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Vulture News 68 July 2015 VULTURE NEWS The Journal of the IUCN Vulture Specialist Group No. 68 July 2015 CONTENTS ARTICLES Status and threats to vultures in China 3 Roller MaMing and Guohua Xu Blood lead levels in White-Backed Vultures (Gyps africanus) from Botswana. 25 David Kenny, Richard Reading, Glyn Maude, Peter Hancock and Beckie Garbett A preliminary assessment of the palate and tongue for detecting organophosphorus and carbamate pesticide exposure in the degraded carcasses of vultures and other animals Ngaio L. Richards, Irene Zorrilla, Isabel Fernandez, Mónica Calvino, Joaquin Garcia and Antonio Ruiz 1 32 Vulture News 68 July 2015 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS, NOTES AND REPORTS New record of African White-backed Vulture (Gyps africanus) in Europe 52 A. Godino and C. Machado Attempted Verreaux’s Eagle predation on Rüppell’s Vulture and breeding observations at Lake Kwenia colony, Kenya. 59 Simon Thomsett and James Aldrich. IUCN Species Survival Commission: Vulture Specialist Group Summary updates April 2015 for vultures and VSG activities RECENT LITERATURE 64 66 69 Peter Mundy Printed by Jetline Modderfontein, Johannesburg Published by the Birds of Prey Programme, Endangered Wildlife Trust Editor: Campbell Murn Associate Editors: Peter Mundy and Darcy Ogada Front cover: Adult Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) photographed in Xinjiang, China (R. MaMing) Back cover: Immature African White-backed Vulture (Gyps africanus) photographed with a digi-scope in Portugal (A. Godino) 2 Vulture News 68 July 2015 ARTICLES Status and threats to vultures in China Roller MaMing* and Guohua Xu Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 818 Beijing Road, Urumqi, 830011, Xinjiang, P. R. of China. *Corresponding author: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/vulnew.v68i1.1 concerns about their lesser-known Introduction relatives and the survival of vultures Populations of three old world has cultural as well as ecological vulture species, Gyps bengalensis, implications. Gyps tenuirostris and Gyps indicus studies on these three species, little is collapsed Indian known about population trends in Subcontinent (Prakash et al. 2012). highland areas, particularly in China, These where there have been few studies of across population the declines were the anti-inflammatory drug, diclofenac, Currently, there is little information that available visceral gout carrion-eating extensive attributed to the use of a nonsteroidal causes large Despite regarding the raptors. use of subsequently leading to renal failure veterinary diclofenac for livestock in in vultures that consume carcasses western China, and little is known contaminated with the drug (Green et about populations and dynamics of al. 2004, Oaks et al. 2004, Naidoo et vultures in China overall (Pain et al. al. 2009). This situation raised 2003, Lu et al. 2009, Ma et al. 3 Vulture News 68 2013). Therefore, in this paper we July 2015 (Di 2003), because there are more want background than seven Old World Vulture information regarding vultures and species distributed there (Ma et al. their protection status in China. 2014). At the same time, nearly 28 to introduce Vultures include 16 living million people live on the Tibetan species that occur on the Old World. Plateau. However, in China there are more predominantly on livestock carcasses vultures species than most other as food resources and this highlights countries (eight species), accounting their ecological importance in the for 50% of vulture species in the Old highland World. They are Bearded Vulture human corpses also provide a small (Gypaetus barbatus), White-rumped fraction of the total food resource to Vulture vultures, so the vultures play a (Gyps bengalensis), Himalayan Griffon himalayensis), Eurasian Some vultures ecosystem. depend Meanwhile, (Gyps unique role in the centuries-old sky Griffon burial tradition followed by Tibetan (Gyps fulvus), Cinereous Vulture people. In short, vultures have not (Aegypius monachus), Red-headed only ecological but also cultural Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus), Slender- value. Therefore, extra attention billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris) should and Egyptian Vulture (Neophron conservation of these scavenging percnopterus) respectively (Zhang & species. be directed at the Yang 1980, Gu et al. 1994, Zheng 2011, Guo and Ma 2012). The Distribution and Population of species Vultures in China have an extensive geographical distribution, centred on the northwest, the Tibetan plateau, The vultures of China have received Pamir plateau and the southwest great attention from the government. minority areas in China. Meanwhile, The dramatic population crashes of the three species of Gyps vulture in the Tibetan plateau has been regarded as the kingdom of vultures south Asia was a good example and 4 Vulture News 68 urged China to take some measures July 2015 by the court according to the wild to protect these species. In 1988, the animal conservation law. On May Law of the People’s Republic of 20, 2013, Lei was arrested for China on the Protection of Wildlife mailing a Cinereous Vulture skeleton established illegally, and was sentenced by the two categories of nationally protected wild animals, court. and most species in these two Despite protection efforts such as categories are rare and threatened. In these, most vulture populations are 2001, still in a downward trend over recent the Administration State Forestry an years. Table 1 presents data on eight additional list of nationally protected vulture species in China and the species that are either beneficial or world, summarised from government with websites, important announced economic or the State Forestry scientific value. This list covered an Administration, additional 707 species of birds, International and the IUCN Red List BirdLife including many that are common and of Threatened Species. widespread in China. In addition to Based on recent investigations the nationally protected species, (Ma 2011), only three vultures are many provinces have published lists common of locally protected wildlife. himalayensis, Gypaetus barbatus, Under these laws, there is some and in Aegypius China: monachus. Gyps The effective protection for the listed numbers of other vulture species, wildlife. For example, in August such 2002, the defendants Li Yuesheng, Slender-billed Vulture, are small and Li Congrong and Li Ziqi caught 26 mostly only recorded one to three Himalayan Griffons in a nature times in the past 50 years. According reserve of Yunnan Province, and all to data released by the State Forestry the vultures died in the end, so they Administration were sentenced to 10 years, 12 years population size of the Bearded and 13 years respectively and fined as Egyptian in Vulture 2009, and the Vulture was estimated at 92,000 5 Vulture News 68 individuals in China (e.g. 22,018 in on Xinjiang, 32,500 in Qinghai, 29,126 distribution in Gansu, 7,500 in Xizang [Tibet], BirdLife (2014) and the IUCN Red 800 in Sichuan, 54 in other parts of List, we estimated the number of the China) (National Forestry Bureau eight 2009). However, this species breeds according to their distribution and at low densities in other parts of its population size in the world (Table range and in some other countries 1). there are only 200-300 pairs in total. distributed in China are mainly in the Furthermore, the global population western regions of the country (Xu of the Bearded Vulture is estimated 1995, Ma 2011, Zheng 2011). Figure to be less than 10,000 individuals. 1 shows the distribution of these Therefore, there is some doubt over species and highlights that most the accuracy of data provided by the species are centered on the Tibetan Chinese Forestry Bureau about the Plateau. Ranges also extend into the population size of the Bearded southwest, Vulture; as a result, we re-calculated Mongolia (Kenny et al. 2008) and the population estimate again. Based the Himalaya. 6 population The data area vulture July 2015 and the described species eight in vulture northwest, by China species Inner Vulture News 68 July 2015 Table 1: Summary of status, numbers, distribution of Old World Vultures and key threats to vultures in China Species Distribution (summary) Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) Bhutan, China, India, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, Central Asia, Middle East, Europe, North East and East Africa Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, South-East Asia White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis) Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus) Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) Bhutan, China, India, Pakistan, South-East Asia, Central Asia Central Asia, Europe, North Africa, Turkey, China Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Mongolia, East Asia, Central Asia, Middle East, Europe Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, Vietnam Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, South-East Asia Global population (individuals) 2,000-10,000 Global distribution (km2) 8,840,000 Current trend Red List Status* Decreasing LC 3,500-15,000 4,920,000 Decreasing CR 100,000499,999 40,000-50,000 3,100,000 Stable LC 10,200,000 Increasing LC 21,000-30,000 13,700,000 Decreasing NT 3,500-15,000 3,690,000 Decreasing CR Slender-billed Vulture 1,500-3,750 847,000 Decreasing NT (Gyps tenuirostris) Egyptian Vulture India, Pakistan, China, Central Asia, Africa, 20,000-61,000 18,700,000 Decreasing EN (Neophron Europe (more southerly countries), Middle East percnopterus) * Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), Near Threatened (NT), and Least Concern (LC). Global population estimates from BirdLife (2014) and IUCN Red List (2013). Population size in China estimates were based on the world population and distribution area. 7 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Table 1: continued. Species Bearded Vulture List in China Ⅰ Distribution in China Est. China population Shanxi, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Ningxia, NW Yunnan, Western Sichuan, Hubei, Hebei, Shaanxi The western and SW of Yunnan 100-200 6,9009,900 White-rumped Vulture Himalayan Griffon Ⅰ Ⅱ Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, Tibet, Ningxia, Sichuan, Western Yunnan 90,000230,000 Eurasian Griffon Cinereous Vulture Ⅱ Western Xinjiang, SE Tibet 100-300 Ⅱ Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Mongolia, Shanxi, Sichuan. Tibet, SE China, Taiwan 9,00015,000 Red-headed Vulture Ⅱ SW Yunnan, SE Tibet 100-300 Slender-billed Vulture Ⅱ SE Tibet 20-100 Western Xinjiang 20-100 Egyptian Vulture Ⅱ 8 Chief threats Research needs Poisoning, persecution, habitat loss, disturbance, power lines, windfarms, lack of safe food NSAID poisoning, lack of safe food NSAID poisoning, lack of safe food Monitoring population, food habits, breeding ecology Persecution, poisoning, lack of safe food, power lines Disturbance, lack of safe food, poisoning, secondary poisoning (NSAIDs) Persecution, secondary poisoning, lack of safe food, intensification of agriculture NSAID poisoning, lack of safe food Disturbance, poisoning, electrocution, food availability NSAIDs, monitoring population, breeding NSAIDs, monitoring population, food habits, breeding Monitoring population, food habits, breeding NSAIDs, monitoring population, food habits, breeding NSAIDs, monitoring population, food habits, breeding NSAIDs, monitoring population, food habits, breeding Monitoring population, food habits, breeding Vulture News 68 July 2015 Figure 1: Distribution maps of the eight vulture species in China Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis) Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) Eurasian Griffon (Gyps fulvus) Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus) Red-headed Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) 9 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Slender-billed Vulture (Gyps tenuirostris) Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) Figure 1: Distribution maps of the eight vulture species in China usually geographically remote, which adds to time, labour and logistical costs; many areas are inaccessible. Finally, there is limited funding for vulture research in addition to current government priorities being directed in other areas. Vultures in China are sustained mainly by feeding on livestock carcasses in the region. As obligate scavengers they occupy an important ecological niche by contributing to carcass removal and nutrient recycling. A particular role performed by vultures relates to the centuries-old sky burial tradition, which is followed by nearly five million Tibetan people (Figure 2). Domestic Research Status In China there have been few studies on large carrion-eating raptors (Ye 1991), especially in relation to reproductive biology and population ecology. Published reports are few and deficient in detail and the research literature is limited. In conclusion, little is known about the breeding biology, habitat preferences or behaviour and ecology of China’s vultures, for a number of reasons. Firstly, harsh environmental conditions and in particular high altitude, cold climate settings is a significant obstacle to research work. Secondly, the relevant areas are 10 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Sky burial is how Tibetan culture treats its dead. At sky burial sites, human bodies are typically cut up, with bones broken into fragments by burial priests, and these are consumed entirely by griffons and other scavengers. A total of 1,200 sky burial sites are distributed over the Tibetan plateau. Local Buddhist people believe that the vultures take the soul of the dead person to heaven. Because of this, local people value and protect vultures. Figure 2: Sky burial and Himalayan Griffon in Tibet Potential Threats to Vultures in China Today, vultures face many survival problems in China. Poisoning, wind power stations, poaching, capture, specimen trade, highway construction and the use of vulture parts for cultural purposes are all threats. In particular, due to development in the western regions of the country, vultures in China face a series of threats. Here we describe some of these threats in greater detail. 11 Vulture News 68 July 2015 deliberately poisoned carcasses, and vultures become the unintended victims (Figure 3). In such cases, one poisoned carcass can kill a large number of vultures. At one sky burial site, we were told by local people that about 100 vultures were found dead after feeding on a human carcass (Jin and Yu 2004). This matter caused quite a shock among the local community, and as a result, sky burials were not permitted for people who died of toxicosis or infectious diseases, in an attempt to prevent poisoning of vultures. 1. Poisoning. Traditional agricultural practices that use limited pesticides are practiced throughout the plateau areas of China. However, in the northeast in western Sichuan, Northern Qinghai, and Southern Gansu, pesticides are commonly used for controlling pika (Ochotona spp.), which could cause secondary poisoning of vultures (Hernández and Margalida 2008). Some farmers, aiming to control other scavengers and predators such as wolves and wild dogs, lay out Figure 3: A poisoned Bearded Vulture The population collapse of three species of Gyps vultures (Oriental White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis, Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus and Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris) due to the use of veterinary diclofenac in South Asia (Oaks et al. 2004, Pain et al. 2003) led to these species being reclassified as Critically Endangered and diclofenac being banned in the region. However, the surviving vultures remain under threat due to residual diclofenac use (Das et al. 2011) as well as other veterinary drugs. Currently, it is unknown if diclofenac is affecting populations of vultures and other scavenging birds 12 Vulture News 68 July 2015 in China, but given the ubiquitous nature of the drug prior to the ban, there is a likely risk. Vultures in China have a geographic distribution that overlaps with that of the three Gyps species in south Asia, and they share similar foraging behaviors. We consider that the vultures in China are highly likely to be subject to diclofenac poisoning, and this situation requires urgent investigation. been established. The largest wind farm in China is located in Xinjiang (Figure 4). This brings negative effects to the survival of raptors. For example, the design of the grid structure is often unsafe and electrical wiring is often bare, which lacks any measure of protection for birds. According to investigations, about 20% raptors are under the threat of electrocution in the west, the number of dead raptors as high as 1.36 per kilometre (Mei & Ma 2008). We were surprised to find up to five dead raptors under some electricity poles. These mortalities not only affect the survival of local raptor populations, but also the safe operation of the transmission lines (Mei & Ma 2008). 2. The threat of the power grid. At present, the northwest power grid and Tibet power grid are spreading into the western areas of China. Additionally, based on the abundant wind resources in western China, a large number of wind farms have Figure 4: The wind power station in west China feathers also have a high value, so some people kill vultures to make ornaments, which are a deformed fashion decoration, or trap the vultures for their plumage. Today, 3. Specimen making and trading. People have found that vultures have a special form and a high ornamental value since the 1990s. Vulture 13 Vulture News 68 July 2015 more and more people are addicted to these fetishes. Specimen trading for a wide range of uses including herbariums, museums, schools, research, individual collectors and the market for animal parts means that prices for vulture parts remain very high. For example, a good vulture specimen can be worth as much as 12,000 Yuan [~$2,000 US] or more, and this high value contributes to demand. In addition, the Tibetan and Tajik people make flutes with vulture bones to play music (Figure 5), which is part of their traditional culture (MaMing et al. 2014). Flutes made from vulture wing bones are very expensive; prices in Xinjiang can exceed 10,000 Yuan [~$1,700 US], which undoubtedly stimulates harvesting of vultures from the wild. Figure 5: The specimen and vulture bone flute in China of meat has increased sharply, many animals that died naturally have been collected by local people (Tashi and Zhou 2009). Some Han people with no religious beliefs process these dead bodies into dry spicy meat (such as sausage, bacon, dumplings, jerky, dried meat, etc.) for sale illegally. Both activities reduce food for vultures. 4. Food Shortage. Farm management has gradually improved in the west of China; death rates in grazing cattle have greatly decreased due to improved disease control and prevention, reducing food for vultures. Local Islamic people do not eat animals that have died naturally, and in the past this helped vultures, but since the price 14 Vulture News 68 The human population has expanded very rapidly in the last decade and with it there has been a sharp increase in outdoor tourist activities that can lead to disturbance of breeding vultures. There are other reasons for reduced food supply for vultures. For example, in some areas deceased humans are buried or cremated instead of going to sky burial, whilst declining populations of Wolves (Canis lupus), Dholes (Cuon alpinus) and Snow Leopards (Uncia uncia) have also affected the food supply of vultures (Ma et al. 2014) in the form of reduced carrion from predator kills (Figure 6). July 2015 Between August–October 2012 and March–October 2013, we spent more than 90 days in the field in central Tien Shan, and we found some chicks still in the nest in September and October. This is a very unusual phenomenon. We speculate that the food shortages is a reason why they are still in the nest (Ma et al. 2013, Liu et al. 2013, Clements et al. 2013). At the same time, in the western region, we found some vultures breeding earlier than normal, which may be a strategy response to climate change, different land-use practices and food changes (Houston 1990, Murn and Anderson 2008). Figure 6: Himalayan Griffons eating a dead yak 15 Vulture News 68 July 2015 5. Demand by zoos. fate of these birds is unknown, but it is clear they were captured from the wild as there is no breeding of this species in zoos. Further, due to inadequate management, it is likely that these birds will be dead before too long, thus requiring that more wild birds are captured. As a result, capturing vultures from the wild is unlikely to end, which will continue to have a detrimental impact on wild populations. In order to attract tourists and make money, some local zoos and other venues capture wild vultures for public display. Visitors pay money to take pictures and pose with the birds (Figure 7). At a zoo in Ningbo, it was observed that in order to celebrate the construction of a new enclosure, nine Himalayan Griffons (Figure 8) were put on display. The Figure 7: These Cinereous Vultures were caught for sport or entertainment 16 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Figure 8: Himalayan Griffons and Cinereous Vultures in Ningbo Zoo 6. Medicinal value. caught and sold for medicinal components (Fauna of Medicinal Animal in China 1979, Li 1981, Leung 2006). Some Chinese herbal medicine shops sell desiccated vulture parts — heads, talons, feathers, eyes, beaks and hearts — for traditional medicine or fetishes (Figure 9). In some areas, we were surprised to find vulture meat was traded (Koenig 2006). These uses stimulate people to kill more vultures. The theory of traditional Chinese medicine considers that vultures, along with other birds of prey, have many important medical functions, especially some unique curative effects. For example, feather, bone, meat, beak, claw, faeces and internal organs such as craw, gizzard or stomach have all been used for traditional medicine since ancient times (Li 1981, Luo 2003, Leung 2006). This leads to vultures being 17 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Figure 9: The bones from a Cinereous Vulture for sale in a shop 7. Illegal hunting. head and leg we removed two fragment of the shots by emergency operation (Figure 10). Illegal hunting is also used to obtain birds for sale (Figure 11) and to take live samples for medicinal purposes. The value of such commodities is high and there is a ready market for them. These factors encourage criminals to take risks to capture raptors for sale. Illegal hunting in the western region and central mountains in China is very widespread. According to a report, at noon on May 25, 2003, a Cinereous Vulture was illegally shot by a hunter in the Yibin County. The head and foot was badly hurt, and the bird was taken to a local zoo in a critical condition. From the vulture 18 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Figure 10: Rescued injured Cinereous Vulture Figure 11: Cinereous Vulture for sale in Yibin 19 Vulture News 68 July 2015 only play a significant role in maintaining ecosystem function, they are highly respected in Buddhist culture and have a significant role in terms of cultural unity and social stability. The threats to vultures across the world are numerous (Ledger and Annegarn 1981, Cunningham 1990, Camiña and Montelío 2006, McKie 2007, Naidoo et al. 2009, Ogada 2014, Saidu & Buij, 2013, Williams et al. 2014) and similar threats are likely to be occurring in China, but have not been evaluated fully. We recommend that a detailed evaluation of these threats takes place, and in particular quantifying their impact on vulture populations in China. Discussion In recent years, the western regions of China have seen development in the form of mining operations, roads and a growing human population. This has damaged local environments, including the habitat of raptors, and has been a great threat to vulture populations. At present, there have been few studies of the large carrion-eating raptors in China (Ye 1991) and published reports are few and limited in detail. Many statistics about vultures released by the relevant departments in China are inaccurate, so there is a lack of baseline knowledge about vultures, which hinders the formulation of appropriate laws and essential conservation measures. These species are still poorly understood in China, but they are facing a dangerous situation. If vultures continue to decline, the ecological and economic implications are hard to determine at present, but ecological systems will undoubtedly be affected negatively. Additionally, the loss of vultures has serious cultural and religious implications (Satheesan 1998), and potentially for other wildlife and for human health. Further research is urgently required. Vultures, as obligate scavengers, not Acknowledgements This research was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31572292, 31272291, 30970340). Field workers included Li Bo, Liu Zheqing, Dao Caiwujiap, Shan Jiap, Xing Rui, Luo Biao, Wang Yaotian, Chen Xiting, Li Weidong, Shi Zhu, Jirige Lite, Ding Peng, Te Lai, Zhang Tong, Zhao Xumao, Xu Feng, Sun Dahuan (the Xinjiang Bird-watching Society),HF Cheung (the Hong Kong Bird Watching Society), Ablimit Abdukadir, Lin Xuanlong, 20 Vulture News 68 July 2015 MardanTurghan, Shi Lei, Ba Tai, Cai Dai, Yang Xiaomin, Huang Yahui, Jiang Yingxin, Jiang Mingyi, Xiang Wenjun, Maimaitiming Aizijiang, Ma Yao, Gao Xiaoqing, Ting Zhou etc. Keywords: Vultures, population size, status, threatened, China References BirdLife International. 2014. Species factsheets: Gypaetus barbatus, Gyps bengalensis, Gyps himalayensis, Gyps fulvus, Aegypius monachus, Sarcogyps calvus, Gyps tenuirostris, Neophron percnopterus. 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The power of poison: pesticide poisoning of Africa's wildlife. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1322: 1-20. Pain, D.J., Cunningham, A.A., Donald, P.F., Duckworth, J.W., Houston, D.C., Katzner, T., Parry-Jones, J., Poole, C., Prakash, V., Round, P. & Timmins, R. 2003. Causes and effects of temporospatial declines of Gyps Vultures in Asia. Conservation Biology 17: 661-671. Prakash, V., Bishwakarma, M. C., Chaudhary, A., Cuthbert, R., & Dave, R. 2012. The population decline of Gyps Vultures in India and Nepal has slowed since veterinary use of diclofenac was banned. PLoS ONE 7(11): e49118. Saidu, Y. & Buij, R. 2013. Traditional medicine trade in vulture parts in northern Nigeria. Vulture News 65: 4-14. Satheesan, S.M. 1998. The role of vultures in the disposal of human corpses in India and Tibet. Vulture News 39: 32–33. 23 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Tashi, S. & Zhou, J. 2009. My Himalayan Vulture. Supported by Eu-China Programme (http://video.sina.com.cn/p/news/green/v/2011-0124/141461244735.html) Wildlife Protection Law of the People's Republic of China. 2004. (http://www.gov.cn/fwxx/bw/lyj/content_396083.htm). Williams, V. L., Cunningham, A. B., Kemp, A. C. & Bruyns, R. K. 2014. Risks to birds traded for African traditional medicine: A quantitative assessment. PloS one 9(8): e105397. Xu, W.S. 1995. China's birds of prey. China Forestry Publishing, Beijing, China. Ye, X.T. 1991. Distribution and status of the Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus in China. Birds of Prey Bulletin 4: 51-56. Zhang, F.Y. & Yang, R.L. 1980. The Lammergeyer in the southern Gansu. Acta Zoologica Sinica 26: 86-90. Zheng, G.M. 2011. A checklist on the classification and distribution of the birds of China. Science Press, Beijing, China. ****** 24 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Blood lead levels in White-Backed Vultures (Gyps africanus) from Botswana, Africa David Kenny1,2*, Richard Reading1,2, Glyn Maude1,2, Peter Hancock2, Beckie Garbett2 1 Denver Zoological Foundation, E. 2300 Steele St, Denver, Colorado 80205, USA. 2 Raptors Botswana, Box Hak 33, Maun, Botswana, Africa. * Corresponding author: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/vulnew.v68i1.2 Introduction hematopoietic, reproductive, and nervous systems (Locke & Thomas 1996, Redig & Cruz-Martinez 2009). It is the most common heavy metal poison reported for avian species, including raptors (Mautino 1997). Lead toxicity from hunter-spent lead ammunition is the major impediment to the recovery of the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) in North America (Finkelstein et al. 2012, Stringfield 2012). There have been documented lead toxicity reports for vultures from both the New World (South and North America) and the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia). Vulture species reported with lead toxicity include the New World Andean Currently vulture populations in subSaharan Africa are dramatically declining due to direct and indirect poisoning with pesticides (Ogada 2014, Virani 2011). During a tagging and radio telemetry study from 2012 thru 2015 involving several species of vultures in Botswana, the Denver Zoological Foundation in collaboration with Raptors Botswana investigated lead exposure as another issue that might affect the persistence of vultures in Africa in the future. Lead toxicity in avian species manifests itself as a cumulative, multi-systemic disease affecting the liver, kidney, heart, gastrointestinal, 25 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Condor (Vultur gryphus), California Condor, and Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura) and the Old World Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus), Pyrenean Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), Eurasian Black Vulture (Aegypius monachus) and Egyptian Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) (Hernández & Margalida 2009, Mateo 2009, Nam & Lee 2009, Rodriguez-Ramos et al. 2009, Kelly et al. 2011, Lambertucci et al. 2011, Stringfield 2012). However, we discovered no published reports for lead toxicity in African vultures. lead analysis. We obtained blood samples from 477 White-Backed Vultures (WbV, Gyps africanus) for blood lead testing. Blood lead level (BLL) analyses were performed with the portable LeadCare® I clinical analyzer in 2012 and the LeadCare® II clinical analyzer in 2013 thru 2015 (LeadCare® I & II, Magellan Diagnostics, North Billerica, Massachusetts 01862, U.S.A.). The LeadCare® I reports BLLs down to 0 µg/dl and the LeadCare II® reports values <3.3 μg/dl as “Low” and both the LeadCare® I & II analyzers report values >65 μg/dl as “High”. For statistical analysis we assigned a value of 1.6 ± μg/dl for levels determined as “Low” and a value of 66 μg/dl for levels reported as “High” from both analyzers. There were 72 results reported as “Low” and 7 as “High”. We therefore consider our results to be conservative for BLLs. Methods We captured vultures in several regions of Botswana. For capture we used bait and a gas-propelled canon net system (WCS NetBlaster™, Wildlife Control Supplies, East Granby, CT 06026, USA) with a portable nitrogen tank to charge the canon and a 13 m x 17.3 m braided nylon net with a 5.1 cm mesh and 21.8 kg breaking strain. We restrained captured birds in dorsal recumbency for venipuncture from the ventral ulnaris vein. We transferred blood to a purple-top tube (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid tube, 250-500 μl fill, Capiject, Terumo Medical Corporation, Elkton, Maryland 21921, U.S.A.) for Results Across all samples (n = 477), mean BLL was 10.6 µg/dl (SE ±0.52 µg/dl) , and the median BLL was 6.8 µg/dl. We divided the results into three categories; <10 µg/dl, 10 - <45 µg/dl, and >45 µg/dl (Figure 1). As per Finkelstein et al. (2012), for California Condors, a blood level 26 Vulture News 68 July 2015 ≥10 µg/dl is consistent with exposure while ≥45 µg/dl is toxic and a candidate for chelation therapy. Applying these categories to this study 28.51% (n = 136) of the birds had BLLs consistent with exposure while an additional 2.31% (n = 11) of the birds were consistent with toxicity (Figure 1). Therefore 30.77% of these randomly captured birds exceeded the background 10 µg/dl level. We immediately released birds following processing and prior to analysis so there was no possibility to follow up or treat individuals with elevated BLLs. 80% 70% 69.18% (n = 330) 60% 50% 40% 28.51% (n = 136) 30% 20% 10% 2.31% (n = 11) 0% <10 µg/dl 10 to <45 µg/dl BLL categories >45 µg/dl Figure 1: Percentage of 477 White-backed Vultures (WbV, Gyps africanus) with different blood lead levels (BLL) for in Botswana. 27 Vulture News 68 July 2015 fragmentation would potentially expose many vultures to lead fragments from carcasses or gut piles left in the field. We have no knowledge if there is significant lead contamination in soil or water and available to avian scavengers in Botswana. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has adopted the position that there is no acceptable BLL for humans (Pain 1995, Brown & Wheeler 2013). All the known effects of lead on living organisms are deleterious, so there is no safe BLL (Pain 1995). The subtle effects of low-level chronic lead exposure may go unnoticed, but affected animals may be less fit and more susceptible to morbidity and mortality. We are concerned that the cumulative subclinical negative effects from chronic lead toxicity may affect long-term survival for these long-lived and slow reproducing vulture species. In conclusion, pesticide poisoning is one of the main factors responsible for the major reduction of vulture populations in subSaharan Africa and certainly requires an immediate response by the conservation community. In this report we have described an additional problem for vultures – the ingestion of lead. Our results show Discussion We did not determine the definitive source/s for elevated BLLs in this study but hypothesize that potential sources are hunter-spent lead ammunition, soil, and/or water. The highest mean BLL we determined was 17.7 µg/dl (n = 33) on a hunting ranch while the lowest was 6.4 µg/dl (n = 42) in a National Park. We therefore suspect that spent lead ammunition is at least partially responsible for the WbV BLLs. We plan to continue sampling other areas in Botswana, including hunting ranches and protected areas, and analyze and report on statistically significant differences between capture sites. As previously described lead poisoning from hunter-spent ammunition is a significant issue negatively impacting the recovery of the California Condor. Spent lead ammunition in Botswana may originate from legal hunting or illegal poaching activities. Modern firearms achieve high velocities causing lead-based bullets to fragment widely along the wound tract (Stroud & Hunt 2009). In a deer study, 74% of the offal piles examined contained >100 fragments distributed along the wound channel (Hunt et al. 2006). This degree of 28 Vulture News 68 July 2015 that this is already happening in Botswana and we suspect in other African countries. Following hunting activities, carcasses or gut piles with lead ammunition fragments left in the field are available for scavengers. As with pesticides, lead-poisoned birds may die and go unnoticed in the bush. More insidious is chronic low-level lead poisoning which might reduce fitness pushing increasingly smaller populations closer to extinction. Solutions to lead poisoning should be proactive, science-based and address ecological, social, economic, and political concerns. A first step in reducing lead levels in the avian scavenger environment would be to replace lead-based ammunition with non-lead substitutes. Soil and water as sources for lead in vultures also merit additional future investigation. Acknowledgements We thank the Botswana Department of Wildlife and National Parks (Research Division) for granting permits to conduct this research. We also thank staff from the Denver Zoological Foundation, Raptors Botswana, KANABO Conservation Link, White Buffalo, and Stuart and Teresa Graham for assistance with capture, processing, and financial support. References Brown, M.J. & Wheeler, W. 2013. Blood lead levels in children aged 1-5 years – United States, 1999-2010. Morbidity and Mortality Report April 5, 2013/62:245-248. Finkelstein, M.E., Doak, D.F., George, D., Burnett, J., Church, M., Grantham, J. & Smith, D.R. 2012. Lead poisoning and the deceptive recovery of the critically endangered California condor. Pp. 11449-11454 in: Paine, R.T. (ed.). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, July 10, 109. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas. 1203141109. Hernández, M. & Margalida, A. 2009. Assessing the risk of lead exposure for the conservation of the endangered Pyrenean bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) population. Environmental Research 109: 837-842. 29 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Hunt, W.G., Burnham, W., Parish, C.N., Burnham, K.K., Mutch, B. & Oaks J.L. 2006. Bullet fragments in deer remains: implication for lead exposure in scavengers. Wildlife Society Bulletin 34:167-170. Kelly, T.R., Bloom, P.H., Torres, S.G., Hernandez, Y.Z., Poppenga, R.H., Boyce, W.M. & Johnson C.K. 2011. Impact of the California lead ammunition ban on reducing lead exposure in golden eagles and turkey vultures. PLOS ONE, www.plosone.org/article/info%3Ad01%2F10.1371%fjournal.pone.00176 56.pdf. Lambertucci, S.A., Donázar, J.A,. Huertas, A.D., Jiménez, B., Sáez, M., Sanchez-Zapata, J.A. & Hiraldo, F. 2011. Widening the problem of lead poisoning to a South American top scavenger: lead concentrations in feathers of wild Andean condors. Biological Conservation 144:14641471. Locke, L.N. & Thomas, N.J. 1996. Lead Poisoning of waterfowl and raptors. Pp. 108-117 in: Fairbrother, A., Locke, L.N. & Hoff, G.L. (eds.). Noninfectious Diseases of Wildlife, 2nd ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa U.S.A. 219 pp. Mateo, R. 2009. Lead poisoning in wild birds in Europe and the regulations adopted by different countries. Pp. 71-98 in: Watson, R.T. Fuller, M. Pokras, M. & Hunt, W.G. (eds.). Proceedings of the Conference: Ingestion of spent lead ammunition: Implications of wildlife and humans. 12-15 May 2008, Boise State University, Boise, Idaho U.S.A. 383 pp. Mautino, M. 1997. Lead and zinc intoxication in zoological medicine. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 28: 28-35. Nam, D-H. & Lee, D-P. 2009. Abnormal lead exposure in globally threatened Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) wintering in South Korea. Ecotoxicology 18: 225-229. Ogada, D.L. 2014. The power of poison: pesticide poisoning of Africa’s wildlife. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1322 (2014) 1-20. doi: 10.1111/nyas. 12405. Pain, D.J. 1995. Lead in the environment. Pp. 356-391 in: Hoffman, D.J., Rattner, B.A., Burton, G.A. & Cairns, J. (eds.). Handbook of Ecotoxicology. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida U.S.A. 755 pp. 30 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Redig, P.T. & Cruz-Martinez, L. 2009. Lead poisoning. Pp. 228-229 in: Tully, T.N., Dorrestein, G.M. & Jones, A.K. (eds.). Handbook of Avian Medicine, 2nd ed. Saunders Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA U.S.A. 456 pp. Rodriguez-Ramos, J., Gutierrez, V., Höfle, U., Mateo, R., Monsalve, L., Crespo, E. & Blanco, J.M. 2009. Lead in Griffon and Cinereous Vultures in central Spain: correlations between clinical signs and blood lead levels. Pp. 235-236 in: Watson, R.T., Fuller, M., Pokras, M. & Hunt, W.G. (eds.). Proceedings of the Conference: Ingestion of spent lead ammunition: Implications of wildlife and humans.12-15 May 2008, Boise State University, Boise, Idaho U.S.A. 383 pp. Stringfield, C. 2012. The California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) veterinary program: 1997-2010. Pp. 286-296 in: Miller, E.R. & Fowler, M.E. (eds.). Fowler’s Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine: Current Therapy, Vol. 7. Elsevier Saunders, St. Louis, MO U.S.A. 669 pp. Stroud, R.K. &. Hunt, W.G. 2009. Gunshot wounds: a source of lead in the environment. Pp. 119-125 in: Watson, R.T., Fuller, M., Pokras, M. & Hunt, W.G. (eds.). Proceedings of the Conference: Ingestion of spent lead ammunition: Implications of wildlife and humans. 12-15 May 2008, Boise State University, Boise, Idaho U.S.A. 383 pp. Virani, M.Z., Kendall, C., Njoroge, P. & Thomsett, S. 2011. Major declines in the abundance of vultures and other scavenging raptors in and around the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya. Biological Conservation 144: 746752. ****** 31 Vulture News 68 July 2015 A preliminary assessment of the palate and tongue for detecting organophosphorus and carbamate pesticide exposure in the degraded carcasses of vultures and other animals Ngaio L. Richards1, Irene Zorrilla2, Isabel Fernandez2, Mónica Calvino2, Joaquin Garcia2, Antonio Ruiz3 1 Working Dogs for Conservation, 52 Eustis Road, Three Forks, Montana 59752, USA. 2 Environmental and Water Agency of Andalusía, Division of Integrated Environmental Quality, Regional Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, Center for Analysis and Diagnosis of Wildlife - CAD, Avda. Lope de Vega, 9, Málaga 29010, Spain. 3 Environmental and Water Agency of Andalusía, Division: Strategy for the Control of Poisons and Other Threats to Endangered Wildlife, Avda. Johan Gutenberg s/n. 41092 La Cartuja, Seville, Spain. *Corresponding author: [email protected] ABSTRACT In many regions of the world, organophosphorus (OP) and carbamate (CM) pesticides are used to poison wildlife thought to be competing with human activities (e.g. hunting). Vultures may be secondarily poisoned or directly targeted, e.g. for muti or traditional medicine. Some OPs and CMs are so acutely toxic that animals will die with poisoned material still in their mouths - un-swallowed, before traces may have spread to other parts of the body. Even when death is more prolonged, the tissues in which residues have accumulated may deteriorate before the carcass is discovered, minimizing the chances of recovering viable samples for toxicological analyses that would conclusively identify poisoning as the cause of death. With all these factors in mind, we investigated the feasibility of detecting OP and CM pesticides in the oral cavity, with emphasis on the tongue and palate. A total of 60 degraded carcasses (n = 28 avian and 32 mammalian) recovered from various scenes of wildlife crime in Andalucía, southern Spain, where poisoning was suspected, 32 Vulture News 68 July 2015 were submitted to the Center for Analysis and Diagnosis of Wildlife in Málaga for necropsy and toxicological analyses. Of these, 20 and 24 avian and mammalian tongues, respectively, could be recovered for analysis. Separately, the palate from one degraded Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus carcass was also opportunistically retrieved and analyzed following an incident of vulture mass-mortality in which nine Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus also perished. Residues or presence of OPs and CMs were detected in one avian tongue (analyzed with food from the mouth) and four mammalian tongues. Our findings suggest avian tongues alone are not optimal, but canid tongues and those of larger mammals may lend themselves well to analysis. Detection of the OP chlorfenvinphos (3.39 mg/kg) in the Cinereous Vulture palate (the only part of the carcass in which residues were detected) indicates this is a promising sample. To our knowledge, this represents the first time that OP and CM pesticides have been detected in tongue and palate samples. We recommend further exploration of oral cavity samples, especially within the context of the risk that residues therein may pose to human health. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/vulnew.v68i1.3 carbamate (CM) pesticides in question are so acutely toxic that animals die with the poison-laced material still in their mouths, sometimes before they can swallow it, and before residues can spread to, and be incorporated by, other parts of the body (Figure 1). Should this be the case, analysis of typically favored samples like stomach contents would not reflect that exposure had occurred (Mineau et al. 2011). And, even when a poisoning death is more protracted, conventionally-analyzed samples (i.e. soft tissues) could be degraded Introduction Vultures and other wildlife as well as domesticated animals around the world are being deliberately or secondarily poisoned at an alarming rate, primarily due to human-wildlife conflict (Ogada 2014). They are also being poisoned with pesticides for human consumption - either as food (Odino 2012, Ogada et al. 2015) or for use in traditional medicine (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013, Saidu and Buij 2013, Ogada 2014, Ogada et al. 2015). Many of the organophosphorus (OP) and 33 Vulture News 68 July 2015 between when the animal dies and the carcass is actually found, and/or parts of it may have been scavenged, thereby limiting its viability for toxicological analyses (Richards et al. 2014). Figure 1: When the pesticides used to poison wildlife are acutely toxic, animals (such as this African White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus) may die with food in their mouths, and before residues can reach other parts of the body. Photo courtesy of Andre Botha. A handful of studies have examined the feasibility of detecting OP and CM pesticides in talons, feet and beaks, which better withstand environmental degradation than soft tissues. Importantly, these also represent the first likely point of contact animals will have with these pesticides, as they paw at, step on, or grasp poisoned items prior to ingesting them. Simulating a dermal contact scenario, goslings were exposed to turf sprayed with the OP diazinon (O,O - diethyl O - (2isopropyl-6-methyl-4-pyrimidinyl) phosphorothioate); residues were subsequently detected in their feet after these were removed and 34 Vulture News 68 July 2015 weathered for seven days (Vyas et al. 2003). Similarly, eastern Screechowls Megascops asio were exposed to baits laced with CM carbofuran (2,3 dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-7benzofuranyl methylcarbamate) and residues were detected in their talons after these had been weathered for 28 days post-exposure (Vyas et al. 2005). Residues of carbofuran and two of its primary metabolites (3ketocarbofuran and 3hydroxycarbofuran) were also identified in the highly weathered talons and beak of an African Whitebacked Vulture Gyps africanus recovered from an agricultural field in Kenya (Otieno et al. 2010, Otieno et al. 2012). We have also detected CMs (e.g., aldicarb) and OPs (e.g., chlorfenvinphos) in beaks and talons taken from the degraded carcasses of birds submitted to the Center for Analysis and Diagnosis of Wildlife (CAD) in Málaga, southern Spain, during routine wildlife forensic investigations (Richards et al. in prep). Nonetheless, despite their established utility and viability, it does not appear as yet that any of these ‘alternative’ samples are routinely collected, analyzed or considered when pesticide poisoning is suspected, even in the absence of other more ‘conventional’ samples like soft tissues. After talons, feet and beaks, the oral cavity/mouth is the next and likely last point of contact with pesticides prior to death. Since pesticide-poisoned food rests on the tongue, we reasoned that residues might be detectible therein. We therefore sampled and analyzed the tongues from a selection of mammalian and avian carcasses that were degraded, and where pesticide poisoning was suspected to have caused death. Here we report on our findings from both the analysis of tongues and the palate, offer further recommendations for refinement, and propose potential applications. Our aims were to a) assess the feasibility of detecting OP and/or CM pesticide residues in the tongue and palate; b) provide additional tools for determining cause of death in degraded carcasses, and, c) promote broader awareness and use of these and other ‘alternative’ samples in a wildlife forensic context. To our knowledge this is the first time that either the tongue or the palate has been analyzed for residues of OPs, CMs or any other class of pesticide, during the course of a wildlife forensics investigation or otherwise. 35 Vulture News 68 July 2015 protocols (as detailed in Fajardo et al. 2015), during routine investigations under the Andalusian government’s antipoisoning/poaching strategy (described in Fajardo et al. 2012). The carcasses were submitted to the CAD for necropsy and toxicological analyses. All toxicologically viable samples (e.g., stomach contents, digestive tracts) were collected for analysis and for comparison with the tongues. Materials and Methods Carcass collection A total of 60 carcasses (28 avian, of these 7 vultures; and 32 mammalian) in varying stages of decomposition or degradation, and where pesticide poisoning was suspected as the cause of death, were selected for this preliminary study (Tables 1a and 1b). Each carcass was collected according to specific forensic Table 1a: Summary of degraded bird carcasses (n = 28) recovered by species and weights of tongue samples recovered (n = 20) Species Carcasses Tongues Tongue weights sampled (g) Buzzard, Eurasian Buteo buteo 1 1 1.1 Chicken, domestic Gallus gallus 1 1 0.1 Eagle, Bonelli’s Aquila fasciata 1 0 Not obtained Eagle, Booted Aquila pennata 3 2 0.78, 0.9 Eagle, Spanish Imperial Aquila adalberti 2 2 0.79, 2.41 Jackdaw, Eurasian Corvus monedula 2 2 0.15, 0.53 Kestrel, Eurasian Falco tinnunculus 1 0 Not obtained Kite, Black Milvus migrans 5 4 0.49 - 1.72 Kite, Red Milvus milvus 1 0 Not obtained Osprey Pandion haliaetus 1 1 0.46 Owl, Eurasian eagle Bubo bubo 2 2 2.34, 3.20 Owl, Tawny Strix aluco 1 0 Not obtained Vulture, Cinereous Aegypius monachus 1 0 Not obtained Vulture, Egyptian Neophron percnopterus Vulture, Griffon Gyps fulvus 3 2 0.69, 1.01 3 3 3.48 - 5.98 TOTALS 28 20 36 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Table 1b: Summary of degraded mammalian carcasses (n = 32) recovered by species and weights of tongue samples recovered (n = 24) Species Carcasses Tongues sampled Badger, Eurasian Meles meles 1 1 Tongue weights (g) 5.0 Cat, domestic Felis catus 7 6 2.52 – 5.66 Dog, domestic Canis lupus familiaris Fox, Red, European Vulpes vulpes crucigera Genet, Common Genetta genetta 10 9 4.2 – 7.19 9 4 0.52 – 9.71 1 1 4.72 Hare, Iberian Lepus granatensis 1 1 5.4 Polecat, European Mustela putorius Rabbit, European Oryctolagus cuniculus Weasel, Least Mustela nivalis 1 1 0.55 1 1 2.07 1 1 0.35 TOTALS 32 24 The tongue samples were cut from the mouth at their base - unless the carcass was in such poor condition that they could not be removed as an individual sample. Following an incident of mass vulture mortality in southern Spain in which nine Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus carcasses were recovered with that of a Cinereous Vulture Aegypius monachus (see Fajardo et al. 2014 for details), we also opportunistically analyzed the palate of the Cinereous Vulture. The palates from the Cinereous vulture carcass (recovered in a degraded condition) and the Griffon Vulture carcasses were also excised (Figures 2a to 2f). 37 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Figure 2a Figure 2b. Figure 2c. Figure 2d. Figure 2e. Figure 2f. Figure 2a : Cinereous Vulture head, showing the extent of carcass degradation. Figure 2b: Ventral aspect of Cinereous Vulture head. Figure 2c: Removal of the beak. Figures 2d/2e: Palate being removed for processing and toxicological analysis. Figure 2f: Cinereous Vulture head after complete removal of palate material. Reproduced with permission from D. de la Bodega, SEO Birdlife (Fajardo et al. 2014). 38 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Sample preparation and analysis for pesticide residues (GC-MS/MS) with ion trap (IT) and triple quadrupole (QqQ) analyzers, or ultra-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) with triple quadrupole (QqQ) analyzer. For GCdetectible pesticides, the limits of detection (LODs) ranged from 0.001 to 0.436 g L−1 and the limits of quantification (LOQs) ranged from 0.003 to 1.452 g L−1. For LCdetectible pesticides, the LODs ranged from 0.003 to 1.048 g L−1 and the LOQs ranged from 0.011 to 3.494 g L−1 (Cazorla et al. 2011). All toxicological analyses were conducted in accordance with EU Directive 2002/657/CE (concerning the performance of analytical methods and the interpretation of results) and EU Regulation 1107/2009 CE (concerning the regulation of commercial insecticides). A list of the pesticides that were screened, and their individual limits of detection, is provided in Appendix 1 (online version only). Sample preparation, pesticides residue extraction and multiscreening methods were all adapted from those described by Zoun & Spierenburg (1989). Briefly, 5 g of each sample were ground in a mortar with 10 g of anhydrous sodium sulphate (Merck) and 60 ml of dichloromethane (Merck). After 10 minutes shaking, these were filtered (Whatman, nº1 paper) and rotavaporated to dryness (BÜCHI R200). The sample was then reconstituted in 6 ml of ethanol (Panreac) and filtered through glass wool. Finally, sample cleanup was obtained via solid phase extraction (Extrabond C18 500 mg 3/ml, Sharlab S.L.). Aliquots (40 microliters) of these extracts were initially screened qualitatively, via thin-layer chromatography (TLC) at the CAD. If a positive result was obtained, i.e., indicating the presence of an OP or a CM, another aliquot (1 ml) was screened at the Laboratorio Analítico Bioclínico (LAB) in Almería (southern Spain). Each aliquot was analyzed for a suite of 278 pesticides (including OPs, CMs, organochlorines, strychnine and pyrethroids) using either gas chromatography–mass spectrometry Results Sixty carcasses were recovered for this preliminary study: 28 avian carcasses spanning 15 species (including three Egyptian Vultures Neophron percnopterus, three 39 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Griffon Vultures and one Cinereous Vulture) and 32 mammalian carcasses of 10 species. Of these, 20 avian and 24 mammalian tongues were recovered for analysis. Tables 1a and 1b summarize the species represented, as well as the number of carcasses and tongues recovered from each. The range of weights of the tongues is also provided for consideration of the viability of this sample in relation to others (see Discussion). were screened for the suite of compounds (and hence were included in the total sample tally), and is indicated where found with an asterisk in Table 2, however we did not further consider it in our analysis since its lone presence (absent DDE and other breakdown metabolites such as DDD) indicates environmental persistence from historical agricultural usage, rather than deliberate pesticide poisoning. Twenty (20) avian and 24 mammalian tongues were retrieved and analyzed. No OP or CM pesticides were detected in any of the avian tongue samples, however the presence of carbofuran was detected in three of the mammalian tongues (two red foxes and one domestic dog; Table 3b). An additional six avian and six mammalian tongues were pooled with oral contents for analysis. Methamidophos was (qualitatively) detected in one of the avian pooled samples (Egyptian Vulture; Table 3a) and carbofuran was detected in one of the mammalian pooled samples (Red Fox; Table 3b). Two avian and two mammalian tongues pooled with other carcass components tested negative for pesticide residues. To allow a more refined comparison of the tongue relative to other samples, Tables 3a and 3b list all carcass samples that tested positive for an OP and/or a CM pesticide, by species. Analysis of tongues relative to other carcass samples From the 60 recovered carcasses, a total of 151 samples were retrieved, 78 from birds and 73 from mammals. Of these, 11 avian and 19 mammalian samples tested positive for an OP or CM pesticide. Eight of the positives were detected qualitative, i.e., via TLC, only. To better assess the viability of the tongue, we categorized pooled samples including the tongue from a given carcass separately from pooled samples that did not include it. These results are summarized in Table 2. We note that 11 livers (three from birds and eight from mammals) were neither included in the total sample count nor in our analysis, because these samples were only screened for anticoagulant rodenticides. The organochlorine p,p’-DDE was detected in five avian samples that 40 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Table 2: Summary of all samples (n = 151) collected from avian carcasses (n = 28) and mammal carcasses (n = 32) Sample type Avian Insects recovered from carcasses 3 Positive (key to abbreviations below) 0 Mammal Positive 4 1: Cara Digestive tractb,* 20 4: A(2), M(1,1a) 2 0 Feather Liver Oral cavity/content Organs, pooledc,* 1 0 1 12 0 0 1: CPF 1: CFVa N/A 1 2 8 N/A 0 1: Cara 2: Car Pellet Stomach contents 2 1 1: CFVa 1: CPF N/A 22 N/A 11: A (6), Car (4 (1a)), M (1) Talons/material held inside Tongue only Tongue + oral contents Tongue + various pooled samplesd Various pooled samplese,f,* 4 20 6 2 6 1: A 0 1 Ma 0 1: CFVa,g N/A 24 6 2 2 N/A 3: Car 1: Car 0 0 TOTALS 78 11 73 19 a. QUAL = qualitative, i.e., detection by TLC only; b. Digestive tract includes: larynx, esophagus, trachea, crop, gizzard, proventriculus; c. Pooled due to poor carcass condition; *p,p-DDE detected (n = 3 organs, pooled; 1 digestive tract and 1 various pooled samples); d, e. In case of highly degraded/skeletonized carcass, any possibly viable samples were pooled for analysis; f. Tongues not included g. Crop + insects recovered from carcass A = aldicarb only or aldicarb and metabolites aldicarb sulfoxide or aldicarb sulfone; Car = carbofuran only or carbofuran and metabolite 3-hydroxycarbofuran; CFV = chlorfenvinphos; CPF = chlorpyrifos; M = methamidophos 41 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Table 3a: Pesticides detected in samples (n = 11) from degraded avian carcasses (n = 4) Species Black Kite Animals sampled (n) 1 Samples (n) 3 Sample description Pesticide Residues detected (mg g -1) Digestive tract (larynx, esophagus, trachea) Aldicarb 50.25 Digestive tract (gizzard) Talon (skin from) Cinereous Vulture 1 3 Black Kite 1 2 Egyptian Vulture 1 3 0.04 Aldicarb Aldicarb sulfoxide* Aldicarb sulfone* Organs Pellet Digestive tract (crop) + insects from carcass Stomach contents Oral cavity/contents = bait adhering to beak Digestive tract (gizzard + proventriculus) Tongue + oral cavity/contents Digestive tract (larynx, esophagus, trachea) *A metabolite of aldicarb QUAL = qualitatively detected only, via thin layer chromatography 42 Chlorphenvinfos Chlorpyrifos Methamidophos 0.38 0.29 0.01 QUAL QUAL QUAL 2.03 2.96 QUAL QUAL 6.57 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Table 3b: Range of pesticide residues detected in samples (n = 10) from degraded mammal carcasses (n = 19) Species Samples Cat, domestic Animals sampled 3 3 Stomach contents Aldicarb Aldicarb, Aldicarb sulfoxide Dog, domestic 3 3 Stomach contents Aldicarb Aldicarb, Aldicarb sulfoxide 66 12, 3.6 6, 30 Cat, domestic Dog, domestic 1 1 2 1 1 4 Stomach contents Organs, pooled Oral cavity/oral contents Stomach contents Stomach contents Tongue Insects from carcass Organs, pooled Methamidophos Carbofuran Carbofuran 1.87 0.34 QUAL QUAL 118, 0.03 0.03, 0.01 QUAL 1.82 Red fox 3 7 Sample description Stomach contents (2) Tongues (2) Tongue + oral contents 43 Pesticide Carbofuran, 3-hydroxy carbofuran Carbofuran Carbofuran, 3-hydroxy carbofuran Residues detected (mg g -1) 54 0.32, 0.03 15, 7.2 5.28, 0.01 4.03, 0.04 0.34, 0.02 0.06, 0.03 0.94, 0.02 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Table 4 compares the residue levels detected in the tongues relative to other samples retrieved from the same carcass. Of the OPs and CMs screened for, only carbofuran and its 3-hydroxy metabolite were detected in mammalian (canid) tongue samples. Compounds were never only detected in the tongue rather than in other samples taken from the same carcass (but see results of the Cinereous Vulture palate, below). The residue levels of carbofuran detected in tongue samples were always the lowest relative to other analyzed samples. However, we note that levels of the 3-hydroxy metabolite detected in the tongue were sometimes similar to those found in the stomach contents. Table 4: Comparison of residue levels of carbofuran and methamidophos detected in the tongue and other samples from the same carcass Species Animals sampled Pesticide detected Red fox 3 Carbofuran, 3hydroxy carbofuran Domestic dog Egyptian Vulture 1 1 Methamidophos 44 Detected in Tongue Stomach contents Residues (mg kg-1) 0.34, 0.02 5.28, 0.01 Tongue Insects from carcass Stomach contents 0.06, 0.03 QUAL 4.03, 0.04 Tongue + oral contents Organs 0.94, 0.02 1.82, 1.2 Tongue 0.03, 0.01 Stomach contents Tongue + oral contents Digestive tract (gizzard + proventriculus) Digestive tract ((larynx, esophagus, trachea) 118, 0.03 QUAL QUAL 6.57 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Analysis of the Cinereous vulture palate required for further investigation into the circumstances surrounding the vulture mortality event, and five suspects were eventually apprehended and charged. The particulars of this case detailed in Fajardo et al. (2014). The analysis of this vulture palate arose under separate circumstances. The nine Griffon Vultures and one Cinereous Vulture found dead around a horse carcass in southern Spain were recovered for analysis (Fajardo et al. 2014). The carcass of the Cinereous Vulture was analyzed first, since the species is classified as ‘Near Threatened’ (Birdlife International 2015) and is therefore accorded a higher degree of protection than Griffon Vultures (CMA 2001). Time since death was estimated at between 15 and 20 days, and the only parts of the Cinereous vulture carcass initially deemed viable for analysis – the mummified organs - tested negative for any toxic compound. Therefore, cause of death was deemed ‘inconclusive’ at first. However, after residues of the OP chlorfenvinphos were detected in two of the Griffon Vultures, the Cinereous vulture carcass was reexamined, this time the palate was removed for analysis (Figures 2a to 2f), and residues of chlorfenvinphos (3.39 mg/kg) were detected therein. The detection of residues in the palate of this ‘Near Threatened’ species subsequently provided the impetus and regulatory justification Discussion Tables 1a and 1b summarize the range of weights recorded for avian (0.1 – 5.98 g) and mammalian tongues (0.35 – 9.71 g). Our results indicate that the tongues of mammals (in this case, canids) are likely better suited for detecting OP and CM pesticides than those of birds because of their much greater surface area, which provides increased contact with residues and more sample for single or repeat analysis. However, we hasten to add that the viability of the avian tongue may also be species-dependent, since a sufficient sample may be recovered from larger birds like vultures (Table 1a). As such, this sample should be considered for opportunistic analysis in the absence of other samples. And, when available, the avian tongue can and should be pooled with mouth/oral contents to improve detection rates (as with the Egyptian vulture carcass (Table 3a)). At the CAD, we have on several occasions 45 Vulture News 68 July 2015 detected toxic compounds in the oral cavity of birds. For example, carbofuran was detected in bait material retrieved from the mouth of a Black Kite Milvus migrans (0.3 mg/kg) whose carcass was so degraded that species identification was virtually impossible (CAD, unpublished report; Figure 3). Figure 3: Degraded black kite Milvus migrans carcass with bait material in its mouth Stomach contents are often favoured for toxicological analyses. Here, the stomach contents were retrieved from 22 of the 32 mammals and half of these tested positive for an OP or CM pesticide (Table 2, 3b). By contrast, one stomach content sample from the 28 avian recovered carcasses was deemed in sufficiently good condition for analysis – that of a Black Kite – and in which 2.03 mg kg-1 chlorpyrifos was detected (Table 3a). Interestingly, while the kite’s tongue tested negative, residues 46 Vulture News 68 July 2015 (2.96 mg kg-1) were detected in the mouth and oral contents (Table 3a). Although based on a single sample, the finding of chlorfenvinphos residues in the palate of the Cinereous vulture is promising and warrants pursuit in suspected wildlife poisoning cases, particularly when carcasses are highly degraded, and when other alternative and robust matrices such as talons are either unavailable or themselves in poor condition. The palate is shielded from environmental conditions that might degrade other parts of a carcass and destroy pesticide residues therein. Depletion of moisture during desiccation likely concentrates any residues present in the palate, and since the OP and CM compounds in question are highly toxic, a confirmatory finding of exposure in this sample provides conclusive evidence of ingestion and is also highly indicative that this led to the animal’s death. Generally, we suggest greater consideration of oral contents/palates/tongues during necropsy and toxicological analysis of avian and mammal carcasses. Further, we recommend collecting and analysing the tongues of mammalian scavengers that fall victim to pesticide poisoning, (e.g., lion, hyena, and bear) regardless of whether the carcass is degraded - to evaluate the viability of this sample in larger mammals than were assessed in the present study. We note that while avian tongues recovered from degraded carcasses may not be optimal samples, opportunistic collection of tongues from relatively fresh avian carcasses in which poisoning is suspected (especially in larger birds such as vultures), followed by controlled drying, may improve the viability of the sample, which would be beneficial in places with limited means of keeping carcasses (and soft tissues etc.) frozen, in addition to general space constraints. In this regard, the best option may be simply to collect the head (and talons/feet) for later analysis. Finally, we strongly encourage greater analysis of oral contents/tongues/palates for reasons of utmost human safety. In several African countries, pesticides may be used to incapacitate or kill vultures for ‘traditional medicine’ purposes or ‘muti’ (Mander et al. 2007, McKean et al. 2013, Saidu & Buij 2013, Ogada 2014, Ogada et al. 2015). These vulture heads are then sold to people for personal consumption, and they are likely fresher than the carcasses analyzed in the present 47 Vulture News 68 July 2015 study. It would therefore be highly relevant to examine vulture heads offered for purchase at markets to determine whether pesticide residues are present, and to assess potential risks for human health. Questions about any of the sampling and analytical procedures are welcomed, and may be addressed to the corresponding authors. hard work and skill of poison detection dog handler José Luis Soria Marin, and the dogs themselves: Cleo, Aura and Sabina, who have each assisted in finding some of the carcasses discussed in this paper. Thanks also to all CAD staff for their involvement and to the personnel at LAB in Almería for their prompt analysis of these samples. We also thank David de la Bodega of SEO Birdlife for permission to include some relevant details of the Cinereous Vulture case, including the figures, from the book he edited about the illegal use of poisoned bats in Spain (see Fajardo et al. 2014). Thanks to Andre Botha for permission to use his photograph of a poisoned vulture. The support of Dr. Iñigo Fajardo, Dirección General Gestion Medio Natural, Junta de Andalucía, is gratefully acknowledged and always appreciated. This manuscript was significantly improved by the comments of Christina Davidson and by one anonymous reviewer. Acknowledgements We extend sincere thanks to our dedicated field personnel, especially: Lieutenant José Antonio Alfaro Moreno and Sergeant Francisco Velasco Jiménez of SEPRONA de la Guardia Civil in Huelva Province, and Agent Lauren Infante, Medio Ambiente. Their rigorous crime scene investigation, meticulous preservation of sample and carcass integrity, and above all, their unflinching commitment to safeguarding both wildlife and people from poisoning is to be commended. We also recognize the Key words: organophosphorus, carbamate, carbofuran, chlorfenvinphos, chlorpyrifos, methamidophos, insecticide, pesticide, carcass, vulture, canid, palate, tongue, mummification, autolysis, muti 48 Vulture News 68 July 2015 References BirdLife International 2013. Aegypius monachus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 30 May 2015. Cazorla, R., Fernandez, J.L., Romero, R., Garrido, A. & Martínez, J.L. 2011. Single solid phase extraction method for the simultaneous analysis of polar and non-polar pesticides in urine samples by gas chromatography and ultra high pressure liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Talanta 85:183–196 Consejería de Medía Ambiente (CMA) 2001. Libro rojo de los vertebrados amenazados de Andalucía. Sevilla: Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía Fajardo, I., Velasco, F. & Richards, N. 2015. Técnica forense y policía científica (Forensic technique and pólice science). In: Manual de Protección Legal de la Biodiversidad para los Agentes de la Autoridad Ambiental en Andalucía (3rd Ed.); Fajardo, I., Martín, J., Ruiz, A. (eds); Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Junta de Andalucía: Sevilla, Spain, 2015, pp 318-363 Fajardo, I., Ruiz, A., Velasco, F., Zorrilla, I. & Richards, N.L. 2014. La investigación en los casos de uso ilegal de veneno: procedimiento y técnicas de investicación. Nuevos retos, nuevos métodos (Procedures and techniques for investigating cases of illegal use of poison: responding to new challenges with new methods). In: Bodega Zugasti D., de la (ed) Uso ilegal de cebos envenenados. Investigación y análisis jurídico (Illegal use of poisoned baits; Investigation and judicial analyses). SEO/BirdLifeProyecto Life + VENENO: Madrid, pp 55-85 Fajardo, I., Ruiz, A., Zorrilla, I., Valero, A., Fernandez, I., Saez, E., Molino, F.M. & Olivares, J. 2012. Use of specialised canine units to detect poisoned baits and recover forensic evidence in Andalucía (southern Spain). In: Richards, N.L. (ed) Carbofuran and wildlife poisoning: global perspectives and forensic approaches. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: United Kingdom, pp 147-155 Mander, M., Diedrichs N., Ntuli L., Mavundla K., Williams V. & McKean S. 2007. Survey of the Trade in Vultures for the Traditional Health Industry 49 Vulture News 68 July 2015 in South Africa. Report for Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Pietermaritzburg. 54 pp. McKean, S., Mander, M., Diederichs, N., Ntuli, L., Mavundla, K., Williams, V. & and Wakelin, J. 2013. The impact of traditional use on vultures in South Africa. Vulture News 65: 15-36 Mineau, P., Porter, S. & Meteyer, C.U. 2012. Carbofuran: toxicity, diagnosing poisoning and rehabilitation of poisoned birds. In: Richards, N.L. (ed) Carbofuran and wildlife poisoning: global perspectives and forensic approaches. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: United Kingdom, pp 19-38 Odino, M. 2012. Measuring the conservation threat to birds in Kenya from deliberate pesticide poisoning: a case study of suspected carbofuran poisoning using Furadan in Bunyala Rice Irrigation Scheme. In: Richards, N.L. (ed) Carbofuran and wildlife poisoning: global perspectives and forensic approaches. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: United Kingdom, pp 53-70 Ogada, D.L., Shaw, P., Beyers, R.L., Buij, R., Murn, C., Thiollay, J.M., Beale, C.M., Holdo, R.M., Pomeroy, D., Baker, N., Krüger, S.C., Botha, A., Virani, M.Z., Monadjem, A. & Sinclair, R.E. 2015. Another continental vulture crisis: Africa’s vultures collapsing toward extinction. Conservation Letters doi: 10.1111/conl.12182. Ogada, D. 2014. The power of poison: pesticide poisoning of Africa’s wildlife. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1322:1-20 Otieno, P., Lalah, J.O. & Virani, M.Z. 2012. Forensic analysis of carbofuran in vultures and environmental samples collected from Laikipia and Isiolo Districts. In: Richards, N.L. (ed) Carbofuran and wildlife poisoning: global perspectives and forensic approaches. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: United Kingdom, pp 77-81 Otieno, P.O., Lalah, J.O., Virani, M.Z., Jondiko, I.O. & Schramm, K.W. 2010. Carbofuran and its toxic metabolites provide forensic evidence for Furadan exposure in vultures Gyps africanus in Kenya. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination & Toxicology 84: 536-544 Richards, N.L., Hall, S.W., Harrison, N.M., Gautam, L., Scott, K.S., Dowling, G., Zorrilla, I. & Fajardo, I. 2014. Merging wildlife and environmental monitoring approaches with forensic principles: Application of unconventional and non-invasive sampling in eco-pharmacovigilance. Journal of Forensic Research 5: 228 doi: 10.4172/2157-7145.1000228 50 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Saidu, J. & Buij, R. 2013. Traditional medicine trade in vulture parts in northern Nigeria. Vulture News 65: 4-14 Vyas, N.B., Spann, J.W., Hulse, C.S., Bauer, W. & Olson, S. 2005. From the field: Carbofuran detected on weathered raptor carcass feet. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33:1178-1182 Vyas, N.B., Spann, J.W., Hulse, C.S., Torez, M., Williams, B.I., Leffel, R. 2003. Decomposed gosling feet provide evidence of insecticide exposure. Environmental Monitoring & Assessment 98: 351-361. Zoun, P.E.F. & Spierenburg, T.J. 1989. Determination of cholinesteraseinhibiting pesticides and some of their metabolites in cases of animal poisoning using thin-layer chromatography. Journal of Chromatography 462: 448-453 ****** 51 Vulture News 68 July 2015 SHORT COMMUNICATIONS, NOTES AND REPORTS New record of African White-backed Vulture (Gyps africanus) in Europe A. Godino* & C. Machado Centro de Estudos da Avifauna Ibérica, 7005-138, Évora, Portugal * Corresponding author: [email protected] The African White-backed Vulture (Gyps africanus) was the most common vulture in Africa, with a wide distribution along the entire Sahel region, into East and Southern Africa (IUCN, 2014). From the beginning of 21st Century, this species has exhibited declines across much of its range, from 50% to 90% in different regions (Nikolaus 2006, Thiollay 2006, Virani et al., 2011, Ogada et al. 2015). Due to this situation, the global conservation category of this vulture has been decreased to Endangered (IUCN, 2014). Outside the African range, in Europe, few records exist of African White-backed Vultures. The first recorded observation of this species in Europe was in October 2006, with one bird photographed at the most southwesterly point of Portugal, San Vicente Cape (Jara et al. 2008). After this first observation, three more records have been collected on the north side of Gibraltar Strait (southern Spain): an immature, possibly a 2nd year bird, in September 2008; a 2nd year bird killed by a wind turbine in June 2009 (Dies et al. 2011) and another immature bird in September 2011 (Gutiérrez et al. 2013). More recently, in May 2014, the first observation of the species in North Africa was recorded at Tetouan in northern Morocco, on the southern side of Gibraltar Strait (El Khamlichi et al. 2014). Here we report a new observation of an African White-backed Vulture in southeast Portugal, in the protected area of Moura/Mourão/Barrancos, close to the Spanish border (N 38.2280, E 7.1570). 52 Vulture News 68 July 2015 On August 24th 2014, whilst at the Biological Station of Garducho (Mourão Council), we observed a group of 70 Eurasian Griffons (Gyps fulvus) landing at a cow carcass, approximately 200 m from the building. During initial observations, whilst using a telescope to search for tagged birds, we noticed a vulture that was clearly different to the other vultures present. Closer observation enabled more details and characteristics to be observed, and these revealed a bird with a darker face than the Eurasian Griffons in addition to streaked chest feathers with a narrow light area along the centre of these feathers (Figure 1). The vulture was also much smaller in size compared to the other vultures close to it (Figure 2). The age of this African White-backed Vulture was estimated as a 2-3 years (A. Botha personal communication). Figure 1: Gyps africanus photographed in Portugal This new observation in SE Portugal is the 5th record of this species in Europe. It is also the most northerly observation and the first outside the 53 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Gibraltar Strait and San Vicente Cape areas, which are both in the southern Iberian Peninsula. These areas, and especially because the Gibraltar Strait is the most important bird migration corridor in Western Europe (Zalles & Bildstein 2000), have important concentrations of vultures during spring and autumn migrations. They are also adjacent to the most important breeding population of vultures in the southern Iberian Peninsula, with almost 2000 breeding pairs of Eurasian Griffons (Garrido & Romero 2009). Figure 2: Gyps africanus next to Gyps fulvus photographed in Portugal observation of Rüppell’s Griffon in Spain was in 1990 (Fernández 1998) and in the subsequent decade, no fewer than 23 observations have been confirmed in Spain and Portugal (Gutiérrez 2003). Since that time, there has been a notable Although the occurrence of African White-backed Vultures in the Iberian Peninsula is a relatively recent situation, it is not new for other typically African vulture species, such as the Rüppell’s Griffon (Gyps rueppellii). The first recorded 54 Vulture News 68 July 2015 increase in records of Rüppell’s Griffon in the Iberian Peninsula, with most of the observation around the Gibraltar Strait area (De Juana 2006, Gutiérrez et al. 2010). An unsuccessful breeding attempt has also been recorded in eastern central Portugal (Costa et al. 2003), whilst several records of this species exist in southeast France in 2013 from a bird that was wing-tagged in Portugal (Godino & Machado 2013, Godino & Machado in prep.). Gutiérrez (2003) suggests that the increasing number of Rüppell’s Griffon sightings in Europe is due to the species associating with increasing wintering population of Eurasian Griffons in West Africa; more than 5000 Eurasian Griffons cross the Gibraltar Strait during autumn migration (Camiña, 2004). This migratory population comes into contact in its wintering areas with local Rüppell’s Griffon populations (Roy 2005), and when the Eurasian Griffons return to Europe in the spring, some Rüppell’s Griffons join them on this return. The relatively recent and still few observations of African Whitebacked Vultures in the Iberian Peninsula could be a precursor of a similar process. In both cases the first records have occurred in the same geographical area (the Gibraltar Strait) and during similar periods – the end of summer and early autumn (Jara et al. 2008, Dies et al. 2011, Gutiérrez et al. 2013). In this context, another raptor species, the North African Long-Legged Buzzard (Buteo rufinus cirtensis), had a similar process in the past and has been recently recorded breeding in the Gibraltar Strait area in southern Spain (Elorriaga & Muñoz, 2010). Both Rüppell’s Griffon and African White-backed Vulture populations are in strong decline across West Africa (Nikolaus, 2006; Thiollay, 2006; IUCN, 2014, Ogada et al. 2015), almost certainly in areas where these populations come into contact with wintering Eurasian Griffons. However, in spite of these population declines, the number of Rüppell’s Griffons seen in the Iberian Peninsula is increasing (De Juana 2006, Gutiérrez et al. 2010). These contrary situations indicate that a range of factors is very likely to be responsible, and it has been suggested that the influence of global climate change should be investigated (Ramírez et al. 2011). With vulture populations, and in particular the African White-backed Vulture, undergoing declines in West Africa, the new record reported here could be an indicator of an 55 Vulture News 68 July 2015 increasing movement pattern into Europe for this species, in the same way as Rüppell’s Griffon. Due to the critical situation of the African White-backed Vulture, it is urgently necessary to research the reasons of this process, in particular the evolution of vulture populations in southwest Europe with movements of African vultures into this region. Acknowledgments Special thanks to J. Elorriaga, D. Forsman, R. El Khamlichi and A. Botha for the comments and help with the identification. Thanks also to the Centro de Estudos da Avifauna Ibérica (CEAI) to facilitate the material for this observation and to C. Murn for improving and reviewing this note. References Camiña, A. 2004. Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus monitoring in Spain: current research and conservation projects. In Chancellor, R.D. & B.-U. Meyburg (eds.). Raptors Worldwide. WWGBP/MME, Berlin. Costa H, Bolton M, Matias R, Moore CC, Tomé R. 2003. Aves de ocorrência rara ou accidental em Portugal. Relátorio do Comité Portugués de Raridades referente aos anos de 1999, 2000 e 2001. Anuário Ornitológico 1:3-35. De Juana, E. 2006. Aves raras de España. Lynx Edicions. Barcelona. Dies, J.I., J.A. Lorenzo, R. Gutiérrez, E. García, G. Gorospe, J. Martí-Aledo, P. Gutiérrez, C. Vidal, S. Sales y D. López-Velasco. 2011. Observaciones de aves raras en España 2009. Ardeola 58:441-480. El Khamlichi, R., K. El Haoua & M. Amezian. 2014. Gyps africanus: a new specie for Morocco. http://moroccanbirds.blogspot.com/2014_05_01_archive.html Elorriaga, J. & Muñoz, A.R. 2010. First breeding record of North African Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus cirtensis in continental Europe. British Birds 103:399-401. Fernández y Fernández Arroyo, F.J. 1998. Observaciones de buitres africanos en España. Rev. Fac. Ciencias de la UNED, Nº 1. 56 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Garrido, J.R. y F. Romero. 2009. El buitre leonado en Andalucía. In, J.C. del Moral (Ed.). El buitre leonado en España. Población reproductora en 2008 y método de censo. SEO/BirdLife, Madrid. Godino A. & Machado C. 2013. Grifo de Rüppell. Primeira marcaçao desta espécie com placa alar em Portugal. http://naturlink.sapo.pt Gutiérrez, R. 2003. Occurrence of Rüppell’s Griffon Vulture in Europe. Dutch Birding 25:289-303. Gutiérrez, R. Elorriaga, J. & Daly, S. 2010. How many Rüppell’s vultures do we have in Spain? An attempt to photo-identify the birds in autumn 2010. Retrieved from http://www.rarebirds.net/arbsi036.htm Gutiérrez, R., J.A. Lorenzo, J. Elorriaga, G. Gorospe, D. López-Velasco, J. Martí-Aledo, G. Rodriguez y S. Sales. 2013. Observaciones de aves raras en España, 2011. Ardeola 60: 437-506. IUCN. 2014. Red List of Threatened Species. Version www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 30 August 2014. 2014.2. Jara. J., H. Costa, R. Matias, C.C. Moore, C. Noivo & R. Tipper. 2008. Relatório do Comité Português de Raridades referente aos anos de 2006 e 2007. Anuário Ornitológico. Vol 6. Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves. Nikolaus, G. 2006. Commentary: where have the African vultures gone? Vulture News:65-67. Ogada, D. L., Shaw, P., Beyers, R. L., Buij, R., Murn, C., Thiollay, J-M., Beale, C. M., Holdo, R. M., Pomeroy, C., Baker, N., Krüger, S. C., Botha, A., Virani, M. Z., Monadjem, A. & Sinclair, A. R. E. (2015). Another continental vulture crisis: Africa’s vultures collapsing toward extinction. Conservation Letters doi: 10.1111/conl.12182 Ramírez, J., A.R. Muñoz, A. Onrubia, A. de la Cruz, D. Cuenca, J.M. González & G.M. Arroyo. 2011. Spring movements of Rüppell’s Vulture Gyps rueppellii across the Strait of Gibraltar. Ostrich 82:71-73. Roy, K. 2005. Sightings of European Griffon Vultures Gyps fulvus in eastern Gambia from December 1999 to January 2005. Vulture News 53: 20-23. 57 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Thiollay, J-M. 2006. Several declines of large birds in the northern Sahel of West Africa: a long-term assessment. Bird Conservation International 16: 353-365. Virani, M., Kendall, C., Njoroge, P. & Thomsett, S. 2011. Major declines in the abundance of vultures and other scavenging raptors in and around the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya. Biological Conservation 144:746-752. Zalles, J.L., and K.L. Bildstein. 2000. Raptor watch: A global directory of raptor migration sites. Cambridge, UK. BirdLife International; Kempton, PA: Hawk Mountain Sanctuary. ****** 58 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Attempted Verreaux’s Eagle predation on Rüppell’s Vulture and breeding observations at Lake Kwenia colony, Kenya Simon Thomsett1* and James Aldrich 1 Ornithology Section. Dept of Zoology, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya * Corresponding author: [email protected] Summary A Verreaux’s Eagle (Aquila verreauxii) was observed to attack in mid-air a fully grown juvenile Rüppell’s Vulture (Gyps rueppellii). This event including observations on the breeding of these vultures at Kwenia are presented. Other notes are given for the nesting of Rüppell’s Vultures at this site. al. (1992) question if this behaviour is recorded in Rüppell’s Vulture (Gyps rueppellii). Despite observations of behaviour between Verreaux’s Eagles and nesting Rüppell’s Vultures in Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia for some 30 years by one of the authors (ST), the vocal intensity described above was not recorded despite hundreds of observed interactions between the two species. In contrast, Rüppell’s Vultures paid little or no attention to Verreaux’s Eagles even if they flew within 1020 metres of their young. Rarely, the eagles did appear to have the intent to predate chicks by looking directly Introduction The predation of Cape Vulture (Gyps coprotheres) pulli by Verreaux’s Eagle is well-known in South Africa (Mundy et al. 1992, Gargett 1993). These Verreaux’s Eagle individuals or pairs patrol the Cape Vulture breeding cliffs looking for unfledged chicks and even eggs (although unsuccessfully) on ledges. The Cape Vultures are recorded as having a “distinctive and hoarse call” when Verreaux’s Eagles patrol in such a manner and that “the uproar of these griffons has to be heard to be believed”. This is accompanied by aggressive gesturing, and Mundy et 59 Vulture News 68 July 2015 at exposed chicks and banking round to re-inspect the possibilities. Parent Rüppell’s Vultures have been seen to react by opening wings and stretching out their heads (but with minimal vocalisation) to very closeflying Verreaux’s Eagles, but these events are characterised by their rarity and lack of intensity despite ample opportunity. The “distinctive” call and anti-predator behaviour shown by the Cape Vulture is therefore not a distinct part of the behavioural repertoire of Rüppell’s Vulture. Another aspect possibly influencing behavioural differences is the close proximity of nests and synchronous breeding of Cape Vultures, as opposed to the generally more widely-spaced nesting and asynchronous breeding of the equatorial nesting Rüppell’s Vulture (Virani et al 2012). A group uproar would be impossible with widely spaced nests. part of a long-term study site (Virani et al. 2012), although in 2013 the colony is threatened by intensive agriculture and land developers directly below the cliffs. Some of the filming required nest-ledge camera positions to film chicks and a crude bird-hide was built halfway down the cliff. From these vantage points we were able to see into two nest ledges with chicks and had a clear view of nearly all roosting and nesting ledges running 2km north and 2km south. In over 10 years no attempted predation by Verreaux’s Eagles has been witnessed at Kwenia (ST, personal observation) nor cited in publications on this species (Mundy et al. 1992, Virani et al. 2012). During the 15 day intensive observation, an adult pair of Verreaux’s Eagles known to nest 4km south west of the colony would visit the cliffs and were seen on at least four occasions flying very close to the nests. On 22/1/13, three vultures were seen to react with alarm at the very close proximity of the eagle pair circling within 4m of an occupied ledge. On 3/2/13 the pair circled a ledge 20m directly below, flying within 1-2m of adult Rüppell’s Vultures with young. Although the intent of the pair seemed focussed on the ledge, no vocalisations were heard. A juvenile The Kwenia colony Between 22/1/13 and 15/2/13, a BBC film crew was camped on top of Kwenia, the largest Rüppell’s Vulture colony in southern Kenya, filming a documentary on vultures. The Kwenia colony numbers some 150-200 Rüppell’s Vultures, contains approximately 64 nests and has been 60 Vulture News 68 July 2015 1.5-2 year old female Verreaux’s Eagle spent much time on these cliffs, perched and flying near the ledges throughout the 15 day period. It appeared to be sufficiently far from the adult pair’s nest but on at least four occasions the eagle was escorted away by the adult vulture pair using a low intensity aggressive pursuit. The sub-adult often sat like a sentinel on outcrops overlooking nesting ledges or made sorties to circle and craned its neck at vulture chicks in the nest with obvious intent and interest in unattended vulture chicks. At that time there was a low occupancy of nests with six young ranging from 50-100 days and one pair incubating. Significantly, these chicks were not visible from the ground even with the best optical and photographic equipment and were only detected after days of intense observation from the hide placed halfway down the cliff or by climbing to nesting ledges. Methods previously employed to survey this cliff by the authors and colleagues (Virani. et al 2012), could easily have overlooked these nests from the ground survey. For absolute accuracy this emphasises the need for intense observation methods coupled with close cliff ledge access and/or distant multiday behavioural observations if all nests are to be enumerated. It is plausible that optimum sites (well-shadowed and discreet) are competed for and used first, and that secondary sites get occupied later when there is less choice. This may explain the difficulty in detecting active nests when only a small number of birds are nesting. Description predation of the attempted At 12PM on 14/2/13, JA was filming halfway down the cliff and heard a loud rushing and flapping sound above. Upon turning three large birds were seen tumbling to the ground some 150m out from the cliff face. Two hit the very steep scree some 110m below, followed immediately by an adult Rüppell’s Vulture. What followed was videoed some five seconds after impact and is here described. The dense tangle of commifera made the video unusable for the documentary, but it shows that on impact with the ground the eagle disengaged from the juvenile vulture, which was seen on its back and was 3m down a steep slope. 2m away up slope was an adult Rüppell’s Vulture, possibly the parent. Immediately the eagle had three Rock Hyrax (Procavia 61 Vulture News 68 July 2015 johnstoni) running away from it. After four seconds the eagle turned toward the juvenile vulture and jumped onto it with both feet taking it by the head. This rotated the vulture onto its chest. A few seconds later the adult vulture, itself threatened by an attack, turned and flew away, presumably accepting the futility of its ability to protect the young vulture. The eagle was on its tibio-tarsal pads, wings partly spread for balance with the vulture head down out of sight under the sprawled body, convulsively gripping the head with its feet. For some 15 seconds the vulture lay motionless except for when the eagle made occasional kneading clutches. The vulture was apparently being suffocated, and had only moments to live, when three large Rock Hyrax appeared and bounded toward the eagle. The eagle was alarmed and left the vulture, moving 4m down slope; it stayed for five seconds before flying away. The eagle may also have been wary of the cameraman immediately above it on the cliff. The vulture recovered somewhat and after a minute tried to move but rolled helplessly on its back down slope, a broken wing hindering its ability to right itself. After five minutes the Verreaux’s Eagle flew back overhead, mobbed by a pair of Fork-tailed Drongos (seen riding on its nape!). The eagle perched on a tree immediately above the vulture, where it was persistently attacked by the Drongos. The eagle was aware of the cameraman above and this, plus the Drongos and the defensive hyrax, combined to make it fly away. The eagle remained patrolling above. After some 30 minutes a troop of Olive Baboons (Padio anubis) were seen moving towards the scene in a deliberate and curious manner. A decision was made to rescue the vulture as a stalemate had occurred in which our presence was influencing the outcome with an increased probability of it being found by baboons and killed. Given that the species is Endangered, and we could rescue it easily, a coordinated effort was made by local Masai community members radioed below, and by abseiling to the ground. The vulture was found to have a shattered humerus either from impact by the eagle in the sky or when it hit the ground. It had blood coming out of the mouth and a small but deep hole in the top of the skull. The bird showed no downy tufts on its flight or contour feathers. Its worn tail tips with protruding unfeathered 2.5cm spines and the presence of some abraded tips on secondaries indicated that it had 62 Vulture News 68 July 2015 The Verreaux’s Eagle continued to survey the cliffs and if it indeed specialised in taking chicks on ledges or flying young vultures, its impact would be very significant. It was not seen to attempt any attack on the numerous Rock Hyrax, Helmeted Guineafowl (Numida meleagris) or Kirk’s Dik Dik (Madoqua kirkii). It could be able to entirely predate that seasons’ young on the colony in a matter of weeks. Perhaps in these cases the trapping and translocation of “problem eagles” is supported. fledged at least a month or more previously. The down on the head was full and uniform indicating it had not fed at carcasses. The bird was taken for surgery by Sarah Higgins to Dr Sangay Gautama’s surgery in Nairobi to pin the left humerus. It later developed poor coordination in the right leg that worsened. After two months it regained mobility in the leg and has near complete function of the wing. The partial paralysis and recovery suggests a central nervous injury (perhaps the puncture in the skull). It began a contour moult in mid-2013 only five months later, with secondaries moulted in August, suggesting it may have been 4-5 months old when attacked and not a very recently fledged bird. Acknowledgments. Charlie Hamilton James, Sarah Higgins, Little Owl Sanctuary, Dr Sangay Gautama, Amyn Khan, Titus Kaii. References Gargett, V. 1993. The Black Eagle: Verreaux’s Eagle in Southern Africa. Academic Press, London. Mundy, P., Butchard, D., Ledger, L., Piper, S. 1992. The Vultures of Africa. Acorn Books and Russel Friedman Books in association with the Vulture Study Group, Johannesburg. Virani. M, Monadjem. A, Thomsett.S and Kendall. C. 2012. Seasonal variation in breeding Rüppell’s Vultures Gyps rueppellii at Kwenia, southern Kenya and implications for conservation. Bird Conservation International 22: 260–269. ****** 63 Vulture News 68 July 2015 IUCN SPECIES SURVIVAL COMMISSION: VULTURE SPECIALIST GROUP Aim The IUCN SSC Vulture Specialist Group aims to advocate and create greater awareness of the plight of vultures and coordinate effective conservation activities to their benefit. The Vulture Specialist Group will support and work closely with BirdLife International as the Red List Authority for birds, but with particular reference to the global status of Vultures. Key activities/Outputs: Conservation and management - Identify and communicate information about emerging threats to vultures globally - Promote the use of appropriate mitigation measures to address threats where possible - Facilitate the sharing of expertise and knowledge between regions where appropriate - Support CITES, at national and international level, in vulture-related issues Research and monitoring - Conduct and promote scientific research on ecology and habitat use by vultures to support management decisions regarding the conservation of these - Promote and encourage sustained population monitoring at key sites for vultures using appropriate monitoring methods - Identify gaps in knowledge and promote applied research into such species, threats or habitats where appropriate 64 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Dissemination and Communication - Promote and facilitate the exchange of knowledge and expertise with regard to vultures and their conservation - Use Vulture News as the official print journal for the Vulture Specialist Group to disseminate information about vultures and their conservation - Make available published and unpublished information about vultures on a website - Ensure that the wider public and interest groups receive regular information and updates on the conservation of vultures Partnership and Advocacy - Work with governments, research institutions, conservation organisations and communities to develop and implement effective conservation measures - Support and promote the conservation of vultures through the International Vulture Awareness Day working with its partner organisations For more details contact either of the Vulture Specialist Group Co-chairs: Chris Bowden [email protected] André Botha [email protected] African Regional Co-chairs: Munir Virani, Kariuki N’danganga European Regional Co-chairs: Alvaro Camiña, José Tavares 65 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Summary updates April 2015 for vultures and VSG activities The 6th September 2014 saw the celebration of the 6th International Vulture Awareness Day with 28 countries and 160 organisations registering on the event’s website www.vultureday.org and working towards creating greater awareness of these birds and the challenges they face. More details on activities of the individual partners can be found on the website. The second meeting of the CMS Raptors MoU Technical Advisory Group took place in Abu Dhabi, U.A.E. from 16th-19th March 2015. Most significantly, a special Working Group was established for the conservation of vultures across the Africa-Eurasian flyway. It will focus on coordinating and promoting the conservation, monitoring, research and awareness-raising. A particular objective of the group was to forge closer working ties with the IUCN SSC VSG and its members. – they confirm that veterinary diclofenac represents a real risk to European vultures, and therefore that a number of risk management measures should be taken to avoid the poisoning of vultures, including more regulation, veterinary controls, better labelling and information and/or a ban of the drug. The EMA´s remit and position recognises that only a ban reduces the risks to zero, but it is now up to the EU Commission to decide whether they will start a formal referral process and it seems likely that action may only come after dead vultures are found in the field conclusively poisoned by diclofenac. Veterinary diclofenac is already approved for sale in five EU countries, including Italy and crucially Spain, which holds 90% of all European vultures. It is marketed by the Italian company FATRO, which used loopholes in the EU risk assessment guidelines for veterinary drugs to get it approved in Italy and Spain, in spite of the solid body of evidence about its impacts on vultures and other wildlife. The Spanish Govt. also held a meeting with Local Govt. and conservation community experts, which resulted in a detailed internal report that concluded that risks are lower than in Diclofenac in Europe As requested by the European Commission, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) published their long-awaited technical position on the vulturekilling drug diclofenac in December 66 Vulture News 68 July 2015 Asia and that the EMA position should be adhered to. Diclofenac already caused catastrophic declines of three resident South Asian vulture species, including 99.9% decline of Gyps bengalensis previously thought to be the most abundant large raptor in the world. See #banvetdiclofenac! www.4vultures.org and www.birdlife.org for updates etc. (Note VSG prompted high level letters from IUCN’s SSC to EU Commissioners highlighting this topic) A national action planning workshop took place in Harare, Zimbabwe on the 26th and 27th March 2015. Earlier in 2014 (March), based on a review of various documents the BirdLife Africa Partnership Secretariat, a draft “Action framework for vultures in Africa” was shared and since then 14 African national BirdLife Partners have indicated that vultures are part of their planned activities and priorities, reflecting growing international awareness and concern for Africa’s vultures and growing momentum for addressing this. At the CMS meeting, plans for a second Pan African Vulture Summit were put forward which will hopefully take place in Senegal Oct 2016 linked to the Pan African Ornithological Congress. Windfarms A major increase in windfarm proposals is underway particularly across Asia, Africa and the Middle East which is likely to affect vulture populations. There is an immediate need to refine the pre- and postconstruction impact studies to minimise the potential effects on vultures from wind farms. Asia The SAVE consortium met in Dhaka, Bangladesh in November 2014, updating the new ‘Blueprint’ Recovery Plan document. The report with updated priorities and version of the Blueprint is available under latest news: www.save-vultures.org The meeting was notable in that the Chief Guest, Bangladesh Finance Minister endorsed SAVE priorities, and most notably the banning of Africa A Workshop about vultures in South Africa took place on 6th-7th Nov 2014 at VulPro facilities near Pretoria. There was also a workshop for the Bearded Vulture South African group. 67 Vulture News 68 July 2015 ketoprofen. The first Vulture Safe Zone in Bangladesh was also formally recognised by Government at the meeting. In India, the eagerly awaited ban of multi-dose vials of human diclofenac is apparently close but has not yet come through. The need for vulture safety-testing of all similar (NSAID) veterinary products is also something that has become top priority and final approval/funding from the Indian Government is eagerly awaited. ****** 68 Vulture News 68 July 2015 RECENT LITERATURE P.J. Mundy AL BULUSHI, A., AL HARTHI, S., AL FARSI, G., AL ARAIMI, J. & AL HUMAIDI, J. (2013). Apparent increases in Egyptian vulture populations in the Sultanate of Oman. Phoenix 29: 15 - 17. An estimated 65-80 pairs on Masirah Island, but with a productivity of only 0.46 fledglings per pair. At a new dump site in northern Oman, 238 vultures (incl. 188 adults) were counted on 9 October 2012. (email: [email protected]) ALLAN, D. (2013). Cape Vulture. Apocalypse now? African Birdlife 1 (2): 58-59. Red listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN, it faces a great array of threats – poisoning first, then electrocutions by and collisions with powerlines, wind farms, drowning, disturbance, and food shortage. “The day of reckoning may well be upon [it]”. CHAUDHRY, M.J.I., OGADA, D.L., MALIK, R.N., VIRANI, M. Z. & GIOVANNI, M.D. (2012). First evidence that populations of the critically endangered Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus in Pakistan have increased following the ban of the toxic veterinary drug diclofenac in south Asia. Bird Conservation International 22: 389-397. A colony in SE Pakistan (Karunjhar Hills), neighbouring the Rann of Kutch of India, was monitored before (2003-2006) and after (2007-2012) the subcontinental ban on diclofenac in 2006. All parameters declined steeply to 2007, then increased markedly in 2008 and thereafter remained the same. (email for M.Z. Virani: [email protected]) 69 Vulture News 68 July 2015 CHOMBA, C. & M’SIMUKO, E. (2013). Nesting patterns of raptors; White backed vulture (Gyps africanus) and African Fish Eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer), in Lochinvar National Park on the kafue [sic] flats, Zambia. Open Journal of Ecology 3: 325-330. Eight occupied nests of the vulture were found (and five for the eagle). Most were on Faidherbia albida, at an average height of 16.6 metres, and in woodland communities. Abandoned nests were within 100m of human disturbance. (This article is poorly edited, does not refer to previous literature, and the two photos are taken from Incarta, and the eagle is an American Bald Eagle!). (email : [email protected]) DEMEY, R. (ed.) (2013). Recent reports. Bulletin African Bird Club 20 (1): 92 -108. (p. 98) Ruppell’s Griffons were photographed in the Mole National Park, Ghana, by David Hoddinott on 18 December 2012; the photo is included (all three birds are RGs). (p.100) An immature Cinereous Vulture was seen on passage with Eurasian Griffons over Meknes, Morocco, on 14 November 2012 by J. Franchimont. (p. 105) An immature Hooded Vulture (Empangeni) and three Lappet-faced Vultures (Winterton) were seen in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, in August and July respectively, out of normal range. (email: [email protected]) FINLAYSON, C., BROWN, K., et al. (2012). Birds of a feather: Neanderthal exploitation of raptors and corvids. PloS ONE 7(9): e45927. The dark/black remiges of all four species of vulture in Europe (and also perhaps Gyps melitensis) feature in Palaeolithic sites of Neanderthal humans, along with other species of birds. It’s clear that the pre-modern humans used the feathers as personal ornaments in symbolic behaviour. (email: [email protected]) 70 Vulture News 68 July 2015 FISHER, I. (2013). Vultures are starting to soar again. Birds (RSPB magazine) 25(5): 2-3. A brief note of optimism on the situation in the Indian subcontinent. With four photos of Oriental White backed Vulture. But wait … “other veterinary drugs may have a similar effect …” (email: [email protected]) GUTIÉRREZ, R., LORENZO, J.A., et al. (2012). Observaciones de aves raras en Espaňa, 2010. Ardeola 59: 372-373. Up to and including 2010, there have been 45 sightings of 60 individuals of Rüppell’s Griffon in the Iberian peninsula, validated by the rarities committee. (email: [email protected]) MUNDY, P.J. (2013). Out of Africa? Some notes on Arabian vultures. Phoenix 29: 6-7. The subspecies of the Bearded Vulture is considered to be the nominate barbatus, Rüppell’s Griffon is considered to have occurred, a photo of the Lappet-faced Vulture is of the negevensis subspecies, and the Egyptian Vulture occurs as the nominate percnopterus subspecies (email: [email protected]) MURN, C. (2012). Field identification of individual White-headed Vultures Trigonoceps occipitalis using plumage patterns - an information theoretic approach. Bird Study 59: 515-521. Thirty wild birds (ages not stated) were photographed from the side to highlight the upper median wing coverts. The pattern of these differed from left to right on the same bird, but each bird (adults?) had a unique pattern. The variations enable birds to be individually identified. (email: [email protected]) 71 Vulture News 68 July 2015 MURN, C., COMBRINK, L., RONALDSON, G. S., THOMPSON, C. & BOTHA, A. (2013). Population estimates of three vulture species in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Ostrich 84: 1-9. A T-square plotless density estimator was the method used, calibrated by aerial survey counts. Across the whole park, White-backed Vultures were estimated at 904 pairs (95% C.I. ±162), the Lappet-faced Vulture at 78 pairs (±18), and the White-headed Vulture at 60 pairs (± 13). (email: [email protected]) PHIPPS, W. L., WILLIS, S. G., WOLTER, K. & NAIDOO, V. (2013). Foraging ranges of immature African white-backed vultures (Gyps africanus ) and their use of protected areas in southern Africa. PLoS ONE 8(1): e52813. 11pp. Using GPS-GSM units on six birds, and tracking them for up to 313 days. Distances travelled averaged 22-49 km per day, but the maximum in one day was 267 km. Average and maximum flight speeds were 51 and 107 km/h respectively. Average foraging range covered was 269 000 km2. Protected areas were infrequently visited. Two birds visited ‘restaurants’ regularly. (email: [email protected]) PORTER, R.F. & SULEIMAN, A.S. (2012). The Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus on Socotra, Yemen: population, ecology, conservation, and ethno-ornithology. Sandgrouse 34: 44-62. A fascinating and well-documented introduction to the Egyptian Vulture of the island of Socotra (area: 3579 km2). An estimate of 1900 birds (incl. 800 pairs) was produced, which is of global significance. The vultures are not persecuted, trapped or poisoned by the locals, who “like them”. (email: [email protected]) 72 Vulture News 68 July 2015 PRAKASH, V., BISHWAKARMA, M.C., et al. (2012). The population decline of Gyps vultures in India and Nepal has slowed since veterinary use of diclofenac was banned. PLoS ONE 7 (11): e49118. 10 pp. Road strip counts since 1991 were used. By 2007, the Oriental Whitebacked Vulture had declined in India by 99.9%, and the Long-billed Griffon and Slender-billed Vulture (combined) by 96.8%. Use of diclofenac was banned in 2006; by means of much mathematics and statistics, the decline is seen to have slowed by 2011 and may even have reversed! (email: [email protected]) SHOBRAK, M. (2012). The decline of the Griffon Vulture in Saudi Arabia. Phoenix 28: 7-8. At seven sites in SW Saudi Arabia there were 45 nests in 1999. By 2010, only five nests were seen at one site. Probably several factors have caused this decline. (email: [email protected]) THERON, N. (2013). New IBA for Cape Vulture. IBA Newsletter [Birdlife South Africa] 3: 7. Surveys in the north-eastern regions of the Eastern Cape revealed approx. 800 pairs of Cape Griffons. A new IBA for the species has been proposed here. (email: [email protected]) ****** 73 Vulture News 68 July 2015 The production and printing of this issue of Vulture News was sponsored by Sasol. Sasol - adding protection to natural life Sasol is passionately involved in numerous environmental and conservation projects in South Africa and has integrated the concept and pursuit of sustainable development into its business values. The group supports endangered species such as wild dogs and vultures and sponsors a series of books on flora and fauna as well as bird-call recordings. It has also invested in community bird watching facilities and wildlife conservation programmes. At the Sasol Wild Dog Camp at the De Wildt Research Station near Brits in the North-West, the group sponsors the quarantine facilities and shares an interest in the reintroduction of captive-bred wild dogs into national conservation parks. Sasol also supports several projects for the treatment and rehabilitation of traumatised wild animals and birds, funds school level environmental education programmes, and is involved in nature conservation at community level, such as the establishment of game conservancies adjacent to the Sasol factories at Secunda and Sasolburg. Another significant initiative is Sasol Sensory Trail at Delta Park in Johannesburg which was especially conceived to enable people with disabilities to enjoy the environment. 74