources are not effectively managed, and the existing issues on over exploitation
of resources and land use conflict are a result of this weakness which should be resolved
if conservation is to succeed.
84
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Socio-Economic Issues: For the purpose of conservation and effective management of the
wetland ecosystems in the area, it is necessary that a management system must be developed.
In this case we are recommending that an integrated water resources management using the
water catchment approach model should be considered. The approach has many advantages in
particular, that people and resources would be managed together such that conflicts would be
minimized.
Furthermore, poverty reduction is possible through this partnership approach as
dealing with issues is done through a coordinated manner. This approach would not only facilitate
provision of social services, but also help to introduce measures such as conservation farming
and concept of ecological zoning. Currently this is not possible because the management of
Kafue Flats is done through various institutions and practices.
Conservation and management of wetlands resources:
From the literature reviews and
based on discussions held with stakeholders, it is obvious that over-exploitation of wildlife and
fisheries, and water abstraction, coupled with excessive deforestation of the surrounding areas
are critical issues. In order to reverse the trend on resource destruction, the following is being
recommended:
a) Planning of the management of natural resource is essential, and that this should be
holistic to provide an integrated approach. The Kafue Flats must be understood as an
ecological system that it should be treated as such if any meaningful results can be
achieved.
b) The current activities, such as water resources management, Dam Developments,
conservation, agriculture, fisheries, and settlements should be monitored, and that major
development undertakings should be supported by very rigorous EIA process.
Weed Management: The detailed studies by ECZ on pollution and the attempt to control water
hyacinth, provide an important step in the management of invasive weeds in Kafue Flats. We
recommend therefore as follows:
•
The weed control programme developed by ECZ (Fig. 15) should be reviewed
and implemented to cover other areas including areas above Chunga Lake in
Lochinvar National Park and the GMA in the Western part of the Kafue Flats.
•
A monitoring and research programme should be considered for the purpose of
tracking down the dynamics of the weeds, and to provide adequate information
for their management and control.
•
Control of Mimosa pigra should be initiated as soon as possible to avoid any
further loss of water bird habitat.
85
Legal and Institutional Issues:
Countries have sovereign rights over all animals that are
present in their countries or areas under their jurisdiction at that point in time. This means
migratory species are under regulations each country along their migration route, meaning that
their conservation is subject to legislation of each state in succession. Accordingly, it is, therefore,
essential that international cooperation should address threats to the species, habitat
management and exploitation practices.
At national level, various pieces of legislation carry different mandates and institutional activities
are guided by the legislations, which are to be implemented. As a matter of consistency and
complying with international agreements, and for the purpose of effective management and for
providing adequate legal and institutional framework, we recommend that:
a)
Legislation involved in the management of the Kafue Flats resources should be
harmonized for effective management of the area. Gaps in these laws, as noted in this
study, should be closed, where possible. For example, the current legal framework does
not accommodate wetland conservation directly. The Government should make
deliberate attempts to prepare legislation that specifically protect wetland functions,
especially wetland as special habitat for migratory and other aquatic life.
b)
The sectoral approach of existing institutions has to be reviewed to include some focus
on wetlands ecosystem management.
Community Involvement and Public Awareness: Being aware that participation is a condition
by which local knowledge, skills and resources can be mobilized and fully employed, and that
people participate when they take an active role in planning, decision-making, implementing and
evaluation initiatives and taking advantage of the communities awareness in concepts of
community participation or community involvement through experiences of a number of projects
in the Kafue Flats, our recommendations, therefore, are the following:
•
Initiate and generate interest in bird conservation especially migratory birds among
stakeholders, Farmers, Villagers, Fishers, Hunters, ZESCO, tour operators and
Government departments, and this should take advantage of the experienced
commercial farmers, who have considerable knowledge (though at hobby level) in
bird census, observations, banding and who have the interest to carry out
observations at their own time
86
•
Create public awareness among communities about bird conservation, weed
infestations and their control, overexploitation of resources and in general, the values
of wetlands.
•
Emphasize benefits in participation, and create in their minds the immediate and long
term benefits accruing in their involvement.
•
Promote training programmes through study tours, seminars, and workshops for
participants.
•
Promote formation of local communities in to associations such as bird conservation
association, Fishers associations, Trusts and Research Associations, and involve
Schools and Colleges within the region in the bird programme.
Research and Monitoring and Evaluation:
Successful restoration requires a careful
consideration of how the design will be implemented, monitored and evaluated. In addition, it
requires a commitment to long term planning and management that facilitates adaptation and
management in light of changing ecological, social and economic factors. The completion of the
implementation does not make the end of the restoration process. There is need to plan for and
invest in the monitoring of the restoration. After the implementation of weed eradication in the
Kafue Flats, arrangements could have been put in place for monitoring of (a) performance of
restoration process and (b) trend assessment of the restoration work which should include risk
assessment and baseline characterization. Priority areas for research and monitoring include:
•
evaluation to determine whether recent and future restoration measures achieve the
desired results, and if so how effective were these measures.
•
habitat studies on birds in the Kafue Flats, as this is more critical for the migratory
species that come in only for wintering or for breeding. A detailed research
programme will be needed to carry out studies on habitat quality, dynamics and
habitat availability.
•
studies on species behaviour, habitat selection and breeding habits.
•
inventories on birds population, trends and responses to habitat changes and
exploitation.
87
•
comprehensive studies and monitoring on threats, mainly: declining water quality;
nutrient loading; Weed control (biological; mechanical or chemical, where applicable);
population and settlements, over exploitation of resources and socio-economic
indicators.
Donor Support for Future Work: Poor funding and lack of appropriate manpower are among
the most serious constraints in the conservation and management of the Kafue Flats wetland,
and therefore taking note of this limitation, and realizing that part of the Kafue Flats is not only
under the protected area system but also a Ramsar site, we recommend as follows:
•
Provision of technical and financial assistance in the implementation of Kafue Flats
rehabilitation as Zambia does not have much experience in weed control, especially
in the application of biological control.
•
Effective implementation of the AEWA agreement and the Ramsar Convention,
would require manpower and good capacity in wetlands management and as such
capacity building would be an essential part of the initiative.
•
Funding will be needed in the area of research and monitoring as in promoting public
awareness.
88
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WWF-Zambia Wetlands Project. Undated. The Birds of Lochinvar National Park: An abbreviated
Checklist. Ministry of Tourism/ NPWS, Lusaka
WWF-Zambia. 1999. Partners for Wetlands Project Newsletter. WWF-Zambia Office,
WWF-Zambia. 2002. Partners for Wetlands Project Newsletter. WWF-Zambia Office,
101
7.0
Appendix 1:
APPENDICES
Terms Of Reference
1. Introduction
A large number of wetlands in tropical Africa, including many of international importance to migratory
waterbirds, have been degraded by invasive species of aquatic weeds. Such weed infestations greatly
affect the ecological character of these wetlands. The African-Eurasian Waterbirds Agreement (AEWA)
has engaged the IUCN-ELC to undertake a series of activities relating to the sharing of knowledge of legal
and practical issues relevant to the implementation of AEWA and, more generally, to achieving the
underlying aims of the Agreement - protection of migratory waterbird species and habitats throughout the
Agreement's geological range. One component of this work is a project relating to the development of
information regarding recent experiences in the restoration of waterbird habitats, where those habitats
have been degraded by alien invasive weeds. IUCN's work in this field will serve as the basis for the
compilation of information on "best” practices and other work by the AEWA Secretariat including possibly
future phases involving the further development of information from other sources, and deeper
understanding of the initial case studies. The site selected for this particular study in Zambia focuses on
how invasive aquatic weeds affect migratory waterbirds sites and on how the use of the site as a
waterbird habitat area has been addressed and impacted by these rehabilitation activities in Kafue Flats in
Zambia. The particular site of the study Lochinvar National Park and the Kafue Gore
The particular site for this study has been chosen for a number of reasons. Firstly, because its a stre.ch
were the Environmental Council of Zambia is carrying out some experimental removal of the weeds and
secondly Lochinvar National Park, a listed wetland site of international importance under the Ramsar
Convention, has exceptionally rich and varied avifauna. The diversity is attributed to the following factors:
• A wide range of habitats existing within the Park;
• The northern part of the Park with its flats and shallow lagoon, is an area of extremely high primary
productivity, and thus supports many different wetland birds;
• For some species it is an important moulting area in the post-breeding period;
• Some waterbirds migrate between Lochinvar, Europe and Asia, others come from different parts of
Africa to spend part of the year at Lochinvar and other parts of the Kafue Flats.
2. Objectives
The overall objectives of the case study in Zambia are to:
1. Contribute to the understanding of how invasive aquatic weeds affect migratory waterbirds sites;
2. Assess how rehabilitation of wetlands at Kafue Flats, Zambia, with regard to the manner in which the
use of the site as a waterbird habitat has been impacted and addressed by these rehabilitation
activities;
3. Examine socio-economic factors as well as the legal and policy framework that are relevant for the
implementation of AEWA in Zambia, and its affect on the protection and restoration effort of the
waterbird site in fie research area
3. Result
Increased knowledge and awareness among major local and national stakeholders in Zambia of the
invasive aquatic weed impact on the migratory waterbird habitats.
4. Specific Tasks
Bearing in mind the AEWA, the project document and issues discussed above, the team leader shall
provide the overall technical supervision complete the following specific tasks, and in particular focus on
the ecological aspects of the birds and the habitat and other conservation issues in the study area.
1.
Assist the IUCN Zambia office in identifying the particular site for the case study
The consultant shall assist the IUCN Zambia office to identify the specific site in which the research shall
be undertaken. This should be based on a preliminary assessment of a number of selected criteria agreed
by the IUCN Zambia office.
102
2
Assist the IUCN Zambia office in finalizing a literature review and carry out initial
consultation with Key stakeholders
This stage shall involve a review of documents, followed by interviews with major stakeholders, experts in
biological, socio-economic and ornithological fields. In detail the consultant shall:
• Identify and record critical biological issues affecting the waterbirds migratory patterns and habitats
vis-à-vis the invasive aquatic weeds in the research area;
• Identify and examine information of key legal frameworks (policies, conventions etc.) that are
regulating the protection, management and use of the waterbird sites;
• Examine experimental rehabilitation activities/instruments used in the in affected areas to address
invasive aquatic weeds;
• Preparation of upcoming field visit/research.
3.
Local consultation and field research in the project site
The first actual field visitation should include courtesy visits to Chiefs in the area followed by verification
of key identified biological, socio-economic and legal factors affecting protection and management of
waterbirds migratory habitat and routes. Specifically the consultant shall develop a questionnaire to solicit
information on the following issues:
A. Biophysical factors:
• Record and assess actual invasive species involved (i.e. water Hyacinth and Salvinia molesta:
• Assess the impact of the invasive aquatic weed on the migratory waterbird habitats, water, vegetation
and other aquatic species that provide the habitat and food chain for the waterbirds;
• Assess of experimental restoration of the waterbird sites, including analysis of costs -and impact
B. Socio-economic and legal factors:
• Identify and assess critical pollution points responsible for the thriving of the weed (i.e. industrial, human
settlement at Nakambala Sugar Estate and company, Kafue industrial activities etc.);
• Examine various traditional mechanisms and traditional knowledge and practices utilized in the
management of wetlands/waterbird habitat in the selected research site;
• Document and assess legal frameworks governing pollution; and conservation efforts of waterbird
habitat in the area;
• Determine tow far the international conventions have been implemented.
4.
Draft the Case Study initial findings of the study
The consultant shall:
• Draft the findings of the case study, analyzing, and interpretation of the data collected;
• Provide one electronic copy of the first draft of the case study to the IUCN Zambia office fit initial review.
5.
Information sharing and feedback of preliminary analysis
This is an important step not only to verify preliminary findings but also to share information and increase
information on key issues affecting the protection of the waterbird sites. This will involve circulation of the
draft study, discussions and verification with key national and local stakeholders of the preliminary
findings. In detail the consultant shall:
• Carry out an additional field visit to verify and collect additional information from local stakeholders, as
well as sharing information with key stakeholders at the local level of the preliminary findings;
• Hold meetings with key national stakeholders to verify the preliminary analysis, as well as sharing
information of key findings among a wide range of stakeholders and decision-makers;
• Solicit input from the IUCN ROSA Ecosystem programme on preliminary analysis;
• Redraft the case study according to verifications, peer review and input from all stakeholders.
6.
Project completion and submission of the Report
• This final step will involve incorporation of comments, refinement of report, followed by submission of
the same to the IUCN Zambia office. Specifically the consultant shall:
• Refine the case study according to verifications and comments provide by key stakeholders;
• Provide the IUCN Zambia office with three hard copies of the case study as well as one electronic copy.
103
7.
The key expected outputs
A detailed case study:
• Describing and analyzing how invasive aquatic weeds affect the migratory bird habitat in the research
area;
• Documenting and analyzing the impact of the recent experiences/efforts by the Environmental Council of
Zambia in restoration the waterbird habitats, where those habitats have been degraded by alien invasive
species (i.e. removing the invasive aquatic weeds from the research area);
• Describing and examining socio-economic factors as well as the legal and policy framework that are
relevant for the implementation of AEWA in Zambia, and its affect on the protection and restoration effort
of the waterbird site in the research area;
104
Appendix 2:
Protected Area System of the Kafue Flats Based On the Wildlife Act
105
Appendix 3:
Geological Map Of Southern Zambia Including The Kafue Flats
106
Appendix 4:
Aquatic And Flood Plain Plants Of The Kafue Flats
A.
GRAMINEAE
Gramineae: Swamp, Flood plain and dambo
Acroceras macrum
Agrostis schimperana
Bothriochloa glabra
Brachiaria brizantha stapt
Branchiaria fulva stapf. V.R
Chloris gayana Kunth W.C.V., VR
Chloris virgata SW.
Cynodon dactylon (L).
Digitaria abyssinica (Hochst. Stapf).
Digitaria milanjiana (Rendle) Stapf.
Echinochloa pyramidalis (Lam). Hitchc. and Chase.
Echinochloa stagnina (Retz) Beauv.
B.
SEDGES
Bulbostylis contexta (Nees) Bodard
Cladium mariscus (L.) Pohl. subsp. jamaicense (Crantz.) Kukenth.
Cyperns esculentus L.
Cyperus articulatus L.
Cyperus compressus L.
Cyperus rotundus L.
Cyperus obtusifolius Vahl
Cyperus margaritaceus Vahl
Cyperus laevigatus L.
Cyperus fulgens C.B. Cl.
Cyperus flabelliformis Rottb.
Cyperus diffusus Vahl subsp. sylverstris (Ridl.) Kukenth.
Cyperus esculentus L.
Cyperus haspan L.
Cyperus usitatus Burch.
Cyperus rotundus L.
Cyperus nudicaulis Lam.
Cyperus imbricatus Retz.
Cyperus haspan L.
Cyperus longus L.
Cyperus maculatus Boeck.
Cyperus nudicaulis Burch.
Cyperus papyrus L.
Cyperus rotundus L.
Cyperus usitatus Burch.
Cyperus leavigatus L.
Cyperus kiprensis Chev.
Eleocharis dulcis (Burm. f.) Trin. ex Herschel
Eleocharis fistulosa Link.
Eleocharis acutangula Schultes.
Eleocharis acutangula (Roxb.) Schult
Eleocharis dulcis (Burm. f.) Trin. ex Herschel
Eleocharis fistulosa Link.
Fimbristylis triflora (L.) K. Schum.
Fimbristylis hispidula (Vahl.) Kunth.
Fimbristylis monostachya Hassk.
Fimbristylis hispidula (Vahl.) Kunth.
Fimbristylis ferruginea (L.) Vahl.
Fimbristylis complanata (Retz.) Link
107
Fuirena glomerata
Fuirena pubescens (Lam.) Kunth
Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb.
Juncus arabicus (Aschers and Bushenau) Adams
Kyllinga alba Nees
Kyllinga odorata Vahl.
Kyllinga melanosperma Nees
Kyllinga alba Nees
Mariscus squarrosus (L.) C.B.Cl.
Mariscus sieberanus Nees
Mariscus dubius (Rottb.) Hutch.
Mariscus aristatus (Rottb.) Chem.
Mariscus dubius
Pycreus rehmanniasus C.B. Cl.
Pycreus sp.
Pycreus macrostacyos (Lam.) J. Raynal.
Pycreus chysanthus C.B. Cl.
Pycreus mundii Nees
Pycreus pelophilus (Ridl.) C.B. Cl.
Pycreus macrostachyos (Lam.) J. Raynal
Rhynchospora mauritii Steud.
Rhynchospora mauritii Steud.
Scirpus roylei (Nees) Parker
Scirpus microcephalus (Steud.) Nelmes
Scirpus cubensis Poepp. and Kunth.
Scirpus cubensis Poepp. Kunth
Scirpus maritimus L.
Scirpus roylei (Nees) Parker
Scleria globunux C.B. Cl.
Scleria foliosa A. Rich.
Scleria bulifera Hochst. ex A. Rich.
Scleria folios A. Rish.
Typha domingensis Pers.
C.
HERBS AND HERBACEOUS SPECIES
Swamp, flood plain, dambo
Acalypha crenata Hochst. ex A. Rich.
Acalypha indica L.
Acalypha segetalis Muel. Arg.
Achyranthes aquatica R. Br.
Aeschynomene fluitans Peter
Aeschynomene nilotica Taub.
Alatine trianda Schl.
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) DC.
Ambrosia maritima L.
Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Wed.
Calostephane divaricata Benth.
Caperonia settata Presh. St. Hill
Cassia mimosoides L.
Cassia absus L.
Ceratophyllum demersum L.
Cleome monophylla L.
Commelina carsonii C.B. Cl.
Commelina eckloniana Kunth
Commelina subulata Roth.
Coronopus intgrifoelus (DC) Spreng.
Crinum sp.
Dipcadil longifolium Lindl.
108
Eclipta prostata (L.) L.
Eichornia natans (P. Beauv.) Solms
Emila protracta S. Moore
Enydra fluctuans Lour.
Epaltes alata (Sond.) Steetz.
Euphorbia inaequilatera Sond.
Euphorbia prostrata Ait.
Glinus lotoides L. var. virens
Gomprena celasioides Mert.
Heliotropium ovalifoliym Forsk.
Heliotropium baclei DC. var. rostratum Johnst.
Heteroanthera callifolia Reichb. ex Kunth.
Hibiscus trionum L.
Hibiscus meeusii Exell
Hygrophila abyssinica (Hochst. ex Nees) Anders.
Hygrophila pilosa Burkhill
Indigofera trita L.f. var. scabra (Roth.) Ali
Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.
Ipomoea mauritian Jacq.
Ipomoea rubens Choisy
Kohautia coccinea Royle
Lagarosiphon muscoides Harv.
Limnophila ceratophylloides (Hiern.) Skan.
Ludwigia leptocarpa (Nutt.) Hara.
Ludwigia stolonifera (Guill, et Perr.) Raven
Melochia corchorifolia L.
Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M.J. Roem.
Najars pectinata (Parl.) Magnus
Neptunia oleracea Lour.
Nidorella auriculata DC.
Nymphaea
Nymphaea caerulea Savigny
Nymphaea capensis Thunb.
Nympoides indica (L.) Kuntze
Ottelia ulvifolia (Planch) Walp.
Piliostima thunbergii Cham. et Schltd.
Phyllanthus pentandrus Schum et. Th.
Pistia stratiotes L.
Polygonum limbatum Meisn.
Polygonum plebeium R. Br.
Polygonum senegalinse Meisn.
Potamogeton schweinfurthii A. Rich
Prismatocarpus rhodesicus Adamson
Rhamphicarpa tubulosa (L.f.) Benth.
Rotala pedicellata Fernandes et Dinz.
Sesbania rostrata Bremek et Oberm. sesban (L.) Merr var. nubica Chiov.
Sida alba L.
Solanum nigrum L.
Utricularia foliosa L.
Utricularia gibba L. subsp. exolata (R. Br.) P. Tayl.
Utricularia inflexa Forsk. var. stellaris (L.f.) P. Tayl.
Vernonia glabra (Steetz) Vatke
Vernonia rosenii R. E. Fr.
Vigna luteola (Jacq.) Benth.
109
Appendix 5: A preliminary checklist of resident bird species occurring in the Kafue flats region, habitat, frequency and status
Common Name
Scientific Name
Habitat
Frequency
Status______________
Apalis Black-breasted
Avocet
Babbler Arrow-marked
Babbler White-rumped
Barbet Crested
Barbet White-headed
Barbet Black-collared,
Bee-eater Swallow-tailed,
Bee-eater White-fronted
Bee-eater Blue-breasted,
Bee-eater Little,
Bishop Yellow-crowned,
Bishop Yellow,
Bishop Red,
Bittern,
Bittern Dwarf,
Bittern Little,
Black Tit,
Boubou Tropical,
Brubru,
Bulbul Yellow-vented,
Bulbul Yellow-bellied,
Bulbul Terrestrial,
Bunting Lark-like,
Bunting Golden-breasted,
Bunting
Cinnamon-breasted
Bush-Shrike Grey-headed,
Bustard Senegal,
Bustard Denham's,
Buzzard Lizzard,
Canary Brimstone,
Canary Grey,
Canary Yellow-fronted,
Chat Stone,
Apalis flavida
Recurvirostra avosetta
Turdoides jardinei
T. leucopygia
Trachyphonus vaillantii
Lybius leucocephalus
Lybius torquatus
Dicroceros hirundineus
Merops. bulocki
Merops vaeirgatus
Merops pusillus
Euplectes afer
Euplectes capensis
Euplectes orix
Botaurus stellaris
Ixobrychus sturmii
Ixobrychus minutus
Parus niger
Laniaruis aethiopicus
Niaus afer
Pycnonotus barbatus
Chlorocichla faviventris
Phyllastrephus terrestris
F. impetuani
Emberiza flaviventris
Thicket
Floodplain
Woodland, Thicket
Termitaria
Mopane
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Swamp
Flood plain
Various
Flood plain
Flood plain
Flood plain
Swamp
Thicket
Woodland
Woodland
Thicket
Thicket
Woodland
Local irregular
Local irregular
Regular
Regular
Local, irregular
Local, irregular
Common
Local, irregular
Rare
Local, irregular
Common
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Regualr
Resident
Uncertain
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Fringillaria tahapisi
M. blanchoti
Eupoditis cafra
Otis denhami
Kaupifalco monogrammicus
Serinus sulphuratus
Serinus atrgularis
Serinus mozambicus
Saxicola torquata
Woodland
Woodland
Termitaria
Swamp
Swamp
Termitaria
Woodland
Swamp
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Uncertain
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
110
Common Name
Chat Black,
Chat Familiar,
Cisticola Tinkling,
Cisticola Rattling,
Cisticola Red-faced,
Cisticola Desert,
Cisticola Fan-tailed,
Cisticola Winding,
Cisticola Short-winged,
Cisticola Croaking,
Coly Red-faced,
Coot Red-knobbed,
Cormorant Reed,
Cormorant,
Coucal Coppery-tailed,
Coucal Senegal,
Coucal White-browed,
Courser Indian,
Courser Heuglin's,
Courser Bronze-winged,
Crake Black,
Crane Crowned,
Crane Wattled,
Crombec Long-billed,
Crow Pied,
Cuckoo Great-spotted,
Cuckoo-Shrike Black,
Darter,
Dikkop,
Dikkop-Water,
Dove Ring-necked,
Dove Mourning,
Dove Long-tailed,
Dove Red-eyed,
Dove Laughing,
Drongo Fork-tailed,
Duck Cape Pigeon,
Duck Yellow-billed,
Scientific Name
Myrmecocichla nigra
Cercomela familiaris
Cisticola rufilata
Cisticola chiniana
Cisticola erythrops
Cisticola aridula
Cisticola juncidis
Cisticola galactotes
Cisticola branchyptera
Coliuslensis
Colius indicus
Fulica cristata
Phalacrocorax africanus
Phalacrocorax carbo
Centropus cupreicaudus
C. senegalensis
C. superciliosus
Cursorius coromandelicus
Rhinoptilus cinctus
R. chalcopterus
Amaurorris flavirostris
Balearica pavonina
Grus carunculatus
Sylvietta rufescens
Corvus albus
Clamator glandarius
Campephaga phoenicea
Anhinga anhinga
Burhinus capensis
B. vermiculatus
Streptopelia capiclola
Streptopelia decipiens
Oena capensis
Streptopelia semitorquate
S. senegalinsis
Dicrurus adsimilis
Anas capensis
Anas undulata
Habitat
Termitaria
Woodland
Woodland
Grassland
Flood plain
Flood plain
Swamp
Flood plain
Woodland
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
WD/AZ 3R
Flood plain
Woodland
Swamp
Flood plain
Flood plain
Woodland
Floodplain, Termitaria
Woodland
Swamp
Termitaria
Swamp
Woodland
Acacia Woodland
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Flood plain
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Swamp
Swamp
111
Frequency
Regular
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Common
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Irregular
Very common
Common
Status______________
Resident
Resident
Resident
Residend
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Uncertain
Resident
Resident
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Common
Common
Common
Common
Irregular
Common
Regular
Irregular
Common
Very common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Rare
Irregular
Resident
Uncommon
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Resident
Common Name
Eagle Tawny,
Eagle Wahlberg's,
Eagle Martial,
Eagle Long-crested,
Eagle Bateleur,
Eagle-Hawk,
Egret Yellow-billed,
Egret Little,
Eremomela Burnt-necked,
Falcon Red-necked,
Finch Quail,
Finch Melba,
Firefinch Jameson's,
Firefinch Red-billed,
Fish-Eagle African,
Flycatcher Paradise,
Flycatcher Chin-spot,
Flycatcher Grey Tit,
Flycatcher Southern
Yellow-belied,
Flycatcher Spotted,
Francolin,
Francolin Swainson's,
Francolin Red-throated,
Gallinule Purple,
Glass-eye Grey-backed,
Goaway-Bird,
Goose Knob-billed,
Goose Egyptian,
Goose Spur-winged,
Goose Pygmy,
Goshawk Little Banded,
Goshawk Dark Chanting,
Goshawk Gabar,
Grebe Little,
Guineafowl Helmeted,
Gull Lesser Black-backed,
Gull Grey-headed,
Scientific Name
Anas rapax
Aquila wahlbergi
Polemaëtus bellicosus
Lophaëtus occipitalis
Terathopius ecaudatus
Aquila fasciata
Egretta intermedia
Egretta garzetta
Eremonela usticollis
Falco chiquera
Ortypospiza atricollis
Pytilia melba
Lagonosticta jamesoni
L. senegala
Haliaëtus vocifer
Terpsiphone viridis
Batis molitor
Myioparus plumbeus
Habitat
Termitaria
Woodland
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Swamp
Swamp
Woodland
Termitaria
Flood plain
Thicket
Woodland, Termitaria
Human habitation
Swamp
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Frequency
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Irregular
Common
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Common
Regular
Very common
Irregular
Status______________
Resident
Unknown
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Hyliota australis
Muscicapa striata
Francolinus shelleyi
F. swainsoni
F. afer
Porphyrio porphyrio
Camaroptera brevicaudata
Crinifer concolor
Sarkidiornis melanotos
Alopochen aegyptiacus
Plectropterus gambensis
Nettapus auritus
Accipiter badius
Melierax metabates
M. gabar
Podiceps ruficollis
Numida meleagris
Larus fuscus
L. cirrocephalus
Woodland
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Swamp
Thicket
Woodland
Flood plain, Swamp
Flood plain
Swamp
Swamp
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Swamp
Woodland, Termitaria
Flood plain
Flood plain
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Very common
Very common
Regular
Regular
Common
Regular
Regular
Very common
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Very common
Common
Common
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
112
Common Name
Gymnogene,
Hammerkop,
Harrier Pale,
Harrier Montagu's,
Harrier-Eagle Short-toed,
Harrier-Eagle Brown,
Harrier-Marsh,
Helmet-shrike Red-billed,
Helmet-Shrike Stra crested
Heron Rufous-bellied,
Heron Black,
Heron Great White,
Heron Night,
Heron Squacco,
Heron Purple,
Heron Goliath,
Heron Black-headed,
Heron Grey,
Honeyguide
Black-throated,
Hornbill Ground,
Hoopoe,
Hornbill Trumpeter,
Hornbill Red-billed,
Hornbill Crowned,
Hornbill Grey,
Hornbill Yellow-billed,
Hottentot Teal Duck,
Ibis Hadada,
Ibis Glossy,
Ibis Wood,
Ibis Sacred,
Jacana African,
Jacana Lesser,
Kestrel Greater,
Kestrel,
Kestrel Dickinson's,
Kingfisher Red-
Scientific Name
Polyboroides radiatus
Scopus umbretta
Circus macrourus
Circus pygargus
Circaëtus gallicus
Circus cinereus
Circus aeruginosus ranivorus
Prionops retzii
Prionops plumata
Butorides rufiventris
E. ardesiaca
Egretta alba
Nycticorax
Ardea ralloides
Ardea purpurea
Ardea goliath
Ardea melanocephala
Ardea Cinerea
Habitat
Woodland, Termitaria
Swamp, Flood plain
Flood plain, Termitaria
Flood plain, Termitaria
Termitaria, Flood plain
Woodland
Flood plain
Woodland
Woodland
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Frequency
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Common
Irregular
Irregular
Status______________
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Resident
Indicator indicator
Bucorvus leadbeateri
Upupa epops
Bycanistes bucinator
Tockus erythrorhunchus
Tockus alboterminatus
Tockus nasutus
Tockus flavirostris
Anas punctata
Bostrychia hagedash
Plegadis falcinellus
Ibis ibis
Threskiornis aethiopicus
Actiphilornis africanus
Microparra capensis
Falco rupicoloides
Falco tinnunculus
Falco dickinsoni
Woodland
Termitaria
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Swamp
Swamp, Flood plain
Swamp
Swamp, Flood plain
Swamp, Flood plain
Swamp
Swamp
Termitaria, Flood plain
Regular
Regular
Regular
Irregular
Regular
Common
Common
Regular
Common
Regular
Regular
Regular
Very common
Irregular
Rare
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Termitaria, Flood plain
Irregular
Resident
113
Common Name
Kingfisher Malachite,
Kingfisher Giant,
Kingfisher Pied,
Kingfisher Striped,
Kite Yellow-billed,
Kite Black,
Kite Black-shouldered,
Korhaan Black-bellied,
Korhaan Red-chested,
Lark Flappet,
Lark Red-capped,
Lark Rufous-naped,
Lesser Flamingo,
Longclaw Rosy-breasted,
Longclaw Fuelleborn's,
Mannikin Bronze,
Mannikin Pied,
Martin African Sand,
Martin Banded Sand,
Moorhen,
Moorhen Lesser,
Nightjar Fiery-necked,
Nightjar Gaboon,
Nightjar, Natal,
Oriole African Golden,
Oriole Black-headed,
Osprey,
Owl Giant Eagle,
Owl Spotted Eagle,
Owl Barn,
Owl Scops,
Owl African Marsh,
Owlet Pearl-spotted,
Oxpecker Yellow-billed,
Oxpecker Red-billed,
Parrot Brown-necked,
Parrot Brown,
Pelican White,
Scientific Name
Alcedo cristata
Ceryle maxima
Ceryle rudis
Halcyon chelicutie
Milrus migrans parasitus
Mivus migrans migrans
Elanus caeruleus
Eupodotis melanogaster
E. ruficrista
Mirafra rufocinnamonea
Calandrella vinerea
Mirafra africana
Phoenicopterus minor
M. ameliae
Macronyx fuelleborni
Spermestes cucullatus
Spermestes fringilloides
R. paludicola
R. cincta
Gallinula chloropus
G. angulata
C. pectoralis
Carprimulgus fossii
Carprimulgus nataliensis
Oriolus auratus
O. larvatus
Pandion haliaëtus
Bubo lacteus
Bubo africanus
Tyto alba
Otus scops
Asio capensis
Glaucidium perlatum
Buphagus africanus
B. erythrorhynchus
Poicephalus robustus
P. meyeri
Pelecanus onocrotalus
Habitat
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Woodland
Various
Termitaria, Woodland
Flood plain, Termitaria
Flood plain, Termitaria
Flood plain, Termitaria
Termitaria
Flood plain, Termitaria
Flood plain, Termitaria
Flood plain
Swamp
Swamp
Thicket, Termitaria
Thicket, Termitaria
Swamp
Flood plain, Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Flood plain, Swamp
Woodland
Woodland
Buildings
Woodland
Swamp, Flood plain
Woodland
Wooland, Termitaria
Woodlan, Termitaria
Woodland
Woodland
Swamp
114
Frequency
Common
Rare
Common
Common
Common
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Irregular
Common
Irregular
Irregular
Common
Common
Common
Common
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Rare
Irregular
Common
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Status______________
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Visiting
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Common Name
Pelican Pink-backed,
Pigeon Green,
Pipit, Bushveld,
Pipit, Dark Plain-backed,
Pipit, Richard's,
Pipit, Pale Plain-backed,
Plover, Blacksmith,
Plover, White-fronted,
Plover, Three-banded,
Plover, Crowned,
Plover,Watteled,
Plover, Long-toed,
Duck, African Pochard
Pratincole,
Prinia Tawny-flanked,
Puffbacak,
Quail,
Quail Blue,
Quail-Button,
Quail-Harlequin,
Quelea Red-billed,
Roller Purple,
Roller Moselikatze's,
Sandpiper Terek,
Sandplover Kittlitz's,
Scimitar-Bill,
Scrub-Robin East
African Bearded,
Scrub-Robin White-browed,
Secretary-Bird,
Shrike Magpie,
Shrike Sulphurbreasted Bush,
Skimmer African,
Snipe Painted,
Snipe Ethiopian,
Sparrow Southern
Grey-headed,
Scientific Name
P. rufescens
Treron australis
Anthus caffer
Anthus leucophrys
Anthus novaeseelandiae
A. vaalensis
Venellus armatus
Charadrius marginatus
C. tricollaris
Vanellus coronatus
Vanellus senegallus
Hemiparra crassirostris
Aythya erythrophthalma
Glareola pratincola
Prinia subflava
Dryoscopus cubla
Coturnix coturnix africana
C. chinensis
Turnix sylvatica
C. delegorguei
Quelea quelea
Coracias naevius
Coracias caudatus
T. terek
C. pecuarius
Rhinopomastus cyanomelas
Habitat
Swamp
Woodland
Termitaria, Flood plain
Termitaria, Flood plain
Termitaria, Flood plain
Flood plain, Termitaria
Flood plain, Termitaria
Flood plain
Flood plain
Termitaria, Flood plain
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Flood plain
Woodland, Flood plain
Woodland
Termitaria
Termitaria
Termitaria
Termitaria, Flood plain
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Termitaria
Swamp, Flood plain
Woodland
Frequency
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Common
Common
Common
Very common
Irregular
Regular
Common
Irregular
Regular
rregular
Common
Common
Regular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Common
Irregular
Common
Common
Regular
Status______________
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Erythropygia quadrivirgata
Erythropygia leucophrus
Sagittarius serpentarius
L. melanoleucos
Various
Woodland
Termitaria
Termitaria
Regular
Regular
Regular
Common
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Malaconotus sulfureopectus
Rhynchops flavirostris
Rostratula benghalensis
G. nigripennis
Woodland, Thicket
Swamp
Flood plain
Flood plain
Regular
Regular
Irregular
Regular
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Resident
Passer diffusus
Woodland
Regular
Resident
115
Common Name
Sparrow Yellow-throated,
Sparrow-Lark
Chestnut-backed,
Sparrow-Lark
Grey-backed,
Starling Longtailed Glossy,
Starling Greater
Blue-eared Glossy,
Starling Lesser
Blue Glossy,
Stilt,
Stork Saddlebill,
Stork Woolly-necked,
Stork Marabou,
Sunbird White-bellied,
Sunbird Scarlet-chested,
Sunbird Amethyst,
Swallow Wire-tailed,
Swallow White-throated,
Swallow Red-breasted,
Swallow Mosque,
Swallow, Stripe-breasted,
Swallow Grey-rumped,
Swift Palm,
Tchagra Black-headed,
Tchagra Brown-headed,
Tern Whiskered,
Tern Caspian,
Thrush Palm,
Tinkerbird Yellow-fronted,
Duck, White-faced Tree,
Duck, Fulvous,
Turnstone,
Twinspot Peter's,
Vulture Lappet-faced,
Vulture Hooded,
Scientific Name
Petronia superciliaris
Habitat
Woodland
Frequency
Regular
Status______________
Resident
Eremopterix leucotis
Flood plain, Termitaria
Regular
Resident
E. verticalis
Flood plain, Termitaria
Regular
Resident
Lamproformis mevesii
Woodland
Regular
Resident
Lamprotornis chalybaeus
Woodland
Regular
Resident
Lamproformis chloropterus
Himantopus himantopus
Ephippiorhynchus
senegalensis
Ciconia episcopus
Leptoptilos crumeniferus
Nectarinia talatala
N. senegalensis
N. amethystina
Hirundo smithii
H. albigularis
H. semirufa,
H. senegalensis
H. abyssinica
H. griseopyga
Cypsiurus parvus
Tchagra senegala
Tchagra australis
Chlidonias hybridus
Hydroprogne caspia
Cichladusa arquata
Pogoniulus chrysoconus
Dendrocygna viduata
D. bicolor
Arenaria interpres
Hypargos niveoguttatus
Aegypius tracheliotus
Neophron monachus
Woodland
Flood plain
Regular
Common
Resident
Unknown
Flood plain
Flood plain, Swamp
Flood plain, Swamp
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland
Woodland
Flood plain
Termitaria, Flood plain
Flood plain
Woodland
Flood plain
Termitaria, Flood plain
Palms
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland
Flood plain, Swamp
Flood plain
Palms
Woodland
Flood plain
Flood plain
Thicket
Flood plain, Termitaria
Various
Regular
Irregular
Common
Regular
Common
Common
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Rare
Regular
Common
Regular
Common
Regular
Irregular
Rare
Irregular
Regular
Very common
Regular
Irregular
Regular
Regular
Resident
Unknown
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Unknown
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Unknown
Resident
Resident
Unknown
Unknown
Resident
Resident
Resident
116
Common Name
Vulture White-backed,
Vulture White-headed,
Wagtail Cape,
Wagtail Yellow,
Wagtail African Pied,
Warbler Willow,
Warbler Little Rush,
Warbler Lesser Swamp,
Waxbill Blue,
Waxbill Grenadine,
Waxbill Orange-breasted,
Waxbill,
Weaver Red-headed,
Weaver Holub's Golden,
Weaver Masked,
Weaver Black-headed,
Weaver Cabanis's Masked,
Wheatear,
Whimbrel,
Duck, White-backed
White-eye Yellow,
Whydah Pin-tailed,
Widow-Bird
Red-shouldered,
Widow-Bird
White-winged,
Widow-Bird
Yellow-mantled,
Wood-Dove
Emerald-spotted,
Wood-hoopoe Green,
Woodpecker,
Woodpecker Olive,
Woodpecker Cardinal,
Woodpecker Bennett's,
Scientific Name
Gyps bengalensis
A. occipitalis
Motacilla capensis
Motacilla flava
Motacilla aguimp
Phylloscopus trochilus
Bradypterus baboecala
A. gracilirostris
Granatina angolensis
G. granatina
Estrilda subflava
Estrilda astrild
Anaplectes melanotis
Ploceus xanthops
Ploceus velatus
Ploceus cucullatus
Ploceus intermedius
Oenanthe oenanthe
N. phaeopus
Thalassornis leuconotus
Zosterops senegalensis
Vidua macroura
Habitat
Various
Various
Swamp
Swamp, Flood plain
Swamp, Flood plain
Woodland, Termitaria
Swamp
Swamp
Termitaria, Woodland
Woodland, Termitaria
Flood plain, Swamp
Flood plain, Swamp
Woodland
Swamp
Woodland, Flood plain
Woodland
Woodland
Frequency
Common
Regular
Common
Regular
Irregular
Common
Irregular
Irregular
Common
Common
Regular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Status______________
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Swamp
Woodland
Termitaria, Swamp
Irregular
Irregular
Resident
Resident
Euplectes axillaris
Swamp
Regular
Resident
E. albonotatus
Swamp
Regular
Resident
E. macrourus
Swamp
Regular
Resident
Turtur chalcospilos
Phoeniculus purpureus
Thripias namaquus
Mesopicos griseocephalus
Dendropicos fuscescens
Campethera bennettii
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Regular
Regular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident_
117
Appendix 6:
A preliminary checklist of migratory bird species occurring in the Kafue flats region, habitat, frequency and status
Common Name
Bee-eater Carmine,
Bee-eater Blue-checked,
Bee-eater European,
Black Tern White-winged,
Corncrake,
Coucal White-browed,
Courser Heuglin's,
Crake African,
Cuckoo Great-spotted,
Cuckoo Crested,
Cuckoo Levaillant's,
Cuckoo Didric,
Curlew,
Duck Red-billed Teal,
Eagle Lesser Spotted,
Egret Cattle,
Falcon Red-footed,
Flycatcher Southern
Hobby European
Honeyguide
Kestrel Lesser,
Kingfisher Grey-hooded,
Kingfisher Redand-black-billed,
Kingfisher Pygmy,
Lesser Flamingo,
Stint, Little
Martin House,
Martin Sand,
Scientific Name
Merops nubicus
M. superciliosus persicus
Merops apiaster
Chlidonias leucoptera
Crex crex
C. superciliosus
Rhinoptilus cinctus
Crex egregia
Clamator glandarius
Clamator jacobinus
Clamator levaillantii
Chrysococcyx caprius
Numenius arquatus
Anas erythrorhynchos
Aquila pomarina
Ardeola ibis
Falco vespertinus amurensis
Habitat
Woodland
Swamp
Termitaria woodland
Swamp
Flood plain
Swamp
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Woodland
Flood plain
Swamp
Termitaria
Swamp
Termitaria
Frequency
Irregular
Regular
Common
Common
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Very common
Rare
Common
Rare
Status______________
Intra-African migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Intra-African migrant
Intra-African migrant
Intra-African migrant
Intra-African migrant
Palearctic migrant
Intra-African migrant
Palearctic migrant
Local migrant
Palearctic migrant
Falco subbuteo
Termitaria, Flood plain
Irregular
Palearctic migrant
Falco naumanni
Halcyon leucocephala
Termitaria, Flood plain
Woodland
Common
Irregular
Paleartic migrant
Intra-African migrant
Halcyon senegalensis
Ceyx picta
Phoenicopterus minor
Calidris minuta
Delichon urbica
Riparia riparia
Woodland
Woodland
Flood plain
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Irregular
Irregular
Irregular
Regular
Irregular
Regular
Intra-African migrant
Intra-African migrant
Visiting
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
118
Nightjar Rufous-cheeked,
Nightjar European,
Nightjar Pennant-winged,
Plover, Ringed,
Plover, Caspian,
Plover, Grey,
Roller Broad-billed,
Common Name
Roller European,
Ruff,
Yellow-throated,
Sandpiper Green,
Sandpiper Common,
Sandpiper Marsh,
Sandpiper Greenshank,
Sandpiper Wood,
Sandpiper Terek,
Sandpiper-Curlew,
Scrub-Robin East
Shrike Lesser Grey,
Shrike Red-backed,
Snipe Great,
Spoonbill African,
Starling Biolet-backed,
Stork White,
Stork Abdim's,
Stork Openbill,
Swallow,
Swift Common,
Turnstone,
Warbler Sedge,
Wheatear,
Wheatear Capped,
Whitethroat, Warbler
Ccprimulgus rufigena
Caprimulgus europeaus
Macrodipteryx vexillarius
Charadrius hiaticula
C. asiaticus
C. squatarola
Eurystomus galucurus
Scientific Name
Coracias garrulus
Philomachus pugnax
Pterocles gutturalis
Tringa ochrophus
Tringa hypoleucos
T. stagnatilis
T. nebularia
T. glareola
xenus cinerius
Calidris ferruginea
Woodland
Woodland
Woodland
Flood plain, Termitaria
Flood plain
Flood plain
Woodland
Habitat
Woodland, Termitaria
Flood plain
Termitaria, Flood plain
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Swamp
Rare
Rare
Regular
Irregular
Common
Irregular
Regular
Frequency
Regular
Common
Common
Irregular
Very common
Common
Regular
Very common
Common
Irregular
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Intra-African migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Intra-African migrant
Status______________
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Intra-African migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Lanius minor
L. cristatus
Gallinago media
Platalea alba
Cinnyricinclus leucogaster
Ciconia ciconia
C. abdimii
Anastomus lamelligerus
Hirundo rustica
Apus apus
Arenaria interpres
Acrocephalus schoenobaenus
Oenanthe oenanthe
O. pileata
Sylvia communis
Termitaria
Termitaria
Flood plain
Flood plain
Woodland
Flood plain, Termitaria
Flood plain
Flood plain, Swamp
Termitaria, Swamp
Flood plain, Termitaria
Swamp
Swamp
Regular
Common
Irregular
Regular
Common
Irregular
Common
Very common
Very common
Common
Common
Regular
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Intra-African migrant
Intra-African migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Intra-African migrant
Palearctic migrant
Plaearetic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
Flood plain, Termitaria
Woodland, Termitaria
Common
Irregular
Palearctic migrant
Palearctic migrant
119
Appendix 7: Some Reptiles And Amphibians Commonly Known To Occur Within The Kafue
Flats Region
____________________________________________________________________________
Scientific Name
CommonName
Habitat_____
ORDER: TESTUDINES
Geochelone pardalis
Kinixy's belliana
Pelomedusa subrufa
Pelusios castaneus castaneis
Pelusios castaneus rhodesianus
Pelusios bechnanicus
Pelusios sinuatus
Pelusios subniger
Pelusios nanus
Leopard Tortoise
Bells Hinged Tortoise
African Marsh Terrapin
Swamp Terrapin
Black Swamp Terrapin
Okavango Terrapin
Serrated Terrapin
Pan Terrapin
Dwarf Terrapin
WD,GR
WD,GR
AQ
AQ
AQ
AQ
AQ
AQ
AQ
ORDER: CROCODYLIA
Crocodylus niloticus
Crocodylus cataphractus
Nile Crocodile
Slender -snouted Crocodile
AQ
AQ
ORDER: SQUAMATA
Sub Order: Sauria
Agama hispida
Agama cyonogaster
Ablepharus wahlbergii
Chamaeleo dilepis
Eumecia anchietai
Gerrhhosaurus flarigularis
Gerrhosaurus major
Gerrhosaurus muttlineatus
Gerrhosaurus nigrolineatus
Hemidactylus mabouia
Inchnotropis capensis
Lygodactylus angolensis
Lydodactylus capensis
Lydodactylus angularis
Lydodactylus chobiensis
Mabuya varia
Mabuya striata
Panchydactylus pucntatus
Riopa sunderallii
Tetradactylus ellenbergeri
Veranus exanthematicus
Veranus niloticus
Spiny Agama
Blue Headed Tree Agama
Common flap necked Chameleon
Anchieta's Skink
Yellow throated plated lizard
Tawny planted Lizard
Angola plated Lizard
Black Lined Plated Lizard
House Gecko
Dwarf Gecko
Dwarf Gecko
Dwarf Gecko
Dwarf Gecko
Variable Skink
Striped Skink
Spotted Ground Gecko
Ellenberger’s Whip Lizard
Savanna Monitor
Nile Monitor
GR
GR,WD
GR
WD,GR
AQ
GR
GR
GR
GR
BD,TR
GR
BD,TR
TR,BD
TR,BD
TR,BD
GR
GR
WD,GR
GR
GR
GR
AQ
Burrowing Adders
Bush Viper
Gaboon Viper
Puff Adder
Nose horned Viper
Common House Snake
Water Cobra
Rhombic Night Adder
120
GR
GR
WD,GR
AQ
WD
WD,GR
AQ
GR,WD
AQ
WD,GR
Sub Order: Serpentes
Amblyodispas polylepis polylepis
Aparallactus capensis
Atractaspis bibronii
Atheris nitschei
Bitis gabonica
Bitis arietans
Bitis nasicornis
Boaedon fuliginosus
Boulengerina annulata
Causus rhombeatus
Scientific Name
Causus bilineatus
Crotaphopeltis barotseensis
Chilorhinophis gerardi
Crotaphopetis hotamboeia
Dasy peltis scabra
Dendroaspis polylepis
Dipsadoboa shrevei
Dispholidus typus
Dromophis lineatus
Elapsoidea semiannulata boulengeri
Elapsoidea guentheri
Hemirhagerrhis nototaenia
Leptotyphlops emini
Limnonophis bicolor
Lycodonomorphus bicolor
Mehelya capensis
Mehelya nyassae
Meizodon semmiornatus
Naja nigricollis
Naja haje anchietae
Naja melanoleuca
Natriciteres olivacea
Natriciteres olivacea
Natriciteres variegate
Philothamnus ornatus
Philothamnus semivariegatus
Philothamnus irregularis
Philothamnus hoplogaster
Psammophis angolensis
Psammophis subtaeniatus
Psammophis sibilans
Psammophylax tritaeniatus
Pseudaspis cana
Python sebae
Rhamphiophis acutus
Telescopus semiannulatus
Thelotornis capensis
Typhlops schlegllii
Typhlops schmidti
CommonName
Lined Night Adder
Barotse Cat Snake
Black tempted Cat Snake
Common Egg Eating Snake
Black Mamba
Shreve's Tree Snake
Boomslang
African Garter Snake
African Garter Snake
Bark Snake
Worm Snake
Water Snake
Lake Tanganyika Water snake
Cape File Snake
Nyasa File Snake
Semiornate Snake
Black necked Spitting Cobra
Egyptian Cobra
Forest Cobra
Olive Marsh snake
Forest Marsh Snake
Ornate Green Snake
Variegated Bush Snake
Western Green Snake
Southern Green Snake
Dwarf Sand Snake
Stripe bellied Sand Snake
Olive Grass Snake
Stripped Grass Snake
Mole Snake
African Python
Striped Beaked Snake
Tiger Snake
Cape Vine Snake (Twig Snake)
Blind Snake
Blind snake
Habitat_____
WD,GR,AQ
AQ
GR
GR,AQ
GR,AQ
WD,GR,AQ
WD,GR
GR,WD
AQ
GR,WD
GR,AQ
GR,WD
GR
AQ
AQ
GR
GR,AQ
AQ
WD,GR
WD,GR
WD, (rivirine)
GR
AQ
AQ
AQ
AQ,WD,GR
AQ
AQ
GR
GR
GR,AQ
GR
GR
AQ,GR,WD
GR
GR
GR,WD
GR
GR
ORDER: ANURA
Arthroleptis stenodactylus
Arthrolleptis globosa
Breviceps mossambicus
Breviceps poweri
Bufo lemairii
Bufo carens
Bufo taitanus
Bufo garmani
Bufo regularis
Chiromantis xerampelina
Hemisus marmoratus
Hildebrandtia ornata
Hyperolius marmoratus
Hyperolius nasutus
Sqaeaking Frog
Squeaking Frog
Rain Frog
Rain Frog
Yellow Swamp Toad
Red Toad
Teita Dwarf Toad
Garman's Toad
Square marked Toad
Grey Tree Frog
Shovel-snouted Frogs
Ornate Burrowing Frog
Marbled Reed Frog
Reed Frog
WD
WD
AQ, GR
GR,AQ
AQ
GR
GR,AQ
FR,AQ
AQ,GR,WD
GR
GR
GR,AQ
AQ,GR
AQ,GR
121
Scientific Name
Kassina senegalensis
Leptopelis bocagii
Phrynobatrachus acridoides
Phrynobatrachus perpalumatus
Phrynobatrachus gutturosus
Phrynobatrachus parvulus
Phrynomerus bitasciatus
Phrynomerus affines
Ptychadena chrysogaster
Ptychadena oxyrhynchus
Ptychadena taenioscelis
Ptychadena mascaneniensis
Ptychadena mossambica
Ptychadena subpunctata
Pyxicephalus marmoratus
Pyxicephalus adspersus
Pyxicephalus delalandii
Rana albolabris
Rana angolensis
Rana fasciata
Rana occipitalis
Xenopus laevis
CommonName
Bocage's Burrowing Frog
Puddle Frog
Puddle Frog
Puddle Frog
Puddle Frog
Red-banded Frog
Red-spotted Frog
Ridged Frog
Ridged Frog
Ridged Frog
Ridged Frog
Mozambique pyxie
African Bull Frog
Delalande’s Pyxie
White Lipped Frog
Angola River Frog
Striped Grass Frog
Giant Swamp Frog
Clawed Frog
Habitat_____
WD,GR
WD,GR
AQ
AQ
AQ,GR,WD
GR,AQ
GR, Aq
GR
AQ
GR,AQ
GR,AQ
GR,AQ
GR,AQ
AQ
GR,AQ
GR,AQ
GR
AQ
AQ
GR
GR
AQ
KEY:
AQ
BD
GR
TR
WD
R
-
Aquatic habitat including flood plain, swamp, riverine, pans and dambos
Buildings and any man made structures
Grasslands, savanna bushland and termitaria
Tree trunks
Woodland and deciduous forests
Riverine
122
Appendix 8:
Fishes Of The Kafue River And The Associated Wetlands
Latin Name
Alesres lateralis
Aplocheifichthys johnstonis
Aplocheilichthys katangae
Barbus (beirabarbus) aurantiacus
BarDus puellus
Barbus viviparous
Barbus tangandensis
Barbus marequensis
Barbus afrovemava
Barbus barotseensis
Barbus eutaenia
Barbus fasciolatus
Barbus haasianus
Barous labialis
Barbus iineomaculatus
Barbus multilineaius
Barbus paludinosus
Barbus poechii
Chiloglanis neumani
Clanas theodorae
Clanas steppersii
danas mossambicus
Clanas meilandi
Coptosto mabarbus wfttef
Ctenopoma multispinis
Gnathonemus macroleoidotus
Hapiocnromis pniiander
Haplochromis canottae
HaDloctiromis fredenci
Hepsetus odoe
Knera auricuiata
Labeo annectens
Labeo cvlindhcu
Marcusenius casteinaul
Masiacemblaius meilandi
Micrafestes acutidens
Mormyrus laceda j
Nannocharax sp.
Nannocharax muitifasciatus
NothoDranchius taeniopygus
Pelmatochromis robustus
Petersius rtiodesiensis
Petroceohalus catastoma
Srgochromis codringtoni
Schilbe mvstus
Serranochromis thumbergi
Common Name
Stripe tailed cithannid
Common Top Minnow
Striped Top Minnon
Red eyed Barb
Dot Tailed Barb
Twin strioed Barb
Thin striped Barb
Yellowfish
Spot-tail Barb
Many spotted Barb
Thick stnpea Barb
Red banded Barb
Sickle fin Baro
Plain Barb
Spotted Barb
Multi striped Barb
Serratea spine Baro
Smooth spine spot Barb
Sucker-mouth catiet i
Snake Barbel
Blotched Barbel
Sharo toothed Barbel
Blunt toothed Barbel
Sauare (awed Barb
Climbing Fish
Bull-dog
Dwarf Bream
Chanottes Bream
Freoerics Bream
Pike
Small scaled Minnow
Stripe muasucker
Mudsucker
Castelnaus Stone-basher
Soinv Eel
Silver Robber
Bottlenose
Banded Citharinid
Multi banded Citharinid
Zambi Top Minnow
Pike Bream
Silverfish
Churchill
Green Bream
Silver Barbel
Brown-Soot Bream
123
Purple-face Bream
Thin-face Bream
Yellow-belly Bream
SqueaKer
Banded Bream
Red-breasted Bream
Three-spot Bream
Green headed Bream
Serranochromis macrocephala
Serranochromis angusticeps
Serranochromis robustus
Synodontis macrostigma
Tilapia sparmanii
Tilapia melanopieura
Tilapia andersonii
Tilapia macrochir
Source: ECZ, 1999.
124
Appendix 9: - Policy Matrix for Fulfilling Zambian Commitments to Conventions Regarding Management of Water Habitats
Resource
Focus
Relevance to Study
Gaps
African Convention on
the
Conservation
of
Nature
and
Natural
Resources 1968
The Convention was adopted under the aegis of the
Organization of African Unity. It was the replacement for
the 1933 London Convention Relative to the Preservation
of Fauna and Flora in their Natural State. The latter
Convention is essentially an in-situ conservation
instrument, being concerned entirely with fauna and flora
and their natural a habitat. Its strategy was the creation of
protection zones, in the form of national parks and
reserves. It sought to preserve natural fauna and flora in
certain parts of the world, particularly in Africa.
• Article II obliges States Parties to adopt
the measures necessary to ensure
conservation, utilization and development
of soil, water, and floral and faunal
resources in accordance with scientific
principles and with due regard to the best
interests of the people.
• Article V requires States Parties to
establish policies to conserve, utilize and
develop water resources, prevent pollution
and control water use.
• Article VII to conserve faunal resource
and use them wisely, manage populations
and habitat, control hunting, capture and
fishing; to prohibit the use of poisons,
explosives and automatic, weapons in
hunting.
• Article X State's Parties required
establishing and maintaining conservation
areas.
• Article XIII Parties requires to undertake
conservations education, and to take
ecological factors into account in
development planning.
• Currently does not appear to be
in force.
The 1968 African Convention incorporated and expanded
the principles of the London Convention. Thus, it seeks to
encourage individual and joint action for the conservation,
utilization and development of soil, water, flora and fauna,
for the present and future welfare of human kind from an
economic, scientific, educational, cultural and aesthetic
perspective.
AfricanEurasian
Migratory Water Bird
Agreement - AEWA
This was an Agreement that was concluded in 1995 in
the Hague, Netherlands, the largest of its kind. The
Agreement covers 172 species of birds ecologically
dependent on wetlands for at least part of their annual
cycle, including many species of pelicans, storks,
flamingos, swans, geese, ducks and waders. The
Agreement covers 117 countries in Europe, parts of Asia
and North America, the Middle East and Africa.
125
• Zambia has not ratified this
convention directly
Resource
Focus
Relevance to Study
UN
Convention
on
Biological Diversity CBD or Rio Convention
1992.
The Convention was signed by over 150 governments at
the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and entered into force in
1993. It is the centre piece of international efforts to
conserve the planet's biological diversity, ensure the
sustainable use of biological resources, protect
ecosystems and natural habitats, and promote the fair
and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the
utilization of genetic resources. This Convention is the
first to global instrument to take a comprehensive
approach to the issues of conserving the world's
biological diversity and to using its biological resources in
a sustainable manner.
The Earth Summit confirmed that only through integrating
conservation and development could human and
ecological challenges be met.
Convention
on
International Trade in
Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Fiord
1973.
The Convention entered into force in 1975 and has a
membership of 152 countries. These countries act by
banning commercial international trade in an agreed list
of endangered species and by regulating and monitoring
trade in others that might become endangered.
CITES' aims are major components of Caring for the
Earth, a strategy for Sustainable Living.
• Article I Convention seeks to conserve
biological diversity, to promote the
sustainable use of its components, and to
encourage equitable sharing of the
benefits arising from utilization of genetic
resources.
• Article IV States Parties have the duty to
conserve biodiversity within their
jurisdictions as well as outside their
jurisdictions in certain cases.
• Article V States Parties are required to
undertake co-operative initiatives in
respect of areas falling outside their
respective jurisdictions.
• Article VI Parties are charged with the
responsibility for the formulation and
implementation of strategies, plans or
programs for the conservation and
sustainable use of biodiversity.
• Article XIV Parties are required to apply
environmental impact assessments in
respect of projects that are likely to have
adverse effects on biodiversity.
• Article VIII requires the States Parties to
adopt domestic legislation which prohibits
international trade in specimens in
violation of the Convention, penalizes
such trade, and provides for confiscation
of specimens illegally traded or
possessed.
126
Gaps
• Does not have procedure for its
implementation.
• Need for expanding protected
areas to cover fisheries areas
and special habitats
• Consider water resources
conservation and wetlands.
• Lacks capacity for it’s
implementation
• Not indicated in other
legislations other than wildlife
Act
• Lacks effective implementation.
• Not successful in blocking
illegal trade.
• National institution
implementing the convention
not fully established.
Resource
Focus
Relevance to Study
Gaps
Convention
on
the
Conservation
of
Migratory Species of Wild
Animals-CMS or Bonn
Convention 1979.
This Convention aims to strictly protect and conserve
terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species in danger
of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their
range.
It is one of a small number of intergovernmental treaties
concerned with the conservation of wildlife and wildlife
habitats on a global scale. Since the Convention's entry
into force in 1983, its membership has grown to include
66
Parties from Africa, Central and South America, Asia,
Europe and Oceania.
It provides a framework for the conservation of migratory
species and their habitats by means of, as appropriate,
strict protection and the conclusion of international
Agreements.
• Article II obliges the Parties to promote,
co-operate in and support research
relating to migratory species; endeavor to
provide immediate protection for migratory
species included in Appendix I; and
endeavor to conclude Agreements
covering the conservation and
management of migratory species
included Appendix II.
• Appendix II contains a list of species with
unfavorable conservation status and on
which this score require international
Agreements for their conservation or
management.
• Included also in the Appendix are those
species, which would significantly benefit
from international co-operation as would
be achieved through International
Agreement.
• Protective measures for such species
include the conservation or restoration of
their habitats, and removal of threats in
their way as well as impediments to their
movement.
• CMS provides for a wide range of
measures for the protection of migratory
species and these include conservation of
habitat in particular oceans, freshwater,
wetlands, deserts, mountains, etc.
• Not well known in Zambia.
• Lacks government
commitment.
127
Resource
Focus
Relevance to Study
Convention concerning
the Protection of the
World
Cultural
and
Natural Heritage - WHC
or
World
Heritage
Convention 1972.
The General Conference of UNESCO adopted the
Convention in 1972. Today more man 150 countries have
adhered to the Convention, making it one of the most
universal international legal instruments for the protection
of the cultural and natural heritage. Its key objectives are
to protect cultural and natural heritage of outstanding
universal value through, among other things, the listing of
World Heritage Sites.
• It's aim of seeking to establish an elective
system of collective protection of the
cultural and natural heritage of
outstanding universal value.
• Article IV Each State Party recognizes
that the duty of ensuring the identification,
protection, conservation, presentation and
transmission to future generations of the
cultural and natural heritage ...and
situated on its territory, belongs primarily
to the State.
• Article V States Parties are obliged to
integrate the protection of their culturaland natural heritage into comprehensive
planning programs; to set up services for
the protection of their heritage to develop
relevant scientific and technical studies
and to take necessary legal, scientific,
administrative and financial steps to
protect their heritage.
128
Gaps
Resource
Focus
Relevance to Study
Gaps
Convention Wetlands of
International Importance
Especially as Waterfowl
Habitat
RAMSAR
Convention 1971.
This was the first global instrument to address the
conservation of a particular habitat. It reflects the new
international legal efforts aimed at conservation by
protecting a habitat rather than a species. The
Convention emphasizes the conservation and wise use of
wetlands primarily to provide habitat for birds.
In this regard wetlands are recognized as ecosystems
that are highly important for biodiversity conservation and
for the well being of human communities.
This Convention is an intergovernmental treaty, which,
there are presently 122 Contracting Parties to the
Convention, with 1037 wetland sites, totaling 78.2 Billion
hectares, designated for inclusion in the RAMSAR List of
Wetlands of International
Importance.
It aims to ensure the conservation of wetlands, especially
those of international importance, by fostering wise use,
international co-operation and reserve creation.
• The Convention provides the framework
for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise
use of wetlands and their resources
through national action and international
co-operation, as the means for achieving
sustainable development throughout the
world.
• Its recognition of the fundamental
ecological functions of wetlands, including
biological productivity and their economic,
cultural, recreational and scientific values
including biodiversity conservation.
• It endeavors to secure the maintenance of
the ecological integrity of the wetlands
and to promote resource development.
• Article II obliges States Parties to
designate at least one national wetland for
inclusion in the List of Wetlands of
international Importance (following a
specific criterion).
• Lacks capacity for
implementation.
• Wetlands still continue not to
be recognize as important
ecosystems.
Lusaka Agreement on
Co-operative
Enforcement Operations
Directed at Illegal Trade
in Wild Fauna and Flora Lusaka 1994.
The Agreement was developed by African States in
collaboration with the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), as an expression of the synergistic
functioning of the various environmental and biodiversity
treaties.
It provides a basis for the enforcement of measures
applicable under both CITES and CBD and is in fact a
regional devise for the implementation of the provision
CITES.
• Article II the Agreement aims to reduce
and ultimately eliminate illegal trade in
wild fauna and flora and establishes a
permanent Task Force for this purpose.
• The Agreement provides for practical day
to day measures designed to achieve the
objectives of African Convention on the
Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources.
• Not fully known to the public.
129
Appendix 10: - Policy and Legal Matrix for the protection and management of environment and Natural Resources
Instrument
Environmental Protection
and Pollution Control Act
No. 12 of 1990
Focus
The Act as the principal environmental law aims to
provide for the protection of the environment and the
control of pollution. It establishes the Environmental
Council and endeavors to prescribe the functions
and powers of the Council.
Relevance to the study
Gaps
• The legislation is principal where environmental
protection is concerned.
• Section 6 outlines the functions of the council and
thus mandates it to deal with matters connected
with natural resources conservation.
• To this end the Council can conduct research on
land use practices and their impact on natural
resources for purposes of better conservation and
protection of natural resources.
• It monitors trends in the use of natural resources
and their impact on the environment.
• It identifies, promotes and advises on projects
which further or are likely to further conservation
for sustainable development and the protection
and improvement of the environment.
• Section 23 mandates the Council to establish
water quality and pollution standards; determine
conditions for the discharges of effluents into the
aquatic environment; formulate rules for the
preservation of fishing areas, aquatic areas,
drinking water sources and reservoirs,
recreational and other areas where water may
need special protection; identification of areas of
research and initiate or sponsor research in the
effects of water pollution on the environment,
human beings, flora and fauna.
• Section 24 explicitly prohibits water pollution in
contravention of the water pollution control
standards.
• Section 25 imposes a duty to supply information
about the quantity and quality of effluent to the
inspectorate, by owners or operators of irrigation
schemes, sewage system, industrial production
plants, etc which discharge effluent.
130
• Overlapping responsibilities e.g.
with country and town planning,
National Parks and wildlife Act,
Natural Resources.
• Coordinating role of the agency
has not been established and it
is not clear whether this will be
achieved.
• Does not cover the RAMSAR
and other conventions
• Does not recognize wetlands
management although this may
be implied through natural
resources.
• Enforcement is limited by lack of
funding and shortage of
manpower.
Instrument
Fisheries
Cap.200
Focus
Act
1974,
Lands Act, no. 29 of 1995
The Act key objective is to provide for the
development of commercial fishing in the Republic.
It seeks to control fishing and provide for the
registration of fishermen and their boats.
The Lands Act repeals the followings laws: •
Land (Conversion of Titles) Act
•
Zambia (State lands and Reserves) Orders
1928 to 1964
•
Zambia (Trust land) Orders 1947 to 1964
•
Zambia (Gwembe District) Orders 1959 to
1964
•
Western Province (Land and Miscellaneous
Provisions) Act 1970.
•
The Lands Act instead provides for:•
Continuation of leaseholds and leasehold
tenures
•
Continuation of vesting of land in the
President and alienation of land by the
President.
•
Statutory recognition and continuation of
customary tenure
•
Conversion of customary tenure into
leasehold tenure
•
Establishment of a Land Development
Fund and a Lands Tribunal.
Relevance to the study
Gaps
•
• Section 3 prohibits particular methods of fishing,
such being without permission of the Fisheries
Director, make, grow, use or have in possession
any poison, poisonous plants or like injurious
substance or make, use or have in possession
any explosive or any electrical fishing device.
• The Act lacks community involvement in the
fisheries sector
• The Act pays cognisance to the existence and
use of areas as forest, wildlife or other
conservation reserves; it does not put in place a
mechanism for collaborative management. For
instance Environmental Council of Zambia (ECZ)
the Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) and the
Lands Department do not co-ordinate in
implementing policy directions and decision
making.
• Management of land resources is generally
fragmented thereby defeating the purpose of
environmental concerns alluded to in the Act.
Therefore it will be necessary to address some of
the factors that hinder sustainable and
appropriate land use and management in the
study.
• The Act's cognisance of customary land holdings
is worth noting in study. This chief in the Kafue
Flats yield a significant amount of power vis a vis
the administration of land, wetlands and
resources occurring therein.
• Particularly the provisions for obtaining consent
which is a pre-requisite to any dealings in land.
131
•
•
•
It
does
not
provide
guidelines
for
management of fisheries.
It does not consider
management of species
and their habitat
Does
not
include
community involvement in
fish conservation.
Instrument
Water Act 1948, Cap.198
Focus
The Act aims to consolidate and amend the law in
respect of the ownership, control and use of water.
Relevance to the study
Gaps
• Ownership of water is vested in the President and
everyone has the right to use water in its natural
channel.
• Section 37 empower the Water Board to grant to
persons water rights, and to grant the said person
rights to take water or supervise or control the use
of water, right of storage, a right of passage, or a
right of abatement.
• Section 55 imposes direct obligation on users of
water not to cause pollution to public water, and
the Water Officer has a duty to ensure that public
streams are not fouled and to instill measures that
applicants may put in place to forestall pollution.
• Section 55 does not however define water
pollution but prohibits the pollution of water so as
to render it harmful to human, beast, fish or
vegetation. (Note that the environmental
Protection and Pollution Control Act 1990 defines
water pollution).
• The Act lacks any provisions of collaborative
management, specifically community involvement
in water resources management.
• Notably, the Act does not recognize the
abstraction rights obtained under customary law.
• There is also fragmentation of water resources
management by responsible agencies.
• The Act explicitly excludes the application of its
provisions to shared water courses.
• A weakness exhibited by the Act is that of treating
the rights issuable as individual rights, leaving the
possible interests of the groups outside its realm.
Such groups are communities who are identified
as core units in natural resources management.
132
•
•
Poorly
implemented
because of limited funds
and manpower.
Pollution is not covered as
well as water as a habitat.
Instrument
Zambia Wildlife Act no. 12
of 1998.
Focus
The Zambia Wildlife Act 1998 is the principal
legislation regulating wildlife resources management
in Zambia.
Relevance to the study
Gaps
The Act establishes
• The Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) and
defines its functions.
• It endeavors to provide for the establishment,
control and management of National Parks and
for the conservation of and enhancement of
wildlife ecosystems, biodiversity, and of objects of
aesthetic, pre-historic, historical, geological,
archaeological and scientific interest in the
National Parks.
• It provides for the promotion of opportunities for
the equitable land sustainable use of special
qualities of National Parks.
• It provides for the establishment, control and
management of game Management Areas.
• Provides for the sustainable use of wildlife and
the effective management of the wildlife habitat in
Game Management Areas.
• The Act further seeks to enhance the benefits of
Game Management Areas both to local
communities and to wildlife.
• It attempts to involve local communities in the
management of Game Management Areas and
development and implementation of management
plans.
• The law regulates game ranching.
• Provides for licensing of hunting and control of the
processing, sale, import and export of wild
animals and trophies.
• Provides for this implementation of the
Convention on international Trade in endangered
Species of Wild Flora and Fauna – CITES.
• Implementation of the convention on wetlands of
international Importance Especially as Water Fowl
Habitat.
• The Convention on Biological Diversity, and the
• Lusaka Agreement on Co-operative Enforcement
Operations
Directed at illegal trade in wild fauna and flora.
133
•
Implementing
agency
being not well equipped to
carry
out
the
law3
enforcement.
Appendix 11: SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ECOLOGICAL SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Identification:
Village:…………………………………..Chief:…………………………….
Head of Household:
Name:………………………………( ) M….( ) F………
Size of household:…………………………………………
A: SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY
1) Settlements
a)
How long have you lived in this area
( )
( )
( )
b)
Give reasons why you moved into this area
(
(
(
(
(
c)
Less than 20 years
Over 20 years
Less than 10 years
)
)
)
)
)
Native of the area
Farming
Livestock grazing
Fishing
Other (specify)
How do you characterize your homestead
( )
( )
Permanent
Temporary
2) Sources of income
a)
How do you classify yourself?
b)
( )
Employed
( )
Never employed
( )
Businessman
( )
Retired/retrenched
What are your main sources of income?
(
(
(
(
(
(
)
)
)
)
)
)
Agriculture
Hunting
Fishing
Charcoal production
Livestock
Trading
134
3) Agriculture
Are you engaged in any of the following:
(
(
(
(
(
(
)
)
)
)
)
)
Livestock in beef
Livestock in goat
Livestock in dairy
Livestock in poultry
Livestock in Pig
other(specify)__________________
Indicate crops which you cultivate
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
Maize
Millet
Sorghum
Cassava
Sweat potatoes
Groundnuts
Fruits
Other (specify)
c) In the last 12 months, have you lost livestock due to diseases
−
−
−
−
Cattle
Goats
Pigs
Chickens
If you are engaged in farming, what are the pressing issues:
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
Lack of fertilizers
Poor soil
Lack of land
Lack of markets
Low rainfall (drought)
Pests
No funds
Lack of equipment
Flooding
4) Water resources
a)
Indicate sources of drinking water
135
(
(
(
(
b)
)
)
)
)
Well
Stream
Bore hole
Other (specify)
Do you think there is enough water in your area for livestock
( )
( )
( )
Yes
No
Fair enough
5) Area Problems
What do you think are the main problems in your area:
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
Lack of land
Poor mads
Lack of health facilities
Floods
Lack of schools
No grazing area for livestock
Accessibility to water
Too many people
Other (specify)
6) Area Management Issues
a)
Are you satisfied with the current government policies on:
(
(
(
(
b)
Fishing
Wildlife
Water
Weed control
Are you aware of the functions of these institutions:
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
c)
)
)
)
)
Fisheries Department
Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA)
Veterinary Department
Environmental Council of Zambia (ECZ)
Water Affairs Department
Department of Agriculture
ZESCO
Who should be most concerned about the Kafue Flats
136
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
d)
Forestry
ZAWA
ZESCO
Fisheries
Every Zambian
Hunters
Fishers
Farmers
Are you benefiting from the management of the Kafue Flats
( )
( )
( )
Yes
No
Don't care
B: ECOLOGICAL SURVEY
1) Fisheries issues
a)
Are you engaged in fishing?
( )
( )
b)
If you are, do you do it for
( )
( )
c)
−
−
−
−
Yes
No
Commercial reasons
Subsistence reasons
What are the common fishing methods used
Nets
Poisoning
Baskets
Fishing traps
2) Forest and Woodlands issues
a)
If you have been cutting trees, which of the following apply
( )
( )
( )
Timber or poles for building
Charcoal
Clear land for agriculture
137
( )
( )
b)
Fire wood
Hand craft
Do you think cutting of trees is
( )
( )
( )
Increasing
Decreasing
Don't know
3) Wildlife Resources
a)
Do you hunt wild animals
( )
( )
b)
What are the common hunting methods in your area:
−
−
−
−
−
c)
Yes
No
Which of the following birds do you hunt
−
−
−
−
−
−
f)
Trophy and hides
Meat for sale
Meat for domestic consumption
Do you hunt birds?
( )
( )
e)
If you hunt, for what reasons do you do it? Guns
Snaring
Spear
Pit falls
Other (specify)
If you hunt, for what reason do you do it?
−
−
−
d)
Yes
No
Ducks
Geese
Storks
Guinea Furls
Francolins
Other (specify)
Do you think wildlife is declining in your area?
138
( )
( )
( )
g)
Give reasons if there is a decline
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
h)
Too much hunting
Too many people
Shortage of land
No protection
Don't know
Poor policy
Weak legislation
What do you think should be done?
−
−
−
i)
Yes
No
Not sure
Hunting birds should be stopped
Hunting animals should be stopped
Don't care
Do you think conservation of wildlife in the area:
(
(
(
(
)
)
)
)
Is adequate
Should be increased
Should not change
Don't know
139
Appendix 12a:
questionnaires
List of people interviewed during the socio-economic surveys using the
Name
Village
Chiefdom
Banji B
Banji D
Banji P
Banji. E
Bonds G
Chilala A
Chilema P
Chimimba F
Chimuka E
Chingezhi R
Chisha B
Chizyuka C
Chizyuka L
Haachombwa. C
Habangama K
Hachoombwa S
Hachoombwa A
Kasonkomona C
Banji village,
Banji village,
Hamchoombwa, village
Banji village,
Chitakataka, village
Namalyo, village
Chitakataka, village
Namalyo, village
Chigalula, village
Namalyo, village
Namalyo, village
Hamusonde, village
Moonga, village
Haachomba, village
Namalyo, village
Banji Village,
Banji, village
Banji, village
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Choongo
Hamusonde
Choongo
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamsonde
Hamsonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Habasonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamanjanji P
Hankuku G
Hibasimbi J
Kabamba P
Kabamba M
Kabanda G
Kabiya K
Kabwe D
KasalaL
Kasoma F
Kawisha A
Kawisha I
Liwanga P
Lubinda I
Machelo B
Machelo G
Manepelo V
Mapulanga M
Masumo L
Masumo P
Masumo. B
Masumo. E
Maunga M
Mbaadu M
Miyoba R
Molokeni K
Mubita G
Mufungulwa B
Mulambo
Mulima M
Musenge E
Namalyo, village
Chitakataka, village
Namalyo, village
Namalyo, village
Chitakataka, village
Chitakataka, village
Chitakataka, village
Likenga, village
Namalyo, village
Chitakataka, village
Chitakataka, village
Chitakataka, village
Chitakataka, village
Namalyo, village
Banji village,
Banji, village
Stali, village
Likenga, village
Masumo
Masumo, village
Masumo, village
Masumo, village
Banji, village
Chitakataka, village
Banji, village
Banji, village
Likenga, village
Namalyo, village
Namalyo, village
Likenga, village
Chitakataka, village
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Hamusonde
Choongo
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Choongo
Choongo
Choongo
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Choongo
Choongo
Choongo
Choongo
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Inyambo, Sesheke
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Choongo
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Choongo
140
Mweene G
Mwene C
Mwewa K
Ndiima B
Ngandu B
Ntimba A
Nyambe P
Pumulo R
Samboko L
Zulu H
Chitakataka, village
Banji, village
Chitakataka, village
Masumo, Village
Chitakataka, village
Namalyo, village
Namalyo, village
Chitakataka, village
Hamangaba, village
Chitakataka, village
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Chief:
Choongo
Hamusonde
Choongo
Hamusonde
Choongo
Hamusonde
Hamusonde
Choongo
Hamusonde
Choongo
Appendix 12b: People Interviewed and their Institutions
Name
Chudama M
Chansa W
Chongo (Chief)
Hamsonde, Chief
Kapokola P.
Mwiche K
Mwelwa E.
Nkandu B
Thaulo K G
Vlahakis S.
Organisation
WWF. International, Lusaka
Environmental Council of Zambia, Lusaka
Chongo Village, Chief Chongo
Hamsonde, Village, Chief Hamsonde,Monze
Naleza Camp, Blue Lagoon, Mumbwa
Environmental Council of Zambia, Lusaka
Zesco Limited, Lusaka
Environmental Council of Zambia, Lusaka
ZAWA, Lochinvar National Park
Lwenga, School, Monze
141
Appendix 13: Water Hyacinth Distribution in The 1990s
142
Appendix 14: Weevil Release Sites
143
Appendix 15: Proposed Weed Control Programme
Actions
General actions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Kafue road bridge
6.
1.
2.
Short term
Year 1
formation of Kafue weed committee
finalize the programme and evaluate the
impacts
buying of mechanical harvester
public information programme
beginning of biological control evaluation
and preparation of action plan
evaluate all nutrient sources into the system
mechanical
harvesting
followed
by
mechanical preventive maintenance
evaluation of ground water contribution of
nutrients in NCZ vicinity
Herbicides pilot field tests
local public information meetings
Kafue gorge
1.
2.
Covered strtches of
the river
1. finalize the evaluation of the superficies and
locations of obstructed stretches and
prioritize the order of intervention
1. recirculation of drainage ditches from
Nakambala estate in to the canal
2. evaluation of ground water contribution of
nutrients
3. impact assessment of Nakambala’s plan to
increase from 10,000 to 15,000 ha of
sugarcane and actual impact
Nakambala lagoon
Shore lines
1.
2.
3.
1.
Medium term
Years 2-3-4
reduce nutrient loads in the
river
continue public information,
particularly farmers on the
consequences of the use of
fertilizers
review efficiency of municipal
waste treatment plants
mechanical
or
chemical
preventive maintenance
1. spraying of herbicides
1. spraying of herbicides
1. overview
of
the
whole
Mazabuka area to ensure that
all the drainage water from the
fields is re-circulated as much
as possible
2. biological control pilot tests
1. mechanical
or
chemical
removing of weeds, followed by
preventive maintenance
144
Long term
Years 5+
1. Continue
monitoring
and
reduction of nutrient loading into
the system from all sources
2. Continue
public
information,
particularly all industries
1. integrated control and mechanical
preventive
maintenance
if
necessary
1. integrated control and mechanical
preventive
maintenance
if
necessary
1. integrated control and mechanical
preventive
maintenance
if
necessary
1. integrated control and mechanical
preventive
maintenance
if
necessary
1. integrated control and mechanical
preventive
maintenance
if
necessary