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Keith Topping Peer Tutoring & Peer Assessment: Beyond Small Group Learning Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Typology Peer Learning can vary on 14 organizational dimensions (at least): objectives curriculum content characteristics of helpers characteristics of helped method – tutoring, modeling, monitoring, or assessment within or between institutions within or across year groups same or across ability matching contact constellations fixed or reciprocal roles timing location voluntary or compulsory reinforcement Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Objectives Projects may target: intellectual (cognitive) gains, formal academic achievement, affective and attitudinal gains, social and emotional gains, self image and self concept gains, or any combination. Organizational objectives might include: reducing dropout, increasing access, etc. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Curriculum Content Knowledge or Skills or Combination to be covered. The scope of Peer Assisted Learning is very wide - projects in virtually every subject. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Helper Characteristics Traditionally helpers were the "best students" (i.e. those most like the professional teachers). However, large differentials in ability can prove understimulating for the helper and could inhibit modeling. With lesser ability differentials, all partners should find some challenge in their joint activities. Although the gain of the helped might not be so great, the aggregate gain of both combined may be greater. Many projects have deployed those with learning and behavior difficulties as helpers, to the benefit of the helpers themselves. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Characteristics of the Helped Projects may be: open to all, or targeted on members of a subgroup, e.g. the especially able or gifted, those with disabilities, those considered at risk of under-achievement, failure or dropout, or those from ethnic and other minorities. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Method cooperative learning peer tutoring peer modeling peer monitoring peer assessment etc Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Within or Between Institutions Most Peer Assisted Learning takes place within the same institution. But it can also take place between different institutions, as when young people from a high school tutor in their neighborhood elementary (primary) school, or university students help in regular schools. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Year of Study Helpers and helped may be from the same or different years or grades of study Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Ability Many projects operate on a cross-ability basis (even if they are same-year). But there is increasing interest in same-ability Peer Learning. In this, the helper might have superior mastery of only a very small portion of the curriculum. Clear operational structures are necessary to avoid the "pooling of ignorance". Indeed, deficits in "metaignorance" can be a problem - the helper might not know that they do not know the correct facts. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Contact Constellation Some projects operate with one helper working with a group of peers. Some operate on a one-to-one basis. In pairs (dyads) - there is more interpersonal accountability and less opportunity to drift into token participation. But the size of group can vary from two to thirty or more. Sometimes two or more helpers take a group together. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Role Continuity Especially in same-ability projects, role allocation need not be permanently fixed. Structured switching of roles at strategic moments (reciprocal Peer Assisted Learning) can have advantages: greater novelty a wider boost to self-esteem, in that all participants get to be helpers. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Time PAL might be scheduled: in regular class contact time, outside of this, or in a combination of both - depending on the extent to which it is substitutional or supplementary for regular teaching. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Place Correspondingly, PAL can vary enormously in location of operation - within and outside of the institution. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Voluntary or Compulsory Some projects require participation from all In others helpers self-select to participate. This could have marked effects on the quality of what ensues. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Reinforcement Some projects involve extrinsic reinforcement for the helpers (and sometimes also the helped). Others rely on intrinsic motivation. Beyond simple social praise, extrinsic reward can take the form of certification, course credit, or more tangible reinforcement such as edibles or money. Extrinsic reward is much more common in North America than elsewhere, and this has led to some debate about possible excess in this regard. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Peer Assessment Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Is it New? George Jardine described a pedagogical plan including methods, rules and advantages of peer assessment of writing. Professor, University of Glasgow, 1774 1826 Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Definition of Peer What is a "peer"? Between students in higher education of similar degree status - usually in the same course of study and often in the same year. Excludes the practice of paying postgraduates to mark or grade the work of undergraduates, thereby acting as surrogate members of staff. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Definition: Peer Assessment "an arrangement for peers to consider the amount, level, value, worth, quality or successfulness of the products or outcomes of learning of others of similar status" (Topping, 1998) Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Purposes – an Apprenticeship University academics have long been accustomed to peer assessment of submissions to journals and conferences. Teachers, doctors and other professionals are often assessed by peers in vivo during practice. All of us may expect to be peer assessor and peer assessee at different times and in different contexts during our life span. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Assessment – Fit for Purpose? Formative or Summative? Does it Save Time or Add Value? Does it fit the current ethos? Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Formative Assessment improve learning while it is happening in order to maximize success (rather than merely determine success or failure only after the event) help students plan their own learning and identify their own strengths and weaknesses, target areas for remedial action develop meta-cognitive skills & other personal and professional transferable skills Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Reliability and Validity Focus on peer marking/grading Majority of studies: As reliable as staff assessment (which is not very reliable) & more reliable than self assessment But: File drawer problem Contextual Variation Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Cognitive Demands Providing effective feedback or assessment is a cognitively complex task requiring understanding of the goals of the task and the criteria for success, and the ability to make judgements about the relationship of the product or performance to these. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Social Demands Any group can suffer from negative social processes, such as social loafing, free rider effects, diffusion of responsibility, and interaction disabilities (Cohen, 1982; Salomon & Globerson, 1989). Peer assessments might be partly determined by: friendship bonds, enmity or other power processes, group popularity levels of individuals, perception of criticism as socially uncomfortable or even socially rejecting and inviting reciprocation, or collusion leading to lack of differentiation. The social influences might be particularly strong with "high stakes" assessment, for which peer assessments might drift toward leniency. However, peer assessment demands social and communication skills, negotiation and diplomacy and can develop teamwork skills. Learning how to give and accept criticism, justify one's own position and reject suggestions are all useful transferable social and assertion skills. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Systemic Benefits Peer assessment offers triangulation and seems likely to improve the overall reliability and validity of assessment. It can also give students greater insight into institutional assessment processes (Fry, 1990), perhaps developing greater tolerance of inevitable difficulties of discrimination at the margin. There might be no saving of time in the short to medium term, since establishing good quality peer assessment requires time for organisation, training and monitoring. If the peer assessment is to be supplementary rather than substitutional, then no saving is possible, and extra costs or opportunity costs will be incurred. However, there might be meta-cognitive benefits for staff as well as students. Peer assessment can lead staff to scrutinise and clarify assessment objectives and purposes, criteria and marking scales. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Potential Disadvantages A tendency for peer marks to bunch around the median is sometimes noted Student acceptance (or belief in reliability) varies from high to low quite independently of actual reliability. Reliability tends to be higher in advanced courses; lower for assessment of professional practice than for academic products. Discussion, negotiation and joint construction of assessment criteria with learners will deepen understanding, give a greater sense of ownership, and increase reliability. Peer assessments are generally less reliable when unsupported by training, checklists, exemplification, teacher assistance and monitoring. Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Potential Disadvantages Poor performers might not accept peer feedback as accurate. Students unwilling to accept responsibility, (especially initially, in a small socially cohesive group, or if they see it as substitutional). Use and abuse of peer power relationships should be monitored Others??? Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Quality Implementation Clarify Expectations, Objectives and Acceptability Match Participants & Arrange Contact Develop and Clarify Assessment Criteria Provide Quality Training Specify Activities Monitor the Process, and Coach Moderate Reliability and Validity Evaluate and Give Feedback Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Questions ? Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Contact Keith Topping School of Education University of Dundee Dundee DD1 4HN [email protected] http://www.dundee.ac.uk/eswce/staff/kjtopping.php Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland Workshop Consider the advantages of peer assessment in your context – list them. Consider the disadvantages of peer assessment in your context – list them. Are the expected issues actually supported by the literature? How do the lists balance out? What might you do next? Professor Keith Topping University of Dundee, Scotland