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Philosophy of Research
Epistemology vs. Ontology
EPISTEMOLOGY
• What is (or should be) regarded as acceptable
knowledge in a discipline?
– Can (should) the social world be studied according to
the same principles as the natural sciences?
• If the answer is YES, the research follows the
doctrine of the natural science epistemology:
Positivism (and also Realism)
• If the answer is NO, the research follows the
opposite to positivism doctrine:
Interpretivism
ONTOLOGY
• Can (should) social entities be considered objective entities
– If the answer is YES: the research takes a position of
Objectivism (social phenomena confront us as external
– independent and objective – facts)
• or are they social constructions
– If the answer is NO: the research takes a position of
Constructionism (Constructivism) –
social phenomena and their meanings are continually being
accomplished by social actors; the phenomena are not only
produced through social interactions, but they are in a constant
state of revision
Three epistemological positions:
(1) Positivism, (2) Realism (3)
Interpretivism
(1) Positivism
• Research philosophy used by the natural sciences
• The researcher = an objective analyst of the external
world; the end product of the research are law-like
generalizations
• Makes detached interpretations about the data that have
been collected in an objective manner
– the researcher is independent of the subject of the research:
• the researcher does not affect the subject of the research
• the researcher is not affected by the subject of the research
• Focus on
– highly structured methodology and methods (e.g.,
questionnaires) to facilitate replication
– observations can be quantified; this permits statistical analysis
(2) Realism
• Shares two features with Positivism:
– A belief that the natural and social sciences should apply the
same kind of approach to the collection of data and to
explanation
– A view that there is an external reality which is separate from our
description of it
• Realism is an attempt by some researchers in social
sciences to adjust Positivism to studies of social
phenomena
– In particular, it allows for inclusion into their explanations of
theoretical terms that sometimes cannot be observed
– It also recognizes that people cannot be studied in the style of
natural sciences; that it is important to understand how people
think and interpret things, to take context (e.g., time and place)
into account
(3) Interpretivism
• Opposite to Positivism
• Argues that the social world of business and
management is too complex and unique for the
traditional natural sciences approaches
– Therefore, it cannot be generalized; it depends on
particular sets of circumstances and individuals
• It is the role of interpretivists to seek to
understand the subjective reality of those that
they study
– to understand their motives, actions, and intentions
Ontological considerations
• Objectivism vs. Constructionism (also known as
Constructivism)
(1) Objectivism: an ontological position that
implies that social phenomena confront us as
external facts that are beyond our reach or
influence
– For example, an organization has rules and
regulations; standarized procedures for getting things
done; there is a hierarchy; mission statement;
individuals have to conform to these rules; they do
jobs to which they are appointed; they are told what to
do and they tell others what to do; otherwise, they
may be reprimanded or even fired
(2)Constructionism (Constructivism)
• An ontological position that asserts that social
phenomena and their meanings are continually
being accomplished by social actors
• It implies that social phenomena and categories
are not only produced through social interactions
but they are in a constant state of revision
– For example, in some organizations rules are less
extensive and less rigorously imposed than in other
classic organizations
• They are not commands but rather general understandings;
the outcome are agreed-upon patterns of action in different
situations that are the product of negotiations among the
different parties involved
• The social order is in a constant state of change (e.g., in a
hospital, everyday interactions may be more important than
the official rules)
Links between Epistemology and
Ontology
• Epistemological orientation of Positivism is most
likely linked to Ontological orientation of
Objectivism (and Realism)
• Interpretivism is usually linked to
Constructionism
• Research strategies (emerge from the above):
– Quantitative research strategy (usually linked to
Positivism and Objectivism/Realism and to Deductive
Research)
– Qualitative research strategy (usually linked to
Interpretivism and Constructionism and to either
Inductive Research or Grounded Theory)