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Physiologieal Monitoring During the Bicycle Race Across America (RAAM) A Case Study. by Paulo Saldanha A Thesis Submitted to The Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Education) Department of Physical Education Division o f Graduate Studies and Research FacuIty of Education McGill University Montreal, Quebec, Canada O March, 2000 1+1 National Library dC-da Biblioîhèque nationale du Canada Acquisitions and Bibliographie Services Acquisitins et services bibliographiques 395 W.lington Street C)riawaON K1AON4 CMPde 3QS.rue WsYingîon ûüawaON K 1 A W Canada The author has granted a nonexclusive licence allowing the National Libmy of Canada to reproduce, loan, dismiute or seiî copies of this thesis in microfonn, paper or electronic formats. L'auteur a accordé une liçence non exclusive permettant à la Bi1,liothèque nationale du Canada de reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou vendre des copies de cette thèse sous la forme de microfiche/nlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement reproduits sans son autorisation. copyright in this thesis. Neither the thesis nor substantial extracts fkom it may be printed or othexwise reproduced without the author's permission. Table of Contents Page List of Tables ........................................................................ iv List of Figures........................................................................ v List o f Appendices.................................................................. vi Abstract............................................................................... vii ... Résumé ................................................................................v ~ i i Acknowledgements.................................................................. ix Chapter 1 - Introduction............................................................ 1 Nature and Scope of the Problem......................................... 2 Statement of the Problem.................................................. 3 . . . Limitations.................................................................. 3 . . . Delimitations................................................................ 4 Chapter II .Review of Literature.................................................. 5 Physiological Factors................................................. 5 Physical Characteristics of UE Athletes ........................ 5 Oxygen Consumption............................................. 5 Heart Rate........................................................... 7 Power Output....................................................... 9 Nutritional Factors.......................................................... 10 Energy intake .......................................................10 Energy Expenditure ................................................ 1 1 Energy Balance..................................................... 13 Page Fuels .................................................................. 15 Water Balance and Thermoregulation........................... 17 Electrolyte Balance................................................ 19 Chapter III .Methods ............................................................... 22 Selection of the Subject.................................................... 22 Laboratory Testing......................................................... 22 Physiological Monitoring During RAAM .............................. 25 .. Nutntional Analysis........................................................27 Chapter IV - Results ................................................................. 29 . . Descnptive Data............................................................ 29 Laboratory Cycling Test ................................................... 31 Performance Variables Dunng RAAM ..................................31 Physiological Variables Dunng RAAM ................................. 43 Nutritional Analysis ......................................................... 50 Chapter V - Discussion.............................................................. 56 V a m a x and Cycling Economy .......................................... 56 Power Output ............................................................... 58 Heart Rate ...................................................................60 Energy Intake and Expenditure........................................... 62 Fatness and Body Mass Changes.........................................64 Chapter VI - Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations..................... 66 summary.....................................................................66 Page Conclusions.................................................................. 70 Recommendations.......................................................... 70 References.......................... .................................................. 71 Appendices........................................................................... 77 List of Tables Table Title Page 1. Physical Charactenstics of Cyclists...................................... 6 2. Characteristics of the Subject............................................. 30 3. Laboratory Cycling Efficiency...........................................35 4. Aerobic Endurance Test................................................... 35 5. Velocity during each Segment of RAAM ..............................36 6. Cornparison of Subject with Group and Fastest Velocity ........ . . 38 7. Daily Cycling Activity during RAAM .................................. 46 8. Cycling and H.R.Intensity during RAAM ............................. -49 9. Daily Calorie Intake........................................................52 10. Daily Mineral Intake ...................................................... -53 11. Energy Intake (EI)vs Energy Expenditure (EE).......................54 List of Figures Figure Title Page 1 . PowerTap Hub Dynamometer and Compter ........................ 23 2. RAAM 1999 Route ...................................................... 26 3. Laboratot-y Test on R h W Bicycle................................... 33 4. Distance and Time On the Bike ........................................ 34 5. Power Output and Heart Rate in RAAM .............................. 45 6. Body Mass changes during RAAM.................................... 55 List of Appendices Appendix Title 1. Consent Fonn 2. Certificate of Ethical Acceptability Abstract The purpose was to describe the physiological response and nutritional consumption of one athlete cornpeting in the RAAM. The 1999 RAAM covered 4727 kilometers fkom Irvine, CA. to Savannah, GA. The subject was a 36 year-old male elite tnathlete with 12 years of training experience. VOzmax was 4.32 Wmin. Pnor to RAAM, cycling economy was measwed at 100 and 150 watts. During RAAM, the following measwements were continuously recorded: heart rate, power output, nutritional intake, and body m a s . Power output was recorded using a hub dynamometer (4 strain gauges, PowerTap). The subject completed RAAM in 10.1 days and spent 18.6 h/day cycling. Mean cycling values for power output, mechanical energy and heart rate were: 97 watts, 6676 kjoules and 99 b/min. Daily cycling energy expenditure was 7,946 + 1435 kcavday. Energy intake averaged 6,8 12 f 914 kcaUday with 67% CHO, 24% fat, and 9% protein. Body rnass decreased by 2.5 kg and percent fat decreased fiom 9.2% to 7.1%. vii Résumé Le but était de décrire la réponse physiologique et la consommation nutritive d'un athlète participant à RAAM. RAAM 1999 couvrait 4727 kilomètres, débutant d71ntine,CA. jusqu'à Savannah, GA. Le sujet était un homme de 36 ans, triathlète élite avec 12 années d'expériences d'entrainement. Avant RAAM, son VOzmax était de 4.32 Llmin et l'économie à pédaler a été mesurée à 100 et 150 watts. Tout au long de RAAM, ces mesures ont été continuellement enregistrées : w u e n c e cardiaque, puissance résultante, calories consommées et masse corporelle. La puissance résultante était enregistrée par l'utilisation d'un dynamomètre (PowerTap). Le sujet a complété RAAM en 10.1 jours et a pédalé 18.6 Idjour. La moyenne pour la puissance résultante, l'énergie mécanique et la fréquence cardiaque étaient : 97 watts, 6676 kjoules et 99 b h i n . Le coût journalier d'énergie était 7,946 & 1435 kcab'jour. En moyenne les calories consommées par jour + étaient 6'8 12 9 14 kcaVjour dont 67% glucides, 24% gras,et 9% protéines. La masse corporelle a diminuée de 2.5 kg et ie pourcentage de gras a passé de 9.2 à 7.1%. S . . Vlll Acknowledgements The Race Across Amenca began as an impossible drearn that brought wonder and doubt to everyone's imagination. Thanks first to my dad, for fiee thought which allowed me to understand that Iimits exist, and that life is really IN the process of exceeding them. Mom, if wonying were an Olympic event, you would be gold, thanks for caring. Rob Cote, my crew chief and fiend who showed devotion and calm beyond reason - thanks for those great breakfasts. Kip Sigworth and Jon McGavock, two graduate students who helped me with everything from writing this document to supporting me in training and during the race. Tuan Deduc for the healing hands on the wild roller coaster ride. Hugo Massee and ReneClaude Gelinas who kept me awake with vivid night-tirne stories and cared for me under great duress and pain! Ronald Robitaille who has the "teckie touch"and is as every bike mechanic should be - way to keep me with the rubber side down. My sponsors; Nike, Subaru, Performance bike shop, Oakley, PowerTap, Gatorade. Great thanks to the clients and fnends who believed in me and helped make the dream a reality by helping fùnd this project. The writing of this thesis would not have been remotely possible without the belief in me that David Montgomery had. David Montgomery has been a fnend and mentor. He has served as a shining example to me of what an exercise physiologist should be - applied. In an environment where research is often confined to ego based ivory towers, it is retieshing to see sorneone take a step outside. If 1 have a gift that has allowed me to complete RAAM, then David Montgomery has the sarne gift with his ability to keep me on the right course with this document. Chapter 1 Introduction The nuuiing boom of the seventies popularized Olympic events like marathons and began a fitness trend in America that has extended to many modalities. Greater public awareness and better media coverage have increased the level of popularity in endurance sports. In looking for new challenges, athletes fiom traditional sports like running have diversified to include longer forms of complementary endurance events. The success of Greg Lemond and Lance Armstrong in the Tour De France together with the birth and drama of endurance events like the Hawaii Ironman triathlon have helped to maintain the impetus for growth in these more extreme sports. Newly coined "UltraEndurance" (UE) events can be divided into single and multiple stages. Single day events range fkom 5 to 24 hours coverïng cycling distances of 200 to 600 km, running from 50 to 240 km, swimming 10 to 100 km, and triathlons with 4 km swimrning, 180 km cycling, and 42 km ruming. Multiple stage competitions such as the Tour De France (4000 km in 22 days), "Deca-Iroman" (40 km swim, 1800 km bike, 420 km run in 9-12 days), Sydney to Melbourne ultramarathon run (1005 km in 8.5 days) and the Race Across America (RAAM) ultramarathon cycling (5000 km in 8- 12 days) have become annual competitions (Shermer, 1993; Kreider, 1991). UE competitions offer exceptional psychological and physiological challenges to athletes. Extending cornpetition periods fiom several hours to many days necessitates significant preparation due to the stress on the body systems. The impact of extreme exhaustion and sleep deprivation on the cardiovascular, muscular and nervous systems have not been extensively studied. Also, the nutritional strategy and its impact on digestion and renal fiinction are important aspects of UE competition. Traditional endurance research has focused on events of 3-8 hours, and surprisingly few investigations have examined the physiological aspects of multiple day UE athletes. Cyclists competing in multiday events like the RAAM, must deal with fatigue that is outside the realm of more accepted UE events. Nature and Scope of the Problem The RAAM is a non-stop UE cycling competition that has existed since 1982. Although a slightly different route is used each year, generally the event covers 5000 kilometers, fiom the West to east coast. Cornpetitors race each other in time tria1 format across the United States through different time stations (Shermer, 1993). The non-stop nature of RAAM dictates that al1 riders determine their own work to rest ratio, usually resulting in sleep deprivation. Also, the cut-off time limit irnposed on riders ensures a somewhat challenging pace. The 18L version of RAAM started on July 22nd,1999 from Irvine, CA. and finished in Savannah, GA., a distance of 4727 km. Each RAAM cornpetitor is followed throughout the race by a team or "support crew". Support crews consist of a minimum of 2 vehicles and 6 personnel including; dnvers, massage therapist, physiotherapist, mechanic, medical support and crew chief. The crew navigates the course for the rider and tends to hisher needs (i.e. nutritional, medical, mechanical, and psychological). This project required a significant budget and meticulous planning. In RAAM, novice riders typically cycle 18-20 hours per day. More expenenced racers average 22 hours per day for 8-9 days (Shermer, 1993). The 1986 wimer of RAAM slept 11.5 hours in 8 days 9 hours and 47 minutes (Ice et al., 1988). The challenge of covering significant distances, with little or no recovery, over varied terrain and divergent environmental conditions creates physiological stresses that are of interest to investigators. The nature of this cornpetition provides researchers with an opportunity to examine physiological responses of ultraendurance athletes. Statement of the Problem The purposes of this investigation were: (1) to describe the response (H.R. and power output) of one athlete competing in the 1999 RAAM, (2) to examine the relationship between heart rate and power output throughout RAAM, and (3) to quanti@ the daily energy intake and energy expenditure. This study will examine the following hypotheses during the RPLAM event: 1. H.R. will decrease over the course of the race. 2. Power output will decrease over the course of the race. 3. H.R. will be significantly correlated with power output. 4. Energy expenditure will exceed energy intake. 5. There will be significant decrease in body mass and fat m a s . Limitations 1. Varying environmental conditions (i.e. heat, humidity and altitude) may affect some measurements. 2. There will be day-to-day variability in H.R.that is umelated to the many physiological challenges (sleep deprivation, heat, hurnidity and altitude). 3. KR., may be lowered during the RAAM and affect the estimation of relative cycling intensity. 4. The estimation of cycling intensity and efficiency fiom cornparisons to laboratory tests has limitations. Delimitatioas 1. Using a single case design has little statistical power and does not permit extrapolation or the identification of trends with any degree of certainty. Chapter II Review of Literature Preparation for a complex race like the RAAM involves the successfÙ1 management of many variables. Competitors must have a performance mode1 that encompasses attributes and conditions necessary for successful completion. This review describes physiological and nutritional variables associated with performance in ultraendurance (UE) competitions. Physiological Factors Physical Characteristics of UE athletes Kreider (1991) demonstrated that UE athletes have similar physical charactenstics to endurance athletes in sports like swimming, running and cycling. Table 1 compares the physical characteristics of cyclists. There is limited research on multi-day UE cycling. FUMM riders tend to be older, perhaps due to the extreme endurance nature of the event. Many years of cycling training and experience are needed to complete an event such as RAAM. RAAM riders have similar physical characteristics to traditional endurance cyclists. Oxygen Consumption ( V 0 3 RAAM stresses the cardiorespiratory system by requinng a continuous energy demand and steady oxygen utilization over many days. The VOzmaxvalue for the 1984 RAAM male wimer was 79.6 mbkg-'amin" (Ice et al., 1988). The mean V0,max for 4 RAAM team rnembers competing in the 1998 race was 71.5 mlakg-'amin*'. Table 1 Physical charactenstics of cyclists. Cyclist(s) Track Junior Senior Elite Pro Pro RGAM RAAM n Sex 5 103 75 M 25 25 TeamRAAM 8 1 1 4 M M M M M M M M Age Ht. Wt. Fat VOzmax (yrs) (cm) (kg) (%) (ml-W1-min-') 22 16 21 23 25 26 39 43 27 Reference (Pyke et al., 1988) (Van Handel et al., 1988) (Van Handel et al.. 1988) (Lucia et al., 1998) (Lucia et al., 1998) (Lucia et al., 1999) (Lindeman, 1988) (Icc et al., 1988) (Laursen & Rhodes. 1999) RAAM is an ultra long distance event wliere V0,max values may be less important than factors such as cycling economy, nubitional balance, fluid balance, and the ability to tolerate sleep deprivation. It is cornmon knowledge that the relationship between duration and intensity of exercise is an inverse one. The sliding scale of intensity extends to UE athletes as they push the duration envelope. The percentage of V0,max that can be maintained varies so much that it is difficult to estabiish guidelines on exercise intensity. Davies and Thompson (1986) asked ultramarathon athletes to run for 4 hours on a treadmill. The runners maintained an intensity equivalent to 67-73% of V0,max. Using the non-protein R, it was estimated that the energy was detived fiom 63% fat and 37% CHO. In another study, Davies and Thompson (1975) assessed the aerobic performance of elite male ultraendurance r u m e n performing 5 km, 42.2 km and 84.6 km races. Results revealed that these athletes maintained 93.5% ofV02maxduring the 5 km run, 88.7% during the 42.2 km nui and 67.1% during the 84.6 km event. The more cornpetitive nature of professional cycling in the Tour de France shows a range of intensity between 68% to 85% of VO,max, with the occasional need to p e ~ o r mmaximally (Saris et al., 1989). In laboratory conditions, O'Toole et al. (1987) reported that UE ûiathletes maintain 51% of V0,max dunng 8 hours of continuous cycling and ninning. White et al. (1984) had one cyclist perform a 24-hour time trial in the laboratory with an average intensity of 55% of V02rnax(equivalent to 38.5 mlokg-'amin-'). Fellmann et al. (1999) had 9 healthy sportsmen run,bike and cross country ski for 7 consecutive days over 620 kilometers. Exercise intensity ranged between 49.0% and 57.8% of maximal oxygen consumption. Although oxygen consumption has not been measured dunng RAAM, it is likely that decreases in VO, accompany the incremental detenoration seen in velocity and HR (Cahalin et al., 1990; Ice et al., 1988; Lindeman, 1991). During the RAAM event, Ice et al. (1988) reported a decrease in velocity fiom an average 29.9 k m h on day 1 to a low of 24.5 kmfhr on day 8. Heart Rate Recently, HR measurements have been used extensively with cyclists in both laboratory and field conditions (Lucia et al., 1999). Lucia et al. (1999) examined the heart rate response of 8 professional cyclists in the 1998 Tour de France. Investigators found that out of 102 hours of racing in 23 days, riders spent 7 1% of the race in the aerobic zone (rnean H-RS 142 bpm), 23% in the lactic acid accumulation zone (mean H.R.between 142 and 168 bpm) and 7% in the anaerobic zone (mean H.R. > 168 bpm). The 1998 Tour 6 de France had 22 stages where the mean time per stage was 288 minutes and the average vetocity was 40.2 km/hr (Lucia et al., 1999). The non-continuous nature of the Tour de France allows riders to recover with evening meals, massage and a full nights sleep. The continuous nature of RAAM, coupled with sleep deprivation and exhaustion imposes serious challenges to UE cyclists (Shermer, 1993). Measunng the H.R. response during RAAM may help to quanti& exercise intensity. Cahalin et al. (1990) used HR telemetry with computer anaiysis to record and examine changes over 9 days for 2 riders in the 1989 RAAM cornpetition. One of the riders was the winner of the race. Analysis revealed a 24% decrease in exercise HR after day 2 of RAAM. The decreases in HR did not directly coincide with the decrease in velocity. Maximal bicycle ergometry exercise tests performed immediately after RAAM revealed (1) an 11.5% decrease in H.R.max, (2) a 24.5% reduction in maximal workload, (3) a 5 minute decrease in time to exhaustion, and (4) lower heart rates during each workload compared to pre RAAM tests. Regression analysis of workload and H.R. revealed different regression lines for before - and after exercise tests of each athlete. The authors stated that it was unlikely that fatigue alone produced the reductions in exercise H.R. and speculated that the decrease in exercise H.R.may be due to sleep depnvation that may have increased parasympathetic activity. It is well established that sleep deprivation affects mental pefiorrnance, although its effects on physical performance are equivocal (Van Helder and Radomski, 1989). Hill et. al. (1994) concluded that 25-30 hours of sleep depnvation resulted in no changes in the contributions of aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to high intensity exercise. Van Helder and Radomski (1989) concluded that sleep deprivation of 30 to 72 hours does not affect cardiovascular and respiratory responses to exercise of varying intensity. Time to exhaustion is however, decreased by sleep deprivation. Cardiorespiratory fùnctions have been studied in subjects exercising 1 hour out of every 3 hours during 64 hours of sleep deprivation (Plyley et al., 1987). Exercise consisted of treadmill walking at 28% of V02max. Sleep deprivation significantly decreased VOZmax by 3.8 ml.kg"emin-' in both exercise and sedentary conditions. H.R.max was significantly lower after sleep deprivation in the exercise trial, but remained similar to the pre-sleep deprivation value during the sedentary trial. Significant increases in plasma volume were reported in both the exercise and sedentary trials. The relationship between H.R. and exercise intensity is susceptible to change. Coyle (1995b)determined that an increase in HR of 8 bpm occurs for every 0.3"C increase in core temperature. Exercise in both a hot environment and a dehydrated state increased cardiac drift. When subjects exercised at 6247% of V0,max in the heat, H.R increased 40 bpm after 100 minutes when no fluid was ingested (Montain and Coyle, 1992). Fluid ingestion helped to restnct the increase in H.R. but it still increased by 13 bpm. Although dehydration increases cardiovascular drift, hyperhydration or euhydration may not prevent cardiovascular drift (Montain and Coyle, 1992). Power Output Cycling requires the transmission of energy fiom the rider to the bicycle. The pressure applied to the pedals and drive cranks is a funçtion of muscular work (watts) and used to estimate energy expenditure. Recently, the ability to measure power output has been facilitated by the introduction of bicycle rnounted dynamometers (Bassett, 1999; Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998). The velocity of a cyclist is sometimes more impacted by environmental conditions than by power output. The velocity of a cyclist is Ofien impacted by extemal factors including: environmental conditions, body position and rolling resistance. Strain gauge technology allows researchers to accurately quanti@ power production and determine exercise intensity independent of extemal conditions. The sport of bicycle racing encompasses road racing, critenums and time trials. Road racers usually travel longer point-to-point distances encountenng hills and wind with power output varying with conditions (Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998; Lucia, 1999). In bike stage racing, power output may range fiom O watts when coasting to over 1000 watts when sprinting (Jeukendrup and Van Diemen 1998). In contrast, RAAM is an individual event with no drafiing, lower power outputs, and less variability in the power output. Nutritional Factors Energy Intake Energy intake (EI) is an important component of any UE performance plan. Through daily record keeping and food weighing, research has demonstrated that UE athletes consume large amounts of calories both in training and cornpetition (Peters and Goetzche, 1997; Brouns et al., 1989; Jansen et al., 1989; Van Erp-Baart et al., 1989; Saris et al., 1989). Exogenous sources of CHO dominate these diets and heip maintain euglycemia during competitions. During a 100 km run, Fallon et al. (1998) estimated the breakdown of (EI) at 88% CHO, 5% fat and 7% protein. Saris et al. (1989) used food intake diaries to estimate EI in 5 elite cyclists dunng the 22 day Tour de France cornpetition. Subjects had a peak EI of 7714 kca1.d-', a mean of 5881 kcal.dd', and a low (rest day) of 3833 kca1.d-'. The relative contribution of calories was 61% CHO, 23% fat and 15% protein. Brouns et al. (1989) recorded food and fluid intake in 13 highly trained cyclists during two exhaustive bouts of cycling. The riders consumed between 6143 and 6691 kca1.d-' depending upon the type of CHO diet. Two case studies have measured EI in riders during the RAAM event (Ice et al., 1988; Lindeman, 1991 ). Ice et al. (1 988) using daily food records, reported an average EI of 7965 kca1.d-' during 8 days and 9 hours of cycling. Energy in the fonn of liquids accounted for 79.7% of total calories with the major source being "UltraEnergyffliquid. This drink consisted of 83% CHO, 13% protein and 3% fat. Lindeman (1 99 1) determined daily EI of a RAAM nder under 3 cycling conditions: training, racing 24 hours and RAAM. Using daily food records, she found an EI of 8429 kca1.d-' over the course of 1 1 days of RAAM. The energy was derived fiom 78% CHO, 13% protein and 9% fat. Energy Expenditure Researchen have quantified energy expenditure (EE) using respiratory chambers, metabolic gas analysis and prediction equations. Methodological dificulties associated with these measurements have limited investigations of EE in the field. Researchers have estimated EE by measuring EI, body m a s , basal metabolic rate (BMR), body composition, fluid losses, weight loss as well as intensity and duration of the exercise. The most popular distances covered by ultramarathon mnners are between 50 and 200 km (4 to 36 hours). Although the distances covered in ultramarathon cycling are greater (due to greater speeds), the duration of cornpetition is similar enough for cornparison with the energy costs of m i n g . In a field study of UE runners, Davies and Thompson (1975) used a gas analyzer to estimate EE. Runners required an average of 5 106 kca1.d-' or 14.3 kcalmmin-' in an 85 km event. In a laboratory study, 10 experienced male UE runners performed a treadmill nui at their highest possible intensity for 4 hours (Davies and Thompson, 1986). The energy cost deterrnined from ventilatory masures was 3378 kcal in 4 hours. The Tour de France is a 22-day, 4000 km cycling event that can provide researchers with important insights into the energy costs of elite male riders. The variability of intensity, duration, terrain and race tactics in this event presents some measurement problems in quantiQing EE. Saris et al. (1989) estimated EE fiom sleeping tirne, resting activity and detailed exercise logs of 4 cyclists. The mean daily EE was 6068 kcal and ranged fiom 3082 to 78 12 kcal. In a Tour de France simulation study (Brouns et al., 1989), 13 highly trained male cyclists spent 7 days in a respiratory chamber and performed 2 exhaustive bouts of exercise on consecutive days. Researchers accounted for nitrogen losses in urine and sweat to estimate the contribution of energy nom protein. Indirect calorimetry (Q, VCO,, RER) provided an estimate of the energy contribution from carbohydrates and fats. Power output measurements coupled with indirect calorimetry enabled the researchen to estimate the mean EE at 6286 kca1.d-'. Westerterp et al. (1 986) used doubIy labeled water to measure energy expenditure in professional cyclists competing in the Tour de France. They estimated a mean expenditure of 7024 kcaladay-'. ln laboratory conditions, White et al. (1984) examined EE in a 24-hour cycling time trial. The rider completed 694 km in the 24-hour period with EE estirnated at 19,780 kca1.d-'. In a review article on UE performance, Kreider (1 99 1) described the energy demands of RAAM nders as similar to 24-hour UE cyclists. However, the nature of RAAM necessitates lower intensities and lowers energy expenditure over 8 - 12 days. Studies on EE in RAAM have not been done due the difficulty of measuring EE. Energy Balance The longer the duration of endurance competitions, the more important it becomes to maintain energy balance. This is particularly tme of UE athletes since they expend large amounts of calories in training and racing. It is clear that EE and EI are related and dependent on the duration and intensity of exercise. Any nutntional strategies in UE competitions should account for the race distance, anticipated intensity, and work to rest ratio. Brouns et al. (1989) determined that athletes on a normal CHO diet did not restore glycogen sufficiently within 24 hours following 2 days of exhaustive cycling. These cyclists remained in negative caloric balance for both exercise days and only reached positive caloric balance on the following rest days. Unlike the normal CHO diet, the consumption of maltodextrin facilitated giycogen supercompensation, improved performance and restored muscle glycogen to normal levels within 24 hours. Negative energy balance is sometimes reported in UE athletes. This phenomenon may be caused by several factors. Firstly, when caloric consumption is high, the maximal rate of absorption in the digestive system may be reached. Secondly, appetite suppression (Le. nausea) during UE activity may occur. Lastly, difficulties associated with refueling complex carbohydrates and the ability to replenish liver and muscle glycogen stores also play a role (Kreider, 1991). Oxidative metabolism of CHO stores seems to be the pnmary fùel in UE exercise. The range of intensities (90 to 50% of V0,max) for 4 to 740 hours results in a range in EE fiom 5000 to almost 20,000 kcalod-' (Kreider, 1991). Negative energy balance is reported in UE athletes, causing increased reliance on fat and protein oxidation in place of diminishing CHO stores. In an attempt to maintain energy balance, improve performance, and prevent lean tissue degradation, Kreider (1 99 1) recomends UE athletes consume between 4-6 kcalokg-'ah". Calories are absorbed faster when consumed in Iiquid form (Coyle, 1995b). Field studies in the Tour de France have demonstrated that nders consume 30% of their daily EI in the form of Iiquid CHO (Brouns et al., 1989). A maltodextrin CHO solution is recommended to promote energy balance (Brouns et al. 1989). in a laboratory case study of one UE cyclist, White et al. (1984) found that during a 24-hour time trial the subject consumed 54% of calories in liquid or semi-liquid form. Ice et al. (1988) reported that the 1986 RAAM winner consumed 79.7% of his calories in liquid form. Lindeman (199 1) detennined a similar value (78%) in an average RAAM rider. Coyle (1995b) suggested athletes consume 30 - 60 g of CHO per hour in 600 1200 ml of water resulting in a 4 - 8% CHO solution. Saris et al. (1989) estimated that 12 - 13 g of CHO per kg of body mass is needed when energy expenditure is high. Clark et al. (1992) recommended I .O - 1.5 g of CHO per kg.hfl during high intensity exercise. Kreider (1991) suggested that the upper limit of CHO oxidation from exogenous sources is between 0.2 and 0.6 pkg-'amin-'. This translates into 15 - 50 g/hour or 60 - 200 kcabhour-'. Kreider (1 99 1) lists calonc requirements during UE competitions ranging nom 200 to 600 kca1.h-' depending on individual body mass and intensity of competition. Ironman triathletes consume 1 - 2 L.hr-' of 5 - 10% CHO solutions (Applegate, 1989). Fuels Humans use two main sources of fUei during UE competitions, (1) carbohydrate (CHO) stored as glycogen in the muscles and liver, and (2) fats stored as adipose and intramuscular triglycerides (Coyle, 1995a). It has been well established that the sparing of muscle glycogen can prolong time to exhaustion (Costill et al., 1977). In RAAM however, it is questionable whether athletes ever reach glycogen depleted stages due to the combination of constant feeding and lower intensities that promote fat oxidation. Recently, endurance athletes have experimented with diets higher in fat, claiming that they may help to promote fatty acid metabolism (Coyle, 1995a). As exercise intensity increases fiom 25 - 65% of V02max, there is a decrease in the mobilization of fatty acids fiom adipose tissue into the blood resulting in increased reliance on intramuscular triglycerides. Kreider (1991) points out that the major source of energy when exercising at intensities between 30 - 50% of V02max is fat. Research has shown that CHO consumption inhibits lipolysis via an increase in plasma insulin, but this-trend does not appear to continue throughout UE exercise. Coyle (1995a) points out that the suppression of fat oxidation only lasts 50 minutes and afler 100 minutes the rate of fat oxidation is constant. Phinney et al. (1983) had trained men consume a low carbohydrate and high fat diet (C20 gad-' of CHO) for over 4 weeks. They found that glycogen stores were reduced by half, while the rate of fat oxidation during exercise at 62 - 64% of V02maxwas markedly increased. If fat utilization during UE competitions can be increased, the athlete may spare muscle and liver glycogen stores and presumably increase time to exhaustion. Phinney et al. (1983) found that endurance trained men did not increase time to exhaustion even though fat oxidation increased with a higher fat diet and glycogen stores were only half full. There is some evidence of a reliance on protein as a third source of fuel in UE competitions. Kreider (199 1) and Brouns et al. (1989) have demonstrated marked catabolism, transport and utilization of protein during UE races. This apparently occurs despite calonc refueling since there is negative d o n c balance. Irving et al. (1990) reported increases in C-reactive protein concentration, senun uric acid content and plasma creatinine concentration suggesting muscular damage during competition. Brouns et al. (1989) f o n d increases in protein metabolism as measured by ammonia and urea in whole blood and plasma. The possible reliance on gluconeogenesis via a protein source illustrates the importance of maintaining caloric balance and consuming adequate protein during UE competitions. Lemon (1987) detemined protein requirements at 1.5 to 2.0 gokg-'od-' during hard physical work. Saris et al. (1989) found that professional Tour de France cyclists required up to 2.5 g*kg-'.d-'. Two studies have examined protein intake of RAAM participants. Lindeman (1 99 1) estimateci that the protein intake exceeded 1.4 g*kg-'.d-* for one RAAM rider. Ice et al. (1988) determined the protein intake to be 16.7 kcabkg-'*dW'. Water Balance and Thermoregulation Besides replenishing glycogen stores, liquid CHO solutions are better absorbed and have the secondary benefit of hydration. UE athletes must pay close attention to water losses and water gains if water balance is to be maintained. Dehydration can cause hyperthermia and increase core temperature, thereby decreasing UE performance. During prolonged exercise there is competition for blood flow between the working muscles and the periphery. The increased heat production fiom muscular contractions can alter cardiac output by decreasing central blood volume and reducing venous return, diastolic filling and stroke volume, tnggering an increase in HR to maintain the cardiac output (Sawka and PandoIf, 1990). In accordance with the Fick principle, if cardiac output increases, unless the arteriovenous O2difference decreases, the VO, must aIso increase (Kreider, 199 1;Davies and Thompson, 1986). Cyclists may be somewhat less susceptible to hyperthermia because the increased wind resistance allows a greater thermal gradient between skin and core. Considering the duration and environmental challenges imposed on RAAM athletes, it is wise to maintain fluid intake throughout cornpetition. There has been no thennoregulatory research in RAAM. It is generally accepted that an increase in HR at submaximal workloads (CV drift) occurs during prolonged exercise. Cahalin et al. (1990) however, reported acute decreases in HR afier day 2 of the RAAM event. It is possi'ole that CV drift occurs initially, but that the progressive exhaustion exacerbated by sleep deprivation with neural and muscular fatigue rnay ovemde any thermoregulatory mechanisrns. These changes in RAAM suggest that athletes may experience central motor fatigue, changes in hormonal regulation or some other type of alteration to the traditionally observed control mechanisms. In an UE triathlon lasting 10.34 f 0.90 hours, Rogers et al. (1997) examined water balance in 13 highly trained males. Investigators calculated water loss at 1069 gahr' fkom sweat rate (940 t 163 gahr-'), urine output (41 t 33 phr-') and respiratory water loss (88 + 10 g0h.r-'). Total water gain was 940 f 160 g.hr-'and included water intake (737 f 137 g.hfl), water content of food (10 t 7 gehr-'), estimations of water released nom metabolism of CHO and fat (49 + 5 g4r-', 41 + 5 g.M1)and water released from glycogen utilization (104 f 64 g~hr-').it is clear that water gain and water loss c m balance when we consider the endogenous sources of water gain. These gains occur even following decreases in body mass (69.87kg to 66.65 kg). Rogers et al. (1997)did not perfonn body composition measurements on the triathletes. It is interesting to note that for a 4% reduction in body mass, there was only a 1.9% difference in water gain and water loss. In a 100 km UE m i n g cornpetition, Fallon et al. (1998)found mean sweat rates of 0.86 L h in 7 trained male participants over 10 hours. When competing in UE races with higher ambient temperatures, athletes can lose between 8 and 13% of total body water (Kreider, 1991). In general, fluid losses via prolonged exercise in the heat range between 1.O and 2.5 Lohr-' (Hiller, 1989; Sawka and Pandolf, 1990). Kreider (1 991) recommends the consurnption of 100 - 200 ml of fluid every 5 - 10 minutes throughout cornpetition. Saris et al. (1989)found an average daily water consumption of 6.7 + 2.0 L in professional Tour de France riders. Sweat rates of RAAM riders have not been directly measured, however Lindeman (1 991) reponed a fluid intake of 15.7Wday over 10 days. This rider cycled for 22 hours pet day, which translates into a lower than expected value of 700 mVhr. This is perhaps due to the lower intensity and continuous nature of RAAM and the greater opportunity for convective cooling with cycling. Also, when riding 22 hours per day, riden may encounter favorable environmental conditions for optimal heat loss. Electrolyte Balance In as much as it is important for UE athletes to replace fluids and calories, it is equally important to include electrolyte supplementation. UE athletes are most susceptible to electrolyte imbalances due to prolonged sweating (Noakes et al., 1990). The losses in fluids are accompanied by losses in sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphate, zinc and magpesiun (Maughan, 1988; Kreider, 1991; O'Toole et al., 1995). if only water is used as a hydration strategy, besides the obvious lack of calories, it may blunt the thirst mechankm and stimulate urine output, thus promoting dehydration (Gatorade Sports Science Exchange, 1996). Therefore, maintaining the osmotic drive for drinking is optimized via rehydration with electrolytes, in particular sodium (Noakes et al., 1990). Newmark et al. (1991) measured fluid and electrolyte replacement in trained UE runners dwing 100 and 160 km competitions. They determined that in order to maintain normal blood electrolyte levels, the replacement of sodium at 20 rn~qmhr-'and potassium at 8 mEq.hr-' (in 1 liter of solution) was required. Many comrnercialized fluid replacement drinks supplement with electrolytes. Research has demonstrated that electrolyte deficits tend to occur more often in hot environments particularly in UE competitions longer than 6 hours (Hiller, 1989; Noakes et al, 1990; Holtzhausen et al., 1994). The plasma dilution of sodium known as hyponatremia or water toxicity is clinically defined as serum sodium levels c 130 - 135 rnEqaL-' (Noakes et al., 1990; Hiller, 1989). Hyperhydration can become a problem if UE athletes consume very large arnounts of fluids with low sodium chlonde content (1 12 mmolmL") over prolonged periods (Noakes et al., 1990). A maximum of 500 - 800 m~.hr-'(4 - 8% CHO solution) has been recornmended in a recent UE triathlon (Noakes et al., 1990). The incidence of hyponatrernia arnong UE athletes is extremely low and was only evident in 9% of collapsed UE runners, and in 0.07 - 1.5% of UE m e r s and triathletes (Noakes et al., 1990). Hiller (1989) recommends an intake of 1 gram of sodium per hour to prevent hyponatremia Low senun potassium levels (hypokalemia) are even more rare, but have also occurred in UE cornpetitors (Farber et al., 1987). Considering that RAAM is long enough for significant water and electrolyte losses, electrolyte replacement may be warranted. Lindeman (1 99 1) recorded sodium and potassium intakes dunng RAAM and found averages of I l and 7 g/day, respectively. This may initially appear low, but was probably sufficient in this study due to several findings: The lower overall intensity of RAAM, the reduced potential for dehydration due to night-riding at lower temperatures, the convective heat loss properties of cycling, and the relatively stable body mass of the rider throughout the race. Cbapter III Methods Selection of the Subject Due to the extreme nature of the RAAM event, subject recruitment is difficult. Methodological issues become problematic when scattered athletes travel such long distances under adverse conditions. For this reason a single subject design was used. The subject was a 36-year old male, former elite triathlete with 12 years of training experience. The subject completed a medical examination pnor to physiological assessment. Testing was performed in the laboratory and data were collected dunng RAAM. The subject signed an informed consent fonn pnor to any testing (Appendix 1). Ethics approval for this study was obtained fiom the Faculty of Education ethics review committee (Appendix 2). Laboratory Testing Prior to baseline laboratory evaluations, the athlete read and signed a consent f o m , which included a description of the study and testing procedures. The baseline testing was performed at the Seagrarn Sports Science Center, two weeks pnor to the RAAM event. The subject had rested for this test with no exercise in the previous 24 hours. Baseline testing consisted of body composition measurements, a cycling economy test and a V0,max test. Figure 1 PowerTav Hub Dvnamometer and Computer Body fat was calculated with the Durnin-Womersey equation using 5 skinfolds: biceps, triceps, subscapular, iliac crest, and medial calf (Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, 1996). Cycling economy was rneasured using the same bicycle for the RAAM competition. Gas measurements (V, V02, VCO,, and R) at maxima1 and submaximal workloads were averaged every 20s using the SensorMedics 2900 metabolic cart (SensorMedics Corp., Yorba Linda, Ca.). The subject's racing bicycle was mounted on a magnetically braked and calibrated load generator (CompuTrainer, RacerMate Inc., Seattle). The PowerTap hub dynamometer was used in the laboratory and during RAAM to measure power output. The PowerTap strain gauge hub and receiver are illustrated in Figure 1. Two 6-minute cycling economy tests were performed. Steady state data were collected for the 1 s t 3-minutes at power outputs of 100 and 150 watts. During the economy test, the rider attempted to simulate his normal race veiocity of 30 km/hr, resulting in a cadence of 85 - 95 rpm. Expired air samples were collected throughout the test. Heart rate (HR) was recorded every 5-seconds during the submaximal and maximal protocols using a Vantage XL HR monitor (Polar Electro Inc., Finland). The HR and V O values obtained during baseline testing are compared to the data measured during the RAAM event. After completion of the two cycling economy tests, the subject continued using an incrernental protocol with 50 watt stages every 3-minutes until volitional exhaustion. A handlebar mounted computer unit controlled the resistance (watts) and monitored the speed (krnhr) of the cyclist. The subject was permitted to self-select gears, but had to maintain a speed of 30 kmlhr in order to simulate race Pace and cadence. Once the subject could no longer maintain the given speed, he was verbally encouraged and asked to stand to maintain the speed. The test was terminated when the rider could no longer maintain 25 km/hr for a period of 2 5 seconds. The protocol for the cycling economy and V02rnax test wax Stage Duratioo (min) Power Output (watts) 1 0-6 1O0 2 6- 12 150 3 12- 15 200 4 15-18 250 5 18-21 300 6 21-24 350 Physiological Monitoring during RAAM The race began in Irvine, California and ended in Savannah, Georgia, a distance of 4727 kilometers. The RAAM course is illustrated in Figure 2. The subject was supported with three vehicles and 8 crew. The crew included 2 physicians, 2 graduate students responsible for data collection, 1 massage therapist, 1 bicycle mechanic and 2 navigators, one of which was also designated as the crew chief. Heart rate (HR) was recorded continuously and averaged every minute using a Vantage XL HR monitor (Polar Electro Inc., Finland). The H.R. data when cycling were downloaded to an iBM laptop cornputer. The mean H.R. was reported for each day of RAAM. The subject used two carbon fiber (Trek, mode1 OCLV) bicycles with Shimano components. Both bicycles were identical. Each 50 cm bicycle weighed 8.6 kg and was equipped with an 18-speed Shimano drivetrain including 53/39 fiont chainrings and 12 - 23 rear cogset. "Rolf" Pro aerodynamic wheels (700 cm) were used with inflation pressures kept at 100 - 120 psi. The fiont chain-rings had 53 and 39 teeth. Dunng RAAM, the complete range of gears was used. The subject used a 53x12 gear when cycling with a 30 k m h tailwind in the Mojave desert of California. In contrast, the subject used a 39x23 gear when climbing in the Roclcy Mountains oPColorado. During the first day of RAAM, the subject cycled at a cadence of 75-85 rpm using 53x 16,53x 17 and 53x19 gears. As the subject fatigued, cadence decreased to 60 - 65 rpm over the last nine days of RAAM and used 53x15,53~16and 53x17 gears. Power output during RAAM was measured continuously using strain gauge technology at the hub of the rear wheel (PowerTap). Four strain gauges received torque data fkom the cog and transrnitted it to a receiver mounted on the handlebar. The power output was displayed and recorded in watts. In addition, mechanical energy was calculated in kilojoules and cadence recorded in rpm. Nutritional Analysis The support crew recorded food quantities with a scale (grarns) and by using food labels. A record was kept of al1 liquid and solid food intake throughout RAAM. A typical nutritional entry listed the type of food, quantity and unit of measurement as well as the time of day (E.S.T.). P i o r to the start of RAAM, water bottles and shoulder mounted hydration systems (Camelbak) were marked to facilitate the calculation of fluid volume. The fluid containers held between 500 mL to 2 L of liquid. When fluid containers were given to or received from the competitor, the volume consurned was recorded. The support crew responded to the cornpetitor's requests for fluids with the following beverages always - available water, Gatorade, soda pop (Coke, Mountain Dew, and Dr. Pepper), liquid meal replacement (Ensure), shakes and fhit smoothies. Intravenous dextrose and electrolyte units (250 rnL and 1 L bags) were also available in the support vehicle. A physician adrninistered intravenous infusions when necessary. The administration of intravenous units was recorded in the food log book. Caloric intake was calculated by measuring solid and liquid food and entering the weight or volume into the Genesiso R&D (Version 6.2) software for WindowsO 95. This software package includes a database with over 22,000 food items. The program calculated total kilocalories and provided a breakdown of the contributions from CHO, fat and protein. The program analyzed micronutnents for the following minerals: sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride and iron. The nude body mass of the subject was recorded pnor to RAAM on the moming of the race. Skinfold measurements were also taken. Dunng RAAM, body mass was recorded daily with the subject wearing wet cycling clothes including helmet, shoes and a 2-way radio. Body composition and nude body weight were measured on the day after completion of RAAM. Chapter IV The purpose of this study was to describe the physiological response of one athiete cornpeting in the 1999 RAAM. One month pnor to RAAM the subject performed cycling economy and V02max tests in the laboratory. During RAAM, velocity was recorded for each of the 63 segments and compared to the mcan performance for the 19 cyclists and the fastest performance. Data fiom the PowerTap were used to estimate daily energy expenditure. Daily calorie intake was recorded fiom the nutritional dietary analysis using the Genesis software package. A cornparison was made of the energy intake versus the energy expenditure. Descriptive Data The subject for this study was a 36 year old male. The height, weight, BMI, fatness and VO'rnax of the cyclist are presented in Table 2. The subject had a V0,max of 4.32 Umin or 68.6 ml/kg.min. The subject had 12 years of cycling experience and competed professionally in Ironman triathlons for 5 years. The preparation for RAAM included 934 km/week of cycling in the 8 weeks pnor to the race, as well as 6 rides, that were 12 - 18 hours in duration. Table 2 Characteristics of the Subject Variable Value Unit Age Height Weight BMI Fatness Cycling Experience Cycling Training (8 wks) 12 Yrs 934 km/wk Laboratory Cyciiog Test The results of the cycling economy and aerobic endurance laboratory tests are presented in Tables 3 and 4. The cycling economy test was performed on the subject's bicycle at two power outputs - 100 and 150 watts. These power outputs werc assessed using a CornpuTrainer and 4 hub-mounted strain gauges (PowerTap). The steady state VOz was 1.68 L/min at 1O0 watts and 2.19 L/min at 150 watts. Both economy tests were aerobic as indicated by R values of .85 and -86, respectively. The energy expenditure was 8.2 kcaYmin at 100 watts and 10.7 kcallmin at 150 watts. Cycling efficiency was 17.5 % at 100 watts and 20.1 % at 150 watts. Results for the aerobic endurance test are listed in Table 4. Following the cycling economy test, the subject pedaled for 3 minutes at 200,250, 300 and 350 watts. The subject's V0,max was 4.32 L/min or 68.6 mlmkg-'amin". The peak V, was 167.9 Wmin. The maximum HR was 171 b/min. The VO, and H.R. are plotted versus power output in Figure 3. Performance Variables during RAAM Dunng RAAM, the subject traveled through 63 time stations. Table 5 outlines the distance, time, and velocity for each station, and the cumulative time. The time of day (EST) the rider checked in at each station was also recorded over the course of the 10 days. The velocity within each segment varied depending upon environmental conditions, terrain, as well as time on and off the bike. The duration of rest and sleep breaks influenced velocity. Figure 4 illustrates the distance completed each day and the time-onthe-bike throughout RAAM. The same 63 time stations across the country are shown in Table 6. Along with the distance, time and veiocity between each station, Table 6 also compares the group mean velocity and the fastest segment velocity. Figure 4 Distance and Tirne On Bike 1 2 3 4 6 5 Days 7 8 9 10 Figure 3 Laboratory Test on RAAM Bicycle Table 3 Laboratory Cycling Efficiency 100 Watts 150 Watts R 0.85 0.86 Nonprotein R (kcaYL O?)* 4.862 4.875 Energy (kcaUmin) 8.2 10.7 E fficiency (%) 17.5 20.1 Power Output Time (min) VO, (L/min) * McArdle et al. (. 1996) Table 4 Aerobic Endurance Test Time (min) Power (Watts) vo2 (milkg-min) vo2 (Llmin) v~ H.R. (L /min) (blmin) TabIe 5 Velocity during each Segment o f R A 4 M Day 1 Station Location 1 Beaumont CA 2 3 Indio CA 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6 Desert Center CA Blythe CA Hope AZ Distance (km) 135.09 78.10 83.35 Tirne Velocity Cumulative Time (E.S.T) (hr) (kmlhr) 27.18 Time (hr) 4.97 34.41 29.56 7.24 10.06 31 .O2 24.02 12.14 16.24 23.41 16.97 19.24 22.06 O.14 4.24 11.41 18.61 27.1 1 15.1 1 20.22 27.70 32.35 32.64 34.94 36.81 20.64 22.94 0.81 46.62 10.62 64.52 98.47 4.97 2.27 2.82 2.08 4.10 3.70 5.53 2.30 1.87 Congress AZ Prescott AZ (hr) 7 8 9 10 Sunrise AZ 68.87 1 1 1.83 63.72 60.50 12 Near Ganado AZ 85.12 6.43 13 Chinie AZ 48.75 2.87 16.99 49.49 13.49 14 15 Rock Point AZ 2.05 1.95 3.33 9.18 3 -92 37.12 37.63 51.54 53-49 56.82 66.00 69.92 15.54 17-49 20.82 6.00 9.92 Williams AZ FlagstaffAZ 16 17 18 Cortez CO Pagosa Springs CO 76.1 1 73.37 66.29 77.91 87.53 19 20 21 South Fork CO Alamosa CO La Veta CO 74.98 67.90 107.96 3.60 2.82 4.90 20.83 24.08 22.03 73.52 76.34 8 1.24 13.52 16.34 2 1.24 22 Trinidad CO 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 KimCO 79.8 1 77-43 99.63 62.59 2.85 2.63 4.53 2.47 97.36 13.36 64.04 2.95 28.00 29.44 2 1.99 25.34 21.71 Seiling OK 71-44 56.96 5.22 2.37 24.03 99.99 104.52 106.99 109.94 115.16 117.53 15.99 20.52 22.99 1 -94 7.16 9.53 Kingfisher OK 104.42 3.98 26.24 121.51 13.51 Dustin O K 93.32 90.26 4.82 9.55 19.36 132.83 142.38 0.83 10.38 34 35 Teec Nos Pos AZ Durango CO Springfield CO Boise City OK GuyrnonOK Balko OK Slapout OK Woodward OK Stiger OK 19.91 1 22.33 Table 5 Day 7 8 9 10 11 (Cont'd.) Station Location Distance Time Velocity Cumulative Tirne (E.S.T.) (km) (hr) (kmihr) Time (hr) (hr) 36 Lavaca AR 95.09 3.62 26.27 146.00 14.00 37 Subiaco AR 83.10 3.55 23 -41 149.55 17.55 38 Dardanelle AR 46.34 2.13 2 1-76 151.68 19.68 39 Mayflower AR 9 1.39 5.65 16.18 157.33 1.33 40 Lonoke AR 65.4 1 2.30 28.44 159.63 3.63 41 Brinkley AR 69.1 1 5.18 164.8 1 8.8 1 42 West Memphis AR 104.15 4.02 25.9 1 168.83 12.83 43 Memphis AR 35 .O9 1.70 20.64 170.53 14.53 44 Browasville TN 77.07 4.55 16.94 175.08 19.08 45 East Union TN 44.15 1.97 22.4 1 177.05 2 1.O5 46 Chesterfield TN 56.46 3.20 17.64 180.25 0.25 47 Linden TN 48 Centerville TN 49 Franklin TN 68.06 3-00 22.69 192.75 12.75 50 Lewisburg TN 57.60 3 .O0 19.20 195.75 15.75 51 Decherd TN 97.02 4.95 19.60 200.70 20.70 52 Tracy City TN 45.25 6.37 207.07 3.07 53 Chatanooga TN 58.13 2.63 22.10 209.70 5-70 54 Resaca GA 88.00 5.13 17.15 2 14.83 10.83 55 Dawson County GA 85.12 3.88 2 1.94 218.71 14.7 1 56 Gainsville GA 53 -42 2.53 21.11 22 1.24 17.24 57 Royston GA 73 .O5 4.00 18.26 225.24 2 1.24 58 Warrenton GA 59 Louisville GA 60 Millen GA 55.11 1.83 30.1 1 238.15 10.15 61 Guyton GA 78.20 2.25 34.75 230.40 12.40 62 Pooler GA 31.38 1.25 25.10 24 1-65 13.65 63 Savannah GA 16.54 1.O5 15.75 242.70 14.70 - Table 6 Station Cornparison of Subject with Group and Fastest Velocity Location Distance Time Velocity Group Mean (km) (W (kmW (km/hr) Fastest (-1 1 Beaumont CA 135.09 4.97 27.18 26.28 27.85 2 Indio CA 78.10 2.27 34.4 1 34.04 38.4 1 3 Desert Center CA 83.35 2.82 29.56 26.10 30.88 4 BIythe CA 64.52 2.08 3 1 .O2 26.86 35.5 1 5 Hope AZ 98.47 4.10 24.02 23 -33 28.82 20.49 26.66 7 Prescott AZ 68.87 3.70 18.6 1 18.99 23 -75 8 Williams AZ 111.83 5.53 20.22 2 1.33 28.43 9 Flagstaff AZ 63.72 2.30 27.70 22.90 3 1.86 10 Sunrise AZ 60.50 1.87 32.35 25.29 35.95 12 Near Ganado AZ 85.12 6.43 19.1 1 27.90 13 Chinle AZ 48.75 2.87 16.99 26.80 34.42 14 Rock Point AZ 76.1 1 2.05 37.12 27.88 37.73 15 Teec Nos Pos AZ 73.37 1.95 37.63 24.0 1 37.63 16 Cortez CO 66.29 3.33 19.91 22.22 36.83 17 DurangoCo 77.9 1 9.18 15.88 25.97 18 Pagosa Springs CO 87.53 3-92 22.33 21.14 25.13 19 South Fork CO 74.98 3.60 20.83 17.85 21.74 20 Alamosa CO 67.90 2.82 24.08 2 1.O6 29.32 21 La Veta CO 107.96 4.90 22.03 2 1.47 30.14 22 TrinidadCo 23 Kim CO 24 Springfield CO 79.8 1 2.85 28.00 24.96 34.2 1 25 Boise City OK 77.43 2.63 29.44 20.75 3 1.39 26 GuyrnonOK 99.63 4.53 2 1.99 22.82 34.96 27 Balko OK 62.59 2.47 25.34 23.86 37.18 28 Slapout OK 64.04 2.95 21.71 24.4 1 35.57 31 Kingfisher OK 104.42 3.98 26.24 2 1.63 29.28 32 Guthrie OK Shawnee OK 45-53 1.87 24.35 22.65 29.70 33 100.40 4.63 18.43 24.30 34 Dustin OK 93.32 4.82 21.69 19.36 20.46 3 1-63 35 Stiger OK 90.26 9.55 22.12 3 1-49 Table 6 Station (Cont'd.) Location Distance Time Velocity Group Mean Fastest (km) (kmm 26.27 (km/W 19.99 (km/hr) 30.18 36 Lavaca AR 95.09 (hr) 3.62 37 Subiaco AR 83.10 3.55 23-41 20.13 29.33 38 Dardanelle AR 46.34 2.13 2 1.76 22.84 29.27 39 Mayflower AR 9 1.39 5.65 16.18 19.26 30.97 40 Lonoke AR 65.4 1 2.30 28.44 2 1.84 29.96 41 Brinkley AR 69.1 1 5.18 20.98 30.49 42 West Memphis AR 104.15 4.02 25.91 22.70 33.42 43 Memphis AR 35.09 1.70 20.64 19.76 33-97 44 Brownsville TN 77.07 4.55 16.94 2 1-26 29.09 45 East Union TN 44.15 1.97 22.4 1 2 1.O6 31.17 46 Chesterfield TN 56.46 3-20 17.64 20.92 3 1-95 47 Linden TN 48 Centerville TN 49 Franklin TN 68.06 3.O0 22.69 22.24 30.47 51 Decherd TN 97.02 4.95 19.60 20.37 28.54 52 53 Tracy City TN Chatanooga TN 54 Resaca GA 88.00 5.13 17.15 19.30 29.33 55 Dawson County GA 85.12 3.88 2 1.94 18.05 24.20 56 Gainsville GA 53.42 2.53 21.1 1 18.07 28.62 57 Royston GA 73.O5 4.00 18.26 19.77 27.40 58 Warrenton GA 59 Louisville GA 60 Millen GA- 55.1 1 1.83 30.1 1 24.5 1 3 1.20 61 Guyton GA 78.20 2.25 34.75 24.03 34.75 62 Pooler GA 3 1.38 1 .25 25.10 25.28 31.38 63 Savannah GA 16.54 1.O5 15.75 19.74 24.8 1 Sleep breaks accounted for the slower velocities in Table 5 at the following stations: 6, 12, 17,22,29,35,41,47,52, and 58. During each of these periods, the rider slept or was off the bike between 90 and 180 minutes. On six occasions, sieep breaks occurred with the subject resting at a motel. During these segments the subject was slower than the group mean velocity (Table 6). There were 23 other stops between 3 and 60 minutes that slowed the cyclist. These included the administration of intravenous dextrose and electrolytes, the application of medication, short naps due to exhaustion. Medication was applied to a groin injury between stations 7, 11, 13, 16,22,26,28,34,38,39,44,46,48,50,53, 54, 57 and 59. Brief stops due to exhaustion occurred between stations 1 1,21,28, 34, 39,44, 46,s 1 and 54. Bathroom, shower and weigh-in breaks were aIso made outside of reguiar sleeping hours at stations 15,25, 33,43, and 56. These stops affected the velocity of the rider compared to the group mean as seen in Table 6. In late July and early August 1999 during the RAAM, there were frequent heat and humidity advisories issued throughout the southem United States by the weather bureau. These temperatures affected the RAAM riders resulting in occasional dehydration and heat exhaustion. The nders were most affected in the middle of the day (1 1:O0 17:OO). For exarnple, on dayl the temperature in the dessert reached 42°C through station 2 in Indio, Ca:ifomia. The environmental temperature exceeded body temperature for over 6 hours on day 1. In spite of the heat, the velocity of the subject and the group was high in segment 2 due to strong tailwinds. At station 5, the subject had dehydrated and expenenced nausea. A physician administered 2 L of intravenous dextrose and electrolytes. On day 3, the subject was 2" fastest in segment 14 and fastest in segment 15. Cycling velocity exceeded 37 km/hr for both segments. Segments 14 and 15 covered 149.5 km. These back-to-back segments produced one of the better performances by the subject. On days 3 and 4 the subject cycled through the high dessert and the Rocky Mountains. Temperatures dropped to a low of 4°C at altitude and in a rain storrn near D m g o , Colorado (station 17). During segment 17 the mean velocity of the group was only 15.88 kmh. Segment 17 required significant climbing with peaks reaching 3000 to 3300 m. The subject averaged 8.49 lan/hr and was siowed by hrvo flat tires, three clothing changes (due to rain stoms), and the longest sleep break (3 hours) of the race. Beginning on day 4, medication was needed more fiequently for a groin injury. A typical stop lasted 3 to 5 minutes. Lidocaine topical crearn was used to numb the pain. After application, the subject was able to cycle without pain for 2 to 4 hours. On day 5, the temperature reached a hi@ of 45OC with high humidity at Boise City, Oklahoma (station 25). The subject averaged 29.44 kmihr which was the third fastest of the RAAM cornpetitors. On day 5 the subject passed the midpoint of the race in Slapout, Oklahoma. On day 6, the high temperature and hurnidity continued. The subject again required 2 L of intravenous dextrose and electrolytes. M e r midnight, the subject was extremely fatigued. The subject needed 9.55 hours to cover 90.26 kilometers. During this segment, the subject took four 60-minute sleep breaks. Between each sleep break, the subject rode for only 15 kilometers. The crew chief encouraged longer sleep breaks, however the subject felt compelled to continue. On day 7, the subject developed oral sores and a swollen tongue. Oral blisters were caused by sun and exacerbated by a high sugar diet. Solid foods could not be tolerated. The diet was modified on day 7 and 8 to include pudding. sweetened gelatin, fiozen popsicles and carbohydrate gel packets. Due to trafic dangers, RAAM rules required each rider to cross the Mississippi River bridge by vehicle. The van carrying the subject got lost, thereby reducing the average velocity in segment 44. This error in navigation cost 45 minutes. Segment 47 on day 8 resulted in a velocity of only 8.10 kmhr over the 53.48 km. The subject slept for 2 hours and also needed 2 L of intravenous dextrose and electrolytes. The groin injury and fatigue also slowed the subject. Segment 52 on day 9 resulted in the slowest segment of the race for the subject. This segment was only 45 kilometers. The velocity was initially impacted by a long climb and later by a 3 h o u sleep break. To be an official finisher in RAAM, a competitor must complete the course within 48 hours of the first place cyclist. By this time, Danny Chew had already won RAAM. The clock was ticking to finish offcially. At the start of day 1O, the subject was in 1Olh " place with the 11 place rider only 12 minutes behind and the 12' place rider over 2 hours behind. Throughout the day, the subject stayed in 10' position. At station 57, the subject had a 90-minute lead over the nearest cyclist. The cyclist in 9' place was ahead by 14 hours and out of reach. In segment 58 fatigue forced the subject to sleep from 3:25 to 5 4 9 a.m. While sleeping, another competitor passed the subject putting him in 1 lthplace. This occurrence combined with the fear of not finishîng officially provided the incentive to finish strongly. At station 60, the subject was 54 minutes behind the 10Ih place rider. The subject attempted to close the gap. He had the fastest velocity (34.75 km/hr) of al1 cornpetitors for segment 6 1 (Table 6). At station 6 1. the subject had closed the gap to 20 minutes but never caught this cyclist. Another competitor dropped out of the race leaving the subject in lofhplace. The subject finished RAAM in 10 days 2 hours and 42 minutes. His performance resulted in the "Rookie of the Year" award. He was also the first Canadian finisher (solo event) in the history of RAAM. Physiological Variables during RAAM The daily cycling activity of the subject was recorded using the PowerTap strain gauge hub. The time on the bike for each 24-hour penod is outlined in Table 7. The mean power output per day decreased over the course of the race. The highest power output (124 watts) occurred on day 1 when the subject was rested. The lowest power output (83 watts) occurred over 17.2 hours on day 8 when the subject had to contend with dehydration, exhaustion and injuries (groin and wrist). The mean power output throughout RAAM was 97 watts. Figure 5 illustrates the mean daily power output during RAAM. The mechanical energy expenditure was determined as a function of power output using the PowerTap hub dynamometer. The mean mechanical energy during I L U M was 6676 kjoules. Figure 5 Power Output and Heart Rate in RAAM Mean Power 4- Mean H,R. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Days 7 8 9 1O Table 7 Daily Cycling Activity dunng RAAM Time (hl Power Output (Watts) Mean 18.61 97 6676 7946 99 S.D. 1 .55 13 1205 1435 13 D ~ Y Mechanical Energy (kjoules) Resting Energy Expenditure Thennic Effect of Food Total * Williams, (1999) Energy Expenditure mal) 5530' ( 10% of calorie intake) 68l* 10,157 H.R. @~m) Energy expenditure of cycling was based on a conversion from mechanical energy cost and averaged 7946 kcal. The resting energy expenditure (REE) was estimated at 1530 kcal (Williams, 1999). The thermic effect of food (TEF)was estimated at 68 1 kcal, using 10% of mean caloric intake (Williams, 1999). The total estimated daily energy expenditure dunng RAAM was 10,157 kcal. The mean H.R.during cycling in RAAM is outlined in Table 7. The daily average K R . gradually declined fiom 116 bpm on day 1, to 82 bpm on day 8. On day 10 the subject was attempting to catch another cornpetitor. As a result of this effort, H.R. increased to 113 bprn. The mean cycling H.R. during RAAM was 99 bpm. Figure 5 illustrates the mean heart rate and power output throughout RAAM. Table 8 estimates exercise intensity during RAAM using three methods. Based on power output, the first method compared the power output throughout RAAM compared to maximum performance in the laboratory. The mean power output dunng RAAM was 97 watts. In the laboratory, the subject had a cycling efficiency of 20.1 %. Using this efficiency, the subject averaged 6.92 kcaVmin when cycling in RAAM. The VQmax of the subject was 4.32 L/min in the laboratory. The aerobic energy expenditure at VOLmax was 2 1.8 kcarmin. During RAAM, the relative cycling intensity was calculated by dividing the average energy output by the maximum aerobic energy expenditure. Based on power output, the cycling intensity during RAAM was 3 1.7%. The second method estirnated exercise intensity using H.R. The mean cycling H.R.during RAAM was 99 bpm. The laboratory maximum H.R. was 171 bpm. The relative H.R. intensity dunng FUMM was 57.9% of maximum. - The third method estimated exercise intensity using the H.R. VO, relationship established in the.laboratory. The mean H.R. during RAAM was 99 bpm. Based the H.R V 0 2line, a H.R.of 99 bpm corresponded to an oxygen cost of 1.68 L h i n during the laboratory cycling economy test. When compared to V02max. the VO, intensity during RAAM was 38.9% o f max'imum. Table 8 Cycling and H.R.Intensity during RAAM Mean Power Output 97 Watts Cycling Efficiency Energy Output Energy Output at V0,max Cycling Intensity Mean Cycling H.R. 99 bpm Maximum H.R. 171 bpm H.R. Intensity 57.9 - % - VO2 at 99 bpm HR - VOz Intensity 38.9 % Nutritional Analysis The mean daily caloric intake during RAAM is outlined in Table 9. The subject consumed an average 68 12 kcal/d. Caloric consumption was lowest on day 4, when climbing hindered food intake. Calonc consurnption was highest on day 9 when the subject spent more time off the bike. On day 8, the rider cycled for 16.70 hours compared to day 1, when cycling time was 20.48 hours. Analysis of the rnacronutrients indicated that the calories were derived fiom 67% CHO, 24% fat, and 9% protein. Day 3 in Table 9 is typical of the food intake and caloric consumption throughout RAAM. On day 3, the following foods were consumed in a 24- hour penod: Time (E.S.T.) Throughout Day Throughout Day Throughout Day Throughout Day 13:15 pm 14:30 pm 15:35 pm 16:40 pm 1750 pm 1750 pm 1755 pm 1850 pm 19:15 pm 19:45 pm 21:15 pm 21:15 pm 21:15 pm 22:25 pm 23:30 pm 01 :45 am 02:05 am 05:30 am 06:45 am 08:45 am 09: 15 am 09:20 am 09:30 am Food Gatorade Cola Soda Pop Ensure Drink Carbohydrate Gel Burrito (Bean & Beef) Cliff Energy Bar EnsurePlus Drink Nectarine Whole Wheat Bagel Cheedar Cheese Tortilla Chips Banana Pretzels Ensure Vanilla Drink Whole Wheat Bread Turkey Lunch Meat Cheddar Cheese Chocolate Chip Cookies Cliff Energy Bar Nutri-Grain Cereal Bar Cheddar Cheese Pizza (Vegetarian) Ensure Vanilla + Fiber Whole Wheat Bagel Cantaloupe Melon Whole Wheat Bagel Banana Quantity 4.125 L 1.O75 L 0.235 L Seach (193gm) 1 each (142gm) 1 each (68 gm) 1 each (0.235 L) l each (136 grn) 1 each (1lOgm) 4 pieces (30 gm) 1 cup (26gm) 1 each ( 1 14 gm) 9 pieces (54 gm) l each (0.235 L) 1 &ce (28 gm) 2 slices (30 gm) 4 pieces (80 gm) 3 each (30 gm) 1 each (68 grn) 1 each (37 gm) 2 pieces (40 grn) 1.5 slice (187.5 gm) 1 each (0.235 L) 1.5 each (1 10 p) 5 slices (500 gm) 0.5 each (55 gm) 1 each (114gm) An analysis of selected micronutrients is shown in Tablel O. The mean mineral intake for sodium was 7753 mg, potassium 4919 mg, magnesium 575 mg, chlonde 1220 mg, and iron 30 mg. All values exceed the RDA due to the high caloric intake. Table 1 1 relates the average daily energy intake to expenditure. Average energy expenditure was 10,157 kcal/d. Average energy intake was 68 12 kcal/d. The difference of 3345 kcaVd resulted in a total calonc deficit of 33,450 kcal during RAAM. Figure 6 illustrates the changes in body mass throughout RAAM. Some of the additional mass on days 3 - 7 was due to weighing in wet clothing while wearing a h e h e t and communication radio. Pre and post-race body mass were 65.2 kg and 62.7 kg, respectively. Post race mass was recorded 24-hours after completion of RAAM. Body mass decreased by 2.5 kg. Percent fat was estimated fiom skinfold measurements with values of 9.2% pre-RAAM and 7.1% post-RAAM. The decrease in fat mass accounted for 1.5 kg of the total weight loss. Table 9 Daily Calorie Intake Mean 6812 S.D. 914 1139 67 149 5 174 24 161 9 4 44 3 49 Table 10 Daily Minera1 Intake Mean S.D. 7753 4919 575 1220 30 1664 1568 275 802 8 Table 1 1 Energy Intake (EI) vs Energy Expenditure (EE) - . - - - - - Average daily EE 10,157 kcal Average daîly EI 68 12 kcal Di fference 3345 kcaVd Deficit for 10 days 33,450 kcal Body weight - Pre (dry) 65.2 kg Body weight - Post 2 (dry) 62.7 kg % Fat - Pre 9.2 % % Fat - Post 7.1 % Fat Mass - Pre 6.0 kg Fat Mass - Post 4.5 kg Fat loss (kg) 1.5 kg - - Chapter V Discussion The purpose of this study was to descnbe the physiological response of one athlete competing in the 1999 RAAM. Outdoor magazine has labeled RAAM as the toughest UE event in the world. Athletes must deal with sleep deprivation, cardiovascular, muscular and digestive challenges as well as nutritional and psychological issues. V0,max and Cycling Economy The V02maxof the subject was 68.6 rnbkg-'.min". This value is similar to the 4 team RAAM riders (Laursen and Rhodes, 1999) but less than elite and professional cyclists (Lucia et. al., 1998; 1999). The means for these cyclists were 73-74 mlmkg-'*min' I . The 1985 winner of RAAM was Jonathon Boyer, a professional cyclist with extensive racing experience (Shermer, 1993). The wimer of the 1984 and 1986 RAAM events was Pete Penseyres, who had a V02max of 79.6 mI.kg".min-' (Ice et. al., 1988). Highly trained cyclists (V0,max = 68.6 mbkg-'.min-') can maintain power outputs that are near maximal (89% of V02max)for approximately 1-hour (Coyle et al., 1988). In the past, estimates of the mechanical power required to cycle were based upon indirect measurements such as oxygen uptake, laboratory ergorneter studies, wind tunnel measurernents, coast d o m tests, towing tests or upon theoretical models using these indirect measurements (Bassett et al., 1999). During RAAM the subject cycled at a relative VO, intensity of 38.9 %. This is lower than the V 0 2 range of 49.0% to 57.8% found in 9 men competing in a 620 kilometer 7-day run (continuous), bike and cross country ski UE event (Fellmann et al., 1999). The RAAM results related the oxygen cost of the laboratory cycling tests to the average power output during RAAM (97 watts). Fellmann et al. (1999) used heart rate data to estimate relative exercise intensity. The exercise intensity in both these studies is based on the assumption that H.R. and VO, have a direct and stable relationship with power output. The rider's eficiency of 20.1 % at 97 watts seemed low compared to the generally accepted value of 23 %. Interestingly, Seabury et al. (1 977) examined efficiency at different workloads and cadences and found that the optimal cadence of 48 rprn at 102 watts produced a gross efficiency of 20.5 %. Generally, as the workload increased, so did the cadence and the gross ef'ficiency. Luhtanen et al. (1987) found that the net efficiency of bicycle ergometry varies between 17 % and 27 %. They determined that the gross efficiency of ergometer bicycling at aerobic and anaerobic thresho lds was 1 7-20%, net efficiency 18-22% and tnie efficiency 2 1-30% respectively. The cadence during RAAM was 65 rprn or lower after the second day. This was significantly lower than the cadence of 90 rprn during the cycling economy test in the laboratory. These differences in cadence may have had an impact on rider efficiency and oxygen cost during RAAM. Coast and Welch (1985) and Seabury et al. (1977) have used ergorneter tests with active and trained cyclists to establish the existence of optimal pedal rates. Both groups of researchers found that the oxygen cost for a given workload shifted depending upon cadence. Generally, at lower workloads, pedal fiequency is low to optimize efficiency. It may be that RAAM cyclists naturally ride at a lower cadence as a method of minimizing energy expenditure and maintaining efficiency. This may help explain why Our subject had a cadence of 65 rpm or lower after the first day of RAAM competition. The previous studies on cadence and efficiency were performed using relativeiy untrained cyclists on Monark ergometers with heavy cranksets and flywheels- This might have affected the rider efficiency. Hagberg et al. (1981) had 7 well-trained cornpetitive road cyclists use their own bicycles on a motor driven treadmill. The average preferred fkequency at 80 % of VO,max was 9 1 rpm. The range was however 72- 102 rpm. The variations in cycling economy and cadence may be partly due to different methods of measuring energy consumption, different subjects, muscle fiber composition, age, varying workloads and training experience. The eff'ct of different seat heights has been shown to have an impact on oxygen cost. Nordeen-Snyder, (1977) had 10 active women pedal a racing bicycle (60 rpm and 799 kpdmin) at saddte heights of 95, 100 and 105 % of the trochanteric height. Expired air was collected and the oxygen cost was found to be lowest at 100 % of trochanteric height. Dunng RAAM the rider was constantly changing seat heights with various seat pads due to a groin injury. These results imply that there are some limitations in extrapolating laboratory data to field conditions, particularly when factors such as cadence and saddle height are not controlled. Power Output Power output was recorded throughout RAAM using the PowerTap hub dynamometer introduced in 1999. This study is one of the first applications of this product for research. Direct measurement of power has also been reported by Bassett et al. (1999) using the SRM crank dynamometer (Schoberer Rad McBtechnik, Weldorf, Germany). The SRM crank dyiiamometer is a telemetry system that also uses strain gauge readings. Measurements o f power are made at the crank and transmitted to a handlebar microprocessor. Bassett et al. (1999) have established the validity of strain gauge technology to measure power output. They reported an 6 value of 0.9754 when relating power to speed. Jones and Passfield (1998) have tested the accuracy of the SRM system, by comparing it with a Monark bicycle ergorneter and have concluded that power rneasurements with these two systems agree within 1% of each other. The mean power throughout RAAM was 97 watts. The subject averaged 18.6 1 hours per day on the bicycle dunng 10 days. The highest mean power output (124 watts) occurred on day 1 when the subject was rested. The iowest power output occurred on day 8 when the subject was fatigued and battling injuries. Track cyclists generate large amounts of power when racing the 4 kilometer pursuit. Broker et al. (1999) used the SRM system to record the power outputs of U.S. national team pursuit riders preparing for the 1996 Olyrnpic games. The 4 kilometer team pursuit event (4 nders) takes just over 4 minutes. At a speed of60 kmk, the power was 607 watts in the lead position, 430 watts in second position, 389 watts in third position and 389 watts in fourth position. It has been estimated that the average power output was 437 watts for the Italian pursuit team when they set the world record in 1996. The team event is a shared effort, in that each rider takes turns in the lead position, whereas the other three members follow in a line to take advantage of the aerodynamic draft behind the lead rider. A team rnember requires approximately 75% of the energy necessary for cyclists riding alone at the same speed. Riders competing in RAAM are not permitted to draft . The 1-hour record is one of the most prestigious events in cycling and has been attempted by many of the best racers in the world. Dunng 1-hour world record performances, professional cyclists average between 336 and 460 watts (Bassett et al., 1999). The SRM system has been used to measure power output in a 170 kilometer mountain stage of the 1996 Tour de France race (Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998). Power output was variable with a range fiom 50 watts (light pedaling) to over 1000 watts while sprinting. In this study, power output was fiequently between 250 to 350 watts for the 170 kilometers completed in 6.5 hours. Due to the duration of RAAM (200-250 hours), the power output is lower with less fluctuation. The subject in this study averaged 97 watts for 242.8 hours (time off bike included). Heart Rate Due to ease of measurement, heart rate is a commonly used indicator of exercise intensity. The mean cycling H.R. during RAAM for the subject in this study was 99 bpm that corresponded to 57.9 % of pre-race H.R.max. Average daily heart rate declined fiom 116 bpm on day 1 to 82 bpm on day 8. On day 10, H.R. increased to 113 bprn as the subject attempted to catch another cornpetitor. Laursen and Rhodes (1999) measured H.R. of 2 cyclists during the team RAAM. They estimated the exercise between 70 to 95% with a mean intensity of about 80%. The H.R. response of 8 professional cyclists has been measured during the 22-daj Tour de France (Lucia et al., 1999). Out of 102 hours of racing, riders spent 71% of the race in the aerobic zone (rnean H.R.<142 bpm), 23% in the lactic acid accumulation zone (mean H.R.between 142 and 168 bpm) and 7% in the anaerobic zone (mean H.R.> 168 bpm). The 1998 Tour de France had 22 stages with a mean time per stage of 288 minutes and an average velocity of 40.2 km/hr (Lucia et al., 1999). The non-continuous nature of the Tour de France allows riders to recover with evening meals, massage and a full nights sleep. In general, there is a linear relationship between H.R. and power output when measured in a controlled laboratory environment. Heart rate does not always reflect the metabolic demands of exercise. Heart rates have been shown to drift upwards by as much as 20 bpm during exercise lasting 20 to 60 minutes, despite unchanged work rates and steady lactate concentrations (Kindermann et al., 1979). Exercise in both a hot environment and a dehydrated state increase cardiac drift even further. When subjects exercised at 62 - 67% of VOzmax in the heat (33"C, 50% relative humidity) and did not ingest fluids, H.R. increased by 40 bpm after 100 min of exercise (Montain and Coyle, 1992). Fluid ingestion helped to restrïct the increase in H.R.,but it still increased by 13 bpm. These results indicate that the relationship between H.R. and exercise intensity is susceptible to change. The continuous nature of RAAM, coupled with sleep deprivation and exhaustion probably aEect H.R. Cahalin et al. (1990) used H.R. telemetry with computer analysis to record and examine changes over 9 days for 2 iders in the 1989 RAAM cornpetition. One of the riders was the winner of the race. Analysis revealed a 24% decrease in exercise HR afier day 2 of RAAM. The decreases in H R did not directly coincide with the decrease in velocity. Maximal bicycle ergometry exercise tests performed immediately after RAAM revealed (1) an 11.5% decrease in H.R.max, (2) a 24.5% reduction in maximal workload, (3) a 5 minute decrease in time to exhaustion, and (4) lower heart rates during each workload compared to pre RAAM tests. Regression analysis of workload and H.R.revealed different regession lines for before - and afier exercise tests of each athlete. The authors stated that it was unlikely that fatigue alone produced the reductions in exercise H.R. and speculated that the decreased exercise H.R. may be due to sleep deprivation which may have increased parasympathetic activity. Maximal H.R. also decreases with over-training which may start as fatigue (Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998). They had 8 well-trained cyclists perform a time trial on an 8.5 1 kilometer hilly course. A fatigued state was created over a 2-week period by significantly increasing training duration and intensity. Time trial performance decreased from 36.9 to 35.2 km/hr. Heart rate during the time trial decreased from 178 to 169 bpm. The decreases in H.R. during RAAM observed in the subject of this study may be partly attributed to fatigue. Eoergy Intake and Expenditure The longer the duration of endurance competitions, the more important it becomes to maintain energy balance. This is particularly tme of UE athletes who require large amounts of calories for both training and racing. This study used detailed food records and weighing to estimate the average daily energy intake of one rider during RAAM. The cyclist had an energy intake of 68 12 kcavday for 10 days. This value is slightly more than the study by Saris et al. (1989) which used food intake diaries to estimate an average daily caloric intake of 588 1 kcavday in 5 professional cyclists in the Tour de France. Although professional bike racing is extremely intense, the duration of work, and subsequent calorie expenditure, is relatively short compared to RAAM nding (Jeukendrup and Van Diemen, 1998). This may be one reason why the subject in this study showed a higher daily caloric intake during RAAM. In another study by Brouns et al. (1989), highly trained cyclists consumed between 6 143 and 6691 kcaVday with two exhaustive bouts of exercise. The caloric intakes of professional cyclists may match those of RAAM riders due to sufficient refueling and re-hydrating during long recover penods after competitions. In the two case studies investigating the caloric intakes of RAAM competitors, Ice et al. (1 988) and Lindeman (1 99 1) used daily food records and reported caloric intakes of 7965 kcaVday and 8429 kcallday, respectively. Total daily energy expenditure for the subject in this study was based on power output, resting energy expenditure and thermic effect of food. The total daily caloric cost for this RAAM cornpetitor was 10,157 kcavday for over 10 days. This study found an estimated daily energy deficit of 3345 kcal (Table 11). Depending on the intensity and duration of exercise, the range of daily energy expendihire for UE athletes lies between 5000 and 22,000 kcavday (Kreider, 1991). Given these high kilocalorie requirements, UE cornpetitors sometimes demonstrate a negative energy balance (Brouns et al., 1989; Kreider, 1991; Saris et al., 1989). Brouns et al. (1989) found that cyclists on a normal CHO diet did not sufficiently restore glycogen within 24 hours following 2 days of exhaustive cycling. These cyclists remained in negative caloric balance for both exercise days and only reached positive caloric balance on the following rest days. Saris et al. (1989) estimated the energy balance of five elite cyclists in the Tour de France. Athletes were slightly below their energy requirernents on longer race days, but made up for any deficit during easy and recovery days. A negative energy balance may be caused by many factors. These include: compromised digestion and absorption rate due to duration and intensity of exercise, environmental conditions, palatability, appetite suppression and nausea, difficulties associated with refùeling complex carbohydrates along with the inability to replenish liver and muscle glycogen stores (Brouns et al., 1989; Kreider, 1991; Lindeman, 1991). Fatness and Body Mass Changes The higher caloric costs associated with UE cornpetitions can have an impact on body mass and fat mass. Lindeman ( 1991) recorded body mass changes of a solo RAAM rider and found an increase from 79 to 8 1.8 kg in the first 24 hours. The cyclist weighed 80.7 kg immediately after the cornpetition and 79.5 kg 48 hours later. The body mass and skinfolds of the subject in this study were measured prior to, daily and after RAAM. Interestingly, the subject increased his body mass from 65.2 kg to a high of 67.5 during the first 5 days of RAAM. AAer day 5, body mass began to decrease until reaching a low of 62.7 kg one day afler RAAM. The subject lost a total of 1.5 kg (2.1 %) of body fat afier RAAM. Increases in body mass have been documented in other research on UE athletes. Fellmann et al. (1999) examined UE athletes who raced for 7 consecutive days of running, cycling and cross-country skiing. At intensities between 49% and 57.8% of VOtmax, athletes had significant increases in total body water, extracellular water, plasma volume and consequently intracellular water. The authors concluded that prolonged UE exercise induced a chronic hyperhydration at bot h extracellular and intracellular levels. The increases in total mean plasma content of sodium combined with no changes in albumin and total protein contents indicated that sodium retention was the major factor in the increase in plasma volume. This may help explain the body mass changes in our subject during RAAM. Kaminsky and Paul (1991) found a significant relationship between fluid intake and plasma volume increases in 5 male ultramarathon runners competing in 50 km to 100 km events. Using bioelectrical impedance, Ice et al. (1988) showed a pre-to-post increase in total body water from 43.2 L to 47.2 L in the winner of the 1986 RAAM. It is possible that the high intake of beverages containing osmotically active solutes in RAAM may have lead to fluid and plasma volume shifts. Chapter V I Summary, Conclusions, Recommeodations Summary The 1999 RAAM was a non-stop L E cycling competition that started on July 22"* in h i n e , CA. and finished in Savannah, GA, a distance of 4727 km. The challenge of covenng significant distances, with little or no recovery, over varied terrain and divergent environmental conditions creates physiological stresses that are of interest to investigaton. The nature of this competition provides researchers with an opportunity to examine physiological responses of ultraendurance athletes. The objectives of this investigation were: (1) to describe the response (H.R. and power output) of one athlete competing in the 1999 RAAM, (2) to examine the relationship between heart rate and power output throughout RAAM, and (3) to quanti@ the daily energy intake and energy expenditure. The hypotheses were (1) H.R. will decrease over the course of the race. (2) Power output will decrease over the course of the race. (3). H.R.will be significantly comelated with power output. (4) Energy expenditure will exceed energy intake. (5) There will be a significant decrease in body mass and fat mass. Baseline testing was perfonned 2 weeks prior to the RAAM. Baseline testing consisted of body composition measurements, a cycling economy test and a VOLmaxtest. Cycling economy was measured using the same bicycle for the RAAM competition. Gas measurements (V,, VO,, VCO,, and R) at maximal and submaximal workloads were averaged every 20s using the SensorMedics 2900 metabolic cart. The "PowerTap" hub dynamometer was used in the laboratory and during RAAM to rneasure power output. Two 6-minute cycling economy tests were performed. Steady state data were collected for the last 3-minutes at power outputs of 100 and 150 watts. These power outputs were assessed using a CompuTrainer and 4 hub-mounted strain gauges (PowerTap). The steady state VO, was 1.68 at 100 watts and 2.19 L h i n at 150 watts. Both economy tests were aerobic as the R values were Iess than 1.00.The energy expenditure was 8.2 and 10.7 kcaVmin at LOO and 150 watts, respectively. Cyciing emciency was 17.5 % at 100 watts and 20.1 % at 150 watts. Following the cycling economy test, the subject pedaled for 3 minutes at 200, 250, 300 and 350 watts. The subject's V0,max was 4.32 L/min or 68.6 ml/kg*min.The maximum HR was 171 b h i n . The HR and VO, values obtained during baseline testing were compared to the data measured during the RAAM event. During RAAM, the subject was supported with three vehicles and a crew of 8. The crew included 2 physicians, 2 graduate students responsible for data collection, 1 massage therapist, 1 bicycle mechanic and 2 navigators, one of which was also designated as the crew chief. The support crew recorded food and fluid intake throughout RAAM. Calonc intake was calculated by measuring solid and liquid food and entering the weight or volume into the "Genesis R&D" (Version 6.2) software for "Windows 95". The analysis includes output for total kilocalories, contributions fiom CHO, fat and protein, as well as vitarnin and minera1 consumption. During RAAM, the subject traveled through 63 time stations. Velocity was recorded for each of the 63 segments and compared to the mean performance for the 19 cyclists and the fastest performance. The velocity within each segment varied depending upon environmental conditions, terrain, as well as time on and off the bike. The duration of rest and sleep breaks influenced velocity. The subject was also slowed by a groin injury, dehydration and oral sores due to a high CHO diet and sunburn, To be an officia1 finisher in RAAM, a competitor must complete the course within 48 hours of the first place cyclist. This was accomplished. The subject finished in 10 days 2 hours and 42 minutes. His performance resulted in the "Rookie of the Year" award. He was also the first Canadian finisher (solo event) in the history of RAAM. The daily cycling activity of the subject was recorded using the PowerTap strain gauge hub technology. The mean power output per day decreased over the course of the race. The highest power output (124 watts) occurred on day 1 when the subject was rested. The lowest power output (83 watts) occurred over 17.2 hours on day 8 when the subject had to contend with dehydration, exhaustion and injuries (groin and wrist). The mean power output throughout W was 97 watts. The mechanical energy expenditure was determined from power output using the PowerTap power sensor. The mean mechanical energy dunng RAAM was 6676 kjoules. Energy expenditure of cycling averaged 7946 kcallday. The resting energy expenditure (REE) was estimated at 1530 kcal. The thermic effect of food (TEF) was estimated at 681 kcal. The total estimated daily energy expenditure during RAAM was 10,157 kcal. Heart rate was measured continuously during RAAM. The daily average H.R. gadually declined from 116 bpm on day 1, to 82 bpm on day 8. On day 10 the subject was attempting to catch another cornpetitor resulting in an increased H.R. to 113 bpm. The mean cycling H.R. during RAAM was 99 bpm. Exercise intensity during RAAM was estimated using three methods. Based on power output, the cycling intensity during RAAM was 3 1.7%. The relative H.R. intensity dunng RAAM was 57.9% of maximum. The third method estimated exercise intensity using the H.R. - V O relationship established in the laboratory. When compared to V02max, the VO, intensity during RAAM was 38.9% of maximum. The mean daily calorie intake during RAAM was 68 12 kcal/day. Caloric consumption was lowest on day 4, when climbing hindered food intake. Caionc consumption was highest on day 9 when the subject spent more time off the bike. On day 8, the rider cycled for 16.70 hours compared to day 1, when cycling time was 20.48 hours. Analysis of the macronutrients indicated that the calories were derived fiom 67% CHO, 24% fat, and 9% protein. Energy expenditure exceeded energy intake by 3345 kcal/day. Body mass decreased by 2.5 kg during RAAM. Percent fat was estimated from skinfold measurements with values of 9.2% pre-RAAM and 7.1% post-RAAM. The decrease in fat mass accounted for 1.5 kg of the total weight loss. The mean minera1 intake for sodium was 7753 mg, potassium 4919 mg, magnesium 575 mg, chloride 1220 mg, and iron 30 mg. Al1 values exceed the RDA due to the high caloric intake. Conclusions Within the limitations of this study, the following conclusions are warranted. ( 1) Heart rate decreased over the course of the race. (2) Power output decreased over the course of the race. (3) Both power output and H.R. decreased sirnilarly throughout RAAM. (4) Daily energy expenditure exceeded energy intake. (5) There was a decrease in both body mass and fat mass throughout RAAM Recommendations This study examined power output, H.R., energy intake and expenditure during the RAAM. Suggestions for future studies include: (1) V02 measurements should be collected periodically throughout RAAM using telemetry (K2 Cosmed system). This may provide a better estimate of exercise intensity and energy expenditure. (2) Performance of a V0,max test immediately upon completion of RAAM. Both V02max and H.R.max are probably significantly lower in the athletes fatigued state. (3) Examine the relationship between power output and H.R.by comparing flat cycling segments on a daily basis throughout RAAM. (4) Measure body composition and total body water such as the doubly-labeled water technique (Westerterp et al., 1986). This technique permits an estimation of total body water. (5) Examine H.R. in relation to sleep deprivation. (6) Examine the H.R.-power output relationship in relation to temperature. References Applegate, L. (1989). Nutritional considerations for triathletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2 1: S205-208. Bassett, D.R., Kyle, C.R., Passfield, L., Broker, J.P., Burke, E.R.(1999). Comparing cycling world hour records, 1967-1996: modeling with empirical data. 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Irving, R.A., Noakes, T.D.,Burger, S.C., Myburgh, K.H., Querido, D., Van Zyl Smit, R. (1990). Plasma volume and renal function dunng and afier ultramarathon running. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 22(5): 581-587. Jansen, G.M.E., Graef, C.J.J., Saris, W.H.M. (1989). Food intake and body composition in novice athletes during a training penod to nui a marathon. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 1O(1): S 17-2 1. Jeukendrup, A., Van Diemen, A. (1998). Heart rate monitoring dunng training and cornpetition in cyclists. Journal of Sports Sciences. 16: S9 1-99. Jones, S.M., Passfield, L.(1 998). The dynarnic calibration of bicycle power measunng cranks. In: S.J. Haake (Ed.), The Engineering of Sport. (pp. 265-274). Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. Kaminsky L.A., Paul, G.L.(1991). Fluid intake during an ultramarathon mnning race: relationship to plasma volume and serum sodium and potassium. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. 3 l(3): 4 17-419. 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Physiological differences between professional and elite road cyclists. International Journal of Sports Medicine. 19: 342-348. Luhtanen, P.L.,Rahkila, P., Rusko, H.,Viitasalo J.T. (1987). Mechanical work and efficiency in ergometer bicycling at aerobic and anaerobic thresholds. Acta Pbysiologica Scandinavia. 13 1: 33 1-337. Maughan, R. (1988). Carbohydrate-electrolyte solutions during prolonged exercise. In D.R. Lamb, M.H., Williams (Eds.), Perspectives in Exercise Science and Sports Medicine: Volume 4; Ergogenics, The Enhancement of Sports Performance. Indianapolis: Benchmark Press. McArdle, W.D., Katch, F.I., Katch, V.L.(1996). Exercise Physiology: Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance (4th ed.). Baltimore, Maryland; Williams and Wilkins. @p. 147). Montain,S.J., Coyle, E.F.(1992). Fluid ingestion during exercise increases skin blood flow independent of increases in blood volume. Journal of Applied Physiology. 73: 903-910. Newmark, S.R.,Toppo, F. R., Adams, G. (199 1). Fluid and electrolyte replacement in the ultra-marathon runner. American Journal of Sports Medicine. 19(4): 389-39 1 . Noakes, T.D., Norman, R.J., Buck, R.H.,Godlonton, J., Stevenson, K., Pittaway, D. (1990). The incidence of hyponatrernia dunng prolonged ultra-endurance exercise. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 22(2): 165-170. Nordeen-Snyder, K.S.(1977). The effect of bicycle seat height variation upon oxygen consumption and lower limb kinematics. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 9 (2): 1 13- 1 17. O'Toole, M.L., Douglas, P.S., Laird, R.H.,Hiller, D.B.(1995). Fluid and electrolyte status in athletes receiving medical care at an ultra-distance triathlon. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 5 (2): 116-122. O'Toole, M.L., Hiller, W.D., Douglas, P.S., Pisarello, J.B., Mullen, J.L. (1987). Cardiovascualar responses to prolonged cycling and running. Annals of Sports Medicine. 3: 124-130. Peters, E.M., Goetzche, J.M. (1997). Dietary practices of South Afncan ultra-distance m e r s . International Journal of Sport Nutrition. 7(2): 80-203. Bistrian, B.R., Evans, W.J., Gervino, E., Blackburn, G.L. (1 983). The P h i ~ e yS , .D., h m a n metabolic responses to chronic ketosis without calonc restriction: preservation of submaximal exercise capability with reduced carbohydrate oxidation. Metabolism, ClinicaI and Experimental. 32(8): 769-776. Plyley, M.J., Shepard, R.J., Davis, G.M.,Goode, R.C. (1987). Sleep deprivation and cardiorespiratory function: influence of intermittent exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 56: 338-344. Pyke, F.S., Craig, N - P , Norton, K I . (1988). Physiological and psychological responses of punuit and sprint track cyclists to a period of reduced training. In E.R.,Burke and M.M., Newsom (Eds.), Medical and Scientific Aspects of Cycling. Illinois; Human Kinetics Books. (pp. 147-163). Rogers, G., Goodman, C., Rosen, C. (1997). Water budget during ultra-endurance exercise. 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Nationwide survey on nutritional habits of elite athletes. International Journal of Sports Medicine. lO(1): S 11-S 16. Van Handel, P., Baldwin, C., Puhl, J., Katz, A., Dantine, S., Bradley, P.W. (1988). Measurement and interpretation of physiological parameters associated with cycling performance. In E.R.,Burke, and M.M., Newsom (Eds.), Medical and Scientific Aspects of Cycling. Illinois; Human Kinetics Books. (pp. 47-72). Van Helder, T., Radomski, M. W. (1989). Sleep deprivation and the effect on exercise performance. Sports Medicine. 7: 235-247. White, J.A., Ward, C., Nelson, H. (1984). Ergogenic demands of a 24 cycling event. British Journal of Sports Medicine. l8(3): 165-177. Williams, M.H.(1999). Nutrition for Health, Fitness and Sport. (5th ed.). WCB/McGraw-Hi1l. Westerterp, KR, Saris W.H.M., Es van M., & Ten Hoor F. (1986). Use of doubly labeled water technique in humans during heavy sustained exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. 6 1: 2 262-2 167. Appendices Appendix 1 . Consent Form for Exercise Testing. Appendix 2. Certificate of Ethical Acceptability for Funded and Non Funded Research Involving Humans. CONSENT FORM FOR EXERCISE TESTING 1, %ub ,~DW/.IA @rint name) authorize Dr. David Montgomery to adminsiter a baseline exercise test and to coliect data during the Race Across America. The tests outlined below will be useâ for researcb puiposes. 1 understand that 1may discontinue the tests at any time if 1experince unusual discornfort. 1understand that the medical personnel may discontinue the testhg if my physicai health is in danger. 1understand that both the baseline t e s h g and the actuai event are extreme in nature and reserve the nght to termiuate the project at any time should 1or the medical personnel feel that 1am in danger. TESTS TO BE PERFORMED 1) Baseline testing will wnsist of a maximal oxygen uptaice protocol on the subject's racing bicycle using an electronidy calibrateci and braked resistance unit (CompuTrainer, RacerMate Inc., Seattle). Physiologicai data will be collected with a Sensormedics 2900 metabolic cart and include: maximai oxygen uptake, heart rate and power output. The protocol begins at a self selected cadence at a resistance of 50 watts, increasing every 3 minutes by 50 watts until volitional exhaustion. 2) The steady state test will consist of a single 6 minute stage at 150 watts. Ventilatory measurements and heart rate wiii be recorded throughout the test. 3) Field data will be collected on heart rate, oxygen uptake, power output, nutritional intake, and body weight during the Race Across America. Heart rate will be monitored continuously using a ~ o l a r sport * ~ tester, with data being downloaded to a compter every 24 hours. A Power ~a~~~strain gauge wiU be mounted on the rear hub of the bicycle to continuously record power output. Oxygen uptake wili be measured 5 tirnes per &y using a portable oxygen analyzer. Each measurement will be for 6 minutes while cycling on level terrain at a power output of 150 Watts. AU food and liquid consumed during the race will be measured and analyzed for total calories, percent carbohydrates, percent fat, and percent proteh. The subject's weight will be recorded 3 times per day. The environmental conditions (temperature, humidity and elevation) will be recorded throughout the race. 1 acknowledge that 1 have read and Mly comprehend the above Uzformation. 1understand the test and mesurernent procedures to be administered and the inherent risks, and 1 voluntarily consent to participate. 1 realize that the data will be released only to the principle investigators. Singature of participant : Date : - I MCGILL UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF EDUCATION CERTIFICATE OF ETHICAL ACCEPTABIUTV FOR FUNDED AND NON FUNOEO RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMANS CWIU UNtVZRSITY 1 RECEIVED JUN 81999 Fwlty of €ducahion Assoc. Dean's Office The Faculty of Education Ethics Review Committee consists of 6 members appointed by the Facuîty of Education Nominating Committee, an appointed member from the cornmunity and the Associate Dean (Academic Programs, Graduate Studies and Research) who is the Chair of this Ethics Review Board . The undersigneci considered the application for certification of the ethical acceptabiiity of the project entitled: Physiological Monitoring o f a Cyclist During the Race Across Amerka as proposed by: Applicant's Name David L. Montgomery S ~ p e ~ s o rName 's Applicant's Signature Supervisofs Signature a d L 1;) Degree l Program / Course Granting Agency The application is considered to be: A Full Review An Expedited Review X A Renewal for an Approved Project A Departmental Level Review Signature of Chair / Designate The review cornmittee considers the research procedures and practices as explaineci by the applicant in this application, to be acceptable on ethical grounds. 1. Prof. Evelvn Lusthaus 4. Prof. Lise Winer Department o i Educational and Counselling Psychology econd Language Education [4/ Signature 1 date Signature / date 2. Prof. John Leide 5. Prof. Claudia Mitchell Graduate School of Library and Information Studies Department of Educational Studies Signature / date Signature 1 date 3. Prof. Margaret Oowney Department of Physical Education 6. Prof. Kevin McDonough d Y / ~ a & d C'T)LLC~ Sigrhure# date 7. Mernber of the Cornmunity 9 ? / ~ /17 6 1 4ign;turel date - To be determined Signature / date 1 Mary H. Maguire Ph. O. ft- '2 chair of the-~acultyof Education Ethics Review Committee Associate Dean (Academic Prograrns, Graduate Studies and Research) Faculty of ducati ion, Room 236 Tel: (5 14) 398-7039/2183 Fax: (514) 398-1527 Signature 1 date 'J Revised May, 1999 f3 ' J 4. / ) I / J ~ L. L I L ; - ~G.JL= " i'$7 b MCGILL UNIVERSITY 1 FACULTY OF EDUCAl'lON CERTlFlCATE OF ETHICAL ACCEPTABIUTY FOR FUNDED AND NON FUNDED RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMANS 1 CHECKUST ( Revised May, 1999) The items indicated below require your attention before the Ethial Review Comrnitt88 can proœss and approve your research project. Please make sure to include al1 of them and refer to the attachai E l h a Research Procedures and Ethical Research Guidelines. IncompleZe applications will rbe sent bock fo the applitant 1. / 2. / lndicate the Type of Review : Full Review X Expedited Review Annual Renewal of Approved Projed Departmental Approval as Part of Undergraduate or Graduate Course Worû Certificate of Ethical Acceptability for Funded and Non Funded Research lnvolving Humans See Ethics Forrn: -name of the applicant and signature -name of the supervisor and signature (if applicable) title of the research project -degree program (if applicable) mgranting agency (if applicable) - 3 4. / / A dear. comprehensible Statement of Ethia of Proposeci Research and ywr signature. (See Ethics Fom - items 1 6). - Subrnission requirements: 4. A. For Expedited Review submit 2 copies of ethics fom, abstrad anaor brief summary (1-2pages) 4. 0 . For Full Review submit 8 copies of the ethics f o m and Full Research Proposal. 4. C. For Departmental Review submit f copy of the completed ethics f o m and certificate signedby the Department Chair, or Designate 5. / A copy of informed consent form(s) and procedures for obtaining free and infomied consent. Informed consent must be written in language that is appropriate for the participants. If applicable, a copy of the instrument to be used for colleding the data ( e-g. questionnaire, intenhew, etc. ) or, if using a commercial test, indude a copy of the test and a brief description of it. 7. Any other certificate of ethics vrrhich funding agencies may require. For Review of Research in other jun'sdictions or countries: Submit a copy of Ethics Review Approval from the relevant agency or institution for research to ôe perfonned outside the jurisdiction or country of the institute which employs the researcher. IMPORTANT POLlCY STATEMENTS: Approval of ethics acceptability must be obtained before data collection for a funded or non funded project. O Ali funded and non funded research undertaken at McGill University must be verifiable. O All researchers rnust be able to have respondents confirm that they gave specific data. O Confidentiality must be ensured. It can be generally achieved by establishing a system such as rnatching identification numbers with names and placing the names in a sealed envelope that is kept in a secure place. O The exact procedures used should be clearly explained in (6.1) of the staternent of ethics form. All researchers in the Faculty of Education must obtain the name and infomed consent of al1 research participants 18 years of age or older. For populations under 18, in most circumstances, informed consent must be obtained from parents or guardians as well as children. Submit t o the Office of the Associate Dean (Academic Pmgams, Graduate Studies and Research) Faculty of Education, Room 230 Tel: (514) 398-703912183 1 Fax: (514) 398-1527 8. - - Statement of ethics, p. 1 Revked May, 1999 MCGILL UNNERSJTY FACULTY OF EDUCAflON STATEMENT OF ETHICS OF PROPOSED RESEARCH It is assumed that the responses to the questions below refled the author's (or authors') familiarity with the ethical guidelines for funded and non funded research wioi human subjeds that have k e n adopted by the Faculty of Education and that responses confonn to and respect the Tricouncil Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research lnvohnng Humans (1998). 1. lnfonned Consent of Subjects Expiain how you propose to seek infomed consent fmm each of your subjeds (orshould they be minors, from their parents or guardian). Informed consent indudes comprehension of the are nature, procedures. purposes, risks, and benefits of the researeh in whjdl participab'ng. Please append to this statement a copy of the consent form that you intend to use. The s u b j e c t w i l l be a s k e d t o read and sign a consent fonn which w i l l d e f i n e a l 1 tests and measurements t o be a d i n i s t e r e d . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s w i l l read w i t h and i n f o r m the s u b j e c t o f h i s r i g h t ta w i t h d r a w from the p r o j e c t a t any t i m e . The s u b j e c t i s free t o d r o p o u t o f the Race A c r o s s America a t any p o i n t i n t h e r a c e . T h e investigation w i l l o n l y b e g i n a f t e r the consent fom h a s been s i g n e d . 2. Subject Recruinnent 2.1 Are the subjects a 'captive population' (e.g., residents of a rehabilitation centre, students in a class, inmates in a penal establishment)? 2.2 Explain how institutional or social pressures will not be applied to encourage participation. (See attached guidelines) The s u b j e c t w i l l be reminded t h a t t h i s i s a volunteer s t u d y and w i l l be assured o f h i s r i g h t t o d i s c o n t i n u e the p r o j e c t a t any t i m e and for any reason . 2.3 What is the nature of any inducernent you intend to present to prospective subjects to persuade them to participate in your study? The s u b j e c t is a former world c l a s s a t h l e t e who w i l l be r e c e i v i n g 1abora tory c e s c i n g normal ly worth s e v e r a l hundred d o l l a r s . Knowl e d g e o f the p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e s p o n s e d u r i n g the Race Across America cycl i n g competi t i o n will h e l p this s u b j e c t t r a i n for f u t u r e u l tramarathon c y c l i n g even t s . 2.4 How will you help pspective participants understand that they may freely withdraw h m the study at their own discretion and for any reason? T h i s w i l l be c l e a r l y s t a t e d i n the c o n s e n t form. In a d d i t i o n the s u b j e c t w i l l be v e r b a l l y reminded d u r i n g t h e r a c e t h a t h e i s free t o w i t h d r a w and/or d i s c o n t i n u e the p h y s i o l o g i c a l d a t a c o l l e c t i o n a t a n y t i m e and f o r any r e a s o n . 3. Subject Risk and Well-being What assurance can you provide this cornmittee (as weîl as the subjeds) that the risks, physical andlor psychological, that are inherent to this study are either minimal or fully justifiable given the benefits that these same subjeds can reasonabiy exped to receive? The subject has voluateered to -ter t h i s event. W e are proviciing pre-, during and post-event medical supervision and personnel t o support h i s participation i n t h i s project. The medical personnel that are part of the support crew w i l l hold ultimate decision making a b i l i t y when i t comes t o the detemination of whether or not t o continue the competi tion. In addition, the athlete may decide t o end the competi tion a t any time and for any reason. Also, the support vehicle will follow and moni tor the rider throughou t the race t o ensure safety. The testing poses minimal intrusion t o the a t h l e t e ' s goal which i s t o complete the race as quickly as possible. 4. Deception of Subjects 4.1 Will the research design necessitate any deception to the subjeds? 4.2 If so, M a t assurance can you provide this cornmittee that no alternative methodology is adequate? Not applkable 4.3 If deception is used, how do you intend to nullify any negative consequences of the deception? Not applicable 5. Privacy of Subjects How will this study respect the subjeds' right to privacy, that is, their right to refuse you access to any information which falls within the private domain? Any information the subject provides and wishes t o be kept p r i v a t e w i l l remain confidential between the physician and the subject. The subject w i l l be free t o refuse collection o f any physiological &ta a t any point during the race. The subject's i d e n t i t y w i l l remain anonymous i n publications. 6.1 How will this study ensure that (a) the identity of the subjects wilf be concealeci and (b) the confidentiality of the informationwhich they will fumish to the researchers or their surrogates will be safeguarded? (See guidelines on confidentialitylanonymtty sedion). T h e data w i l l be stored i n a filing cabinet that is accessible only t o investiga tors. The subject's i d e n t i t y w i l l only be used i n future publications with h i s written consent. Statement of ethics, p. 3 6.2 If applicable, explain how data will be aggregated in such a way that even should the identity of the participants becotm k n m , no reasonabie inference could be made about the performance, cornpetence, or charader of any one of h s e participants. If data will not be aggregated, provide a detailed explanath. This is a case study whereby C h e physiological response w i l l be described over an 8 - 2 0 day event. T h e description will examine the physiological response i n relation t o environmenta1 f a c t o r s and i n r e l a t i o n t a fatigue on a d a i l y basis. For example, c a l o r i c i n t a k e w i l l be described i n t e m s of calories, carbohydrate, % f a t , and protein from day 1 t o day 1 0 . Power output w i l l be averaged each hour and described throughou t the r a c e . Similarly, heart rate and oxygen up take will be d e s c r i b e d throughouc the event. The description w i l l focus on the response of one subject over 8 - 1 0 d a y s . + Signature of researchec + R ~/zLflH If this project has been submitted to another ethics cornmittee, please note the particulars: Submit this statement to: m c e of the Associate Dean (Academic Programs, Gaduate Studies and Research) Faculty of Education, Rcom 230 Tel: (514) 398-703912l83 Fax: (514) 398-1527