Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Motivation
Document related concepts
no text concepts found
Transcript
Motivation Dr. Len Elovitz Chapter 11 in Owens & Valesky The Meaning and Patterns of Motivation Motivation deals with the explanation of why people do the things they do. The motivational patterns are evident in human behavior: Direction of decisions Choices that individuals make when confronted with an array of alternatives Persistence With which one pursues the chosen course Intensity With which one tends to doing something 2 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivation at Work “… a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individuals being able to initiate work-related behavior and to determine its form, direction and duration.” Job satisfaction is related to those aspects of work that make the job intrinsically fulfilling Owings and Kaplan 3 The Extrinsic-Intrinsic Debate There are two major approaches to motivation: Extrinsic views (behaviorist approach)—people are motivated by external rewards and punishments; this is also called the carrot and stick approach. Intrinsic views (cognitive or humanist approach)—people are motivated by internal capacities, such as aspirations, perceptions, attitudes, or thoughts that can be motivating or demotivating. 4 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Individual and Group Motivation When individuals act in an organization, they act as members of a group. Groups are dynamic social systems that establish interdependent relationships between and among people. These dynamics give rise to basic assumptions and values that are the essence of group climate and culture. Group norms have the power to motivate or demotivate people. Mob Rule --- Unions? 5 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Western Electric Studies Revisited These studies are also called the Hawthorne Studies (from the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric). The term Hawthorne effect comes from these studies. Hawthorne effect is defined as a direct relationship between behavior and psychological phenomena caused by unusual conditions in which people may be placed. 6 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Relay Inspection Group Studies The experimental group was consulted on changes in the work environment. Output rose even though working conditions returned to earlier circumstances. Findings included: The workers were involved in the new form of supervision in which their opinions mattered. The group had been transformed by this experience and developed a distinctive esprit. They were empowered through participative decision making. 7 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Impact of the Studies Many misread the results of these studies when applying them to organizations. The Hawthorne effect does not simply mean that if you pay attention to someone and change conditions, their motivation will improve. The Hawthorne experiments resulted in motivated employees through participative leadership in which people were part of a team that made important decisions for the organization. 8 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Individual Differences Leaders must understand and accept diversity between and among people in a nonjudgmental way. This means that leaders create environments that: Foster and enhance growth and development of participants in terms of their own perceptions, needs, aspirations, etc. Accept the fact that not only do individuals differ, but that this diversity can be a source of great strength to the organization. 9 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 David McClelland (1961, 1965, 1985) Achievement motivation theory The need to accomplish hard tasks, to overcome difficulties and obstructions and to excel High nAch Strong desire to assume personal responsibility Set moderately difficult goals Have a strong desire for performance feedback Feels that achievement motivation is learned at an early age strongly influenced by parents Others believe it is developed later Application to teacher? Students? Cognitive Views of Motivation (continued) David McClelland (The Achieving Society) took these ideas a step further indicating that high n Ach people contribute to economic growth. He believed high n Ach can be taught in home and school through attitudes, skills, and habits. People varied in their need to be successful 11 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cognitive Views of Motivation John Atkinson views motivation as driven by two characteristics: The desire to achieve success (n Achievement or n Ach). The desire to avoid failure. In some circumstances, low n Ach individuals may become highly competitive, i.e., those who seek to avoid failure can be highly motivated. 12 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cognitive Views of Motivation (continued) Matina Horner’s work (1968) demonstrated that women were different than men in motivation, and she added a third form of motivation: fear of success. She believed this to be based on fear of losing the social/cultural norm of femininity. This is not just a female issue, as men are also motivated by fear of success, e.g., bright students may not want to appear to be successful by being singled out as a high achiever. 13 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Abraham Maslow (1970) Clinical Psychologist not a researcher Hierarchy of Needs: Basic Physiological Needs: food, water, shelter. Security and Safety: physical and financial. Social Affiliation: love, belonging, acceptance. Esteem: self-respect, dignity and recognition. Self-actualization: self-fulfillment. Prepotency: one cannot be motivated by a higher need until the lower needs are met. Higher-level needs become activated as lower-level needs become satisfied. This does not mean that one level of need has to be totally satisfied before higher level needs emerge 14 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Structure and Authority Maslow Deficiency Needs – The first 4 Until met, people find it difficult to respond to higher order needs Growth Needs Are never met They Expand Maslow How can the hierarchy be applied to Teachers What about students? What does the research say Mixed results, not many studies Trusty & Sergiovanni (1966) – Largest deficiency for educators – esteem and selfactualization Teachers have more esteem needs deficiencies than administrators Chilsom (1980) – Teachers have more need deficiencies in all 5 areas Application to Work Motivation Lyman Porter adapted Maslow’s theory to the workplace. He added Autonomy, or the need for individuals to be involved in making decisions that affect him or her. Porter and others were interested in how individuals in jobs experienced either: Need satisfaction. Need deficiency. 18 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Porter’s Model Application to Work Motivation (continued) Thomas Sergiovanni led studies that found teachers, as a group, had satisfied lower-order needs. They were ready to respond to higher-order needs. Younger teachers were most concerned with esteem. Older teachers’ levels of aspiration dropped since they become resigned to things as they are. Application of these finding would indicate that job security, salary, or benefits have little likelihood of motivating teachers, but fulfilling higher-order needs would be motivating. 20 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Needs and Worker Satisfaction Herzberg Herzberg found five factors in particular that were strong determiners of job satisfaction: achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and advancement. These motivators (satisfiers) were associated with longterm positive effects in job performance while the hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) consistently produced only short-term changes in job attitudes and performance, which quickly fell back to its previous level. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (1982) Motivational Factors: these can lead to satisfaction. On a continuum from satisfaction to no satisfaction (but not necessarily dissatisfied). Maintenance Factors: these are required to be satisfied before motivational factors can work, and lack of which can lead to job dissatisfaction. On a continuum from no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction (but not necessarily satisfied). 23 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (continued) Maintenance Factors (dissatisfiers; originally called hygiene factors): e.g.: work environment (climate), supervision, salary, job security, attitudes of administration and policies. Motivators (satisfiers): e.g.: achievement, advancement, work itself, growth, responsibility, recognition. Motivators, when present, can act to increase job satisfaction. However, absence does not necessarily lead to job satisfaction, Maintenance factors when not present can increase job dissatisfaction, but when met do not necessarily result in job satisfaction 24 It is not possible to motivate teachers through maintenance factors However, they are a prerequisite to motivation Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (continued) Herzberg suggested three ways to practice his theory: Enrich the job: redesign work to tap potential, making job interesting, challenging, and rewarding. Increase autonomy: more participation in decision making about the work. Expand personnel administration: administration should be concerned about motivational factors, not maintenance factors. Research in school settings has generally supported Herzberg’s motivation-maintenance theory. 26 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Autonomy The desire to have choice in what one does and how he/she does it Richard de Charms (1976, 1983) Origins – those with self-determination Pawns – those with other-determination When people feel more like Origins than pawns, they have higher self-esteem, feel more competent and perform at higher levels Teachers? Students? TRUE OR FALSE WHAT GETS REWARDED GETS DONE WHAT IS REWARDING GETS DONE WHAT IS GOOD GETS DONE The Paradigm Shift in Education What comprises intelligence? Traditional definitions of intelligence. Reason, problem solve, comprehend ideas. Can be measured accurately. Is a unitary whole. Is fixed and unchangeable. Alfred Binet—developed with Theodore Simon the first intelligence test, Binet-Simon scale. In 1905. MA/CA X 100 = IQ 29 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 IQ is Normally Distributed The Paradigm Shift in Education (continued) Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray (1994). The Bell Curve. Controversial, yet scholarly, treatise on intelligence. Brought attention to topic of intelligence. The achievement gap has racial overtones. Lake Wobegon Syndrome 31 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Multiple Intelligences Theory The following individuals paved the way for Gardner’s work on Multiple Intelligence Jean Piaget—learning is a progressive growth process during which – over time and with proper stimulation and guidance – the individual builds on the simpler processes that were learned in earlier years by integrating higherorder logical processes. Jerome Bruner—professed a “constructivist” philosophy of learning. Learning is an active process in which students construct new understandings upon a base of their existing knowledge Daniel Goleman—used the term “emotional intelligence” – important competencies in life included self-awareness, self-discipline, persistence, and empathy. These are more important than IQ and can be taught to children. Human Intelligence Howard Gardner explained that there are 7 kinds of intelligence that are independent of one another Linguistic – ability to understand words and how they are combined Logical-Mathematical – ability to see patterns, order and relationships Musical – ability to discern pitch, melody, tone, rhythm and other musical qualities Spatial – ability to perceive and think in terms of visual qualities and demensions 34 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Kinesthetic – ability to control one’s bodily motions and to handle objects skillfully Intrapersonal – ability to assess and understand the inner self: feelings, reactions, aspirations Interpersonal – ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals: moods, temperaments, motivations Carl Jung, as student of Freud suggested that motivation varied among people. His work laid the foundations for the concept of personality types. About 75% of the population is thought to have extraverted attitudes. Westerns culture tends to sanction the outgoing, sociable and gregarious. Many non-Western cultures are more supportive of those who turn their energy inward. Individuals are not either-or in terms of being introverts or extraverts. This is a dimension in which individuals are on a continuum, mostly one, but may have qualities of the other. Learning Styles Learning Styles Anthony Gregorc Four Basic Dimensions of Human Personality Carl Jung indicated that three dimension existed: Introversion-extroversion. Sensation-Intuition. Thinking-Feeling. Myers and Briggs added: Perceiving-Judging. Myers and Briggs developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator instrument (MBTI). 39 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Introversion-Extraversion About 75% of the population is thought to have extraverted attitudes. “Western culture seems to sanction the outgoing, sociable and gregarious temperament.” Many non-Western cultures are more supportive of those who turn their energy inward. Individuals are not either-or in terms of being introverts or extraverts. An individual is mostly introverted or extraverted, but may have qualities of the other. 40 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Intuition-Sensation Individuals are either one or the other. Individuals who use sensation must gather information from their senses. Whereas, people who are intuition perceive the world through the unconscious. These two different types may have trouble empathizing with one another. The sensing person is detail-oriented. The intuitive person will not worry about the facts so much, and be impatient with others who do. 41 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Thinking-Feeling decision-making (judging) functions both used to make rational decisions, based on the data received from information-gathering functions (sensing or intuition) Those who prefer thinking tend to decide things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision by what seems reasonable, logical, causal, consistent and matching a given set of rules. Those who prefer feeling tend to come to decisions by associating or empathizing with the situation, looking at it 'from the inside' and weighing the situation to achieve, on balance, the greatest harmony, consensus and fit, considering the needs of the people involved. Perceiving-Judging This fourth preference pair describes how people like to live their outer life— what are the behaviors others tend to see? Do you prefer a more structured and decided lifestyle (Judging) or a more flexible and adaptable lifestyle (Perceiving)? This preference may also be thought of as orientation to the outer world I’m INTJ Introvert iNtuitive Thinking Judging You have moderate preference of Introversion over Extraversion (56%) You have moderate preference of Intuition over Sensing (38%) You have moderate preference of Thinking over Feeling (31%) You have distinctive preference of Judging over Perceiving (67%) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 44 MBTI Statistics 2006 Introversion (I)-Extraversion (E) Intuition (N)-Sensation (S) Thinking (T)-Feeling (F) Perceiving (P)-Judging (J) ENTP 2.33% ESTP 2.68% ENFP 8.64% ENTJ 3.57% ESTJ 11.71% ENFJ 7.53% INTJ 5.19% ISTJ 10.56% INFJ 7.11% ESFP 4.65% ESFJ 12.14% ISFJ 9.39% Team Building Introversion (I)-Extraversion (E) Intuition (N)-Sensation (S) Thinking (T)-Feeling (F) Perceiving (P)-Judging (J) The Star Trek Team Mr. Spock Dr. McCoy Scottie Uhuru Sulu Checkov Yeoman Rand Alan Vince Storm George rry Dottie 47 The Star Trek Team Mr. Spock Dr. McCoy Scottie Uhuru Sulu Checkov Yeoman Rand Frank Alan Vince Storm George Gerry Dottie Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 48
