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Keith Topping
Peer Tutoring & Peer Assessment:
Beyond Small Group Learning
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Typology
Peer Learning can vary on 14 organizational dimensions (at
least):
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objectives
curriculum content
characteristics of helpers
characteristics of helped
method – tutoring, modeling, monitoring, or assessment
within or between institutions
within or across year groups
same or across ability matching
contact constellations
fixed or reciprocal roles
timing
location
voluntary or compulsory
reinforcement
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Objectives
Projects may target:
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intellectual (cognitive) gains,
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formal academic achievement,
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affective and attitudinal gains,
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social and emotional gains,
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self image and self concept gains,
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or any combination.
Organizational objectives might include:
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reducing dropout,
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increasing access, etc.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Curriculum Content
 Knowledge or
 Skills or
 Combination to be covered.
The scope of Peer Assisted Learning is very
wide - projects in virtually every subject.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Helper Characteristics
Traditionally helpers were the "best students" (i.e. those most
like the professional teachers).
However, large differentials in ability can prove understimulating for the helper and could inhibit modeling.
With lesser ability differentials, all partners should find some
challenge in their joint activities.
Although the gain of the helped might not be so great, the
aggregate gain of both combined may be greater.
Many projects have deployed those with learning and behavior
difficulties as helpers, to the benefit of the helpers
themselves.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Characteristics of the Helped
Projects may be:
 open to all, or
 targeted on members of a subgroup, e.g.
the especially able or gifted, those with
disabilities, those considered at risk of
under-achievement, failure or dropout, or
those from ethnic and other minorities.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Method
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cooperative learning
peer tutoring
peer modeling
peer monitoring
peer assessment
etc
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Within or Between Institutions
Most Peer Assisted Learning takes place within
the same institution.
But it can also take place between different
institutions, as when young people from a
high school tutor in their neighborhood
elementary (primary) school, or university
students help in regular schools.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Year of Study
Helpers and helped may be from
the same
or different
years or grades of study
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Ability
Many projects operate on a cross-ability basis (even if
they are same-year).
But there is increasing interest in same-ability Peer
Learning.
In this, the helper might have superior mastery of
only a very small portion of the curriculum.
Clear operational structures are necessary to avoid the
"pooling of ignorance". Indeed, deficits in "metaignorance" can be a problem - the helper might not
know that they do not know the correct facts.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Contact Constellation
Some projects operate with one helper working with a
group of peers.
Some operate on a one-to-one basis. In pairs (dyads)
- there is more interpersonal accountability and less
opportunity to drift into token participation.
But the size of group can vary from two to thirty or
more. Sometimes two or more helpers take a group
together.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Role Continuity
Especially in same-ability projects, role
allocation need not be permanently fixed.
Structured switching of roles at strategic
moments (reciprocal Peer Assisted Learning)
can have advantages:
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greater novelty
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a wider boost to self-esteem, in that all
participants get to be helpers.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Time
PAL might be scheduled:
 in regular class contact time,
 outside of this,
 or in a combination of both
- depending on the extent to which it is
substitutional or supplementary for regular
teaching.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Place
Correspondingly, PAL can vary
enormously in location of operation
- within and outside of the institution.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Voluntary or Compulsory
Some projects require participation from all
In others helpers self-select to participate.
This could have marked effects on the quality
of what ensues.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Reinforcement
Some projects involve extrinsic reinforcement for the
helpers (and sometimes also the helped).
Others rely on intrinsic motivation.
Beyond simple social praise, extrinsic reward can take
the form of certification, course credit, or more
tangible reinforcement such as edibles or money.
Extrinsic reward is much more common in North
America than elsewhere, and this has led to some
debate about possible excess in this regard.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Peer Assessment
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Is it New?
George Jardine described a pedagogical
plan including methods, rules and
advantages of peer assessment of
writing.
Professor, University of Glasgow, 1774 1826
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Definition of Peer
What is a "peer"?
Between students in higher education of
similar degree status - usually in the same
course of study and often in the same year.
Excludes the practice of paying postgraduates
to mark or grade the work of
undergraduates, thereby acting as surrogate
members of staff.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Definition: Peer Assessment
"an arrangement for peers to
consider the amount, level,
value, worth, quality or
successfulness of the products
or outcomes of learning of
others of similar status"
(Topping, 1998)
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Purposes – an Apprenticeship
University academics have long been
accustomed to peer assessment of
submissions to journals and conferences.
Teachers, doctors and other professionals are
often assessed by peers in vivo during
practice.
All of us may expect to be peer assessor and
peer assessee at different times and in
different contexts during our life span.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Assessment – Fit for Purpose?
Formative or Summative?
Does it Save Time or Add
Value?
Does it fit the current ethos?
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Formative Assessment
 improve learning while it is happening in
order to maximize success (rather than
merely determine success or failure only
after the event)
 help students plan their own learning and
identify their own strengths and
weaknesses,
 target areas for remedial action
 develop meta-cognitive skills
 & other personal and professional
transferable skills
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Reliability and Validity
Focus on peer marking/grading
Majority of studies:
As reliable as staff assessment
(which is not very reliable)
& more reliable than self assessment
But:
File drawer problem
Contextual Variation
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Cognitive Demands
Providing effective feedback or
assessment is a cognitively complex
task requiring understanding of the
goals of the task and the criteria for
success, and the ability to make
judgements about the relationship of
the product or performance to these.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Social Demands
Any group can suffer from negative social processes, such as social
loafing, free rider effects, diffusion of responsibility, and interaction
disabilities (Cohen, 1982; Salomon & Globerson, 1989).
Peer assessments might be partly determined by: friendship bonds,
enmity or other power processes, group popularity levels of
individuals, perception of criticism as socially uncomfortable or even
socially rejecting and inviting reciprocation, or collusion leading to
lack of differentiation.
The social influences might be particularly strong with "high stakes"
assessment, for which peer assessments might drift toward leniency.
However, peer assessment demands social and communication skills,
negotiation and diplomacy and can develop teamwork skills.
Learning how to give and accept criticism, justify one's own position
and reject suggestions are all useful transferable social and assertion
skills.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Systemic Benefits
Peer assessment offers triangulation and seems likely to improve
the overall reliability and validity of assessment.
It can also give students greater insight into institutional
assessment processes (Fry, 1990), perhaps developing
greater tolerance of inevitable difficulties of discrimination at
the margin.
There might be no saving of time in the short to medium term,
since establishing good quality peer assessment requires time
for organisation, training and monitoring. If the peer
assessment is to be supplementary rather than substitutional,
then no saving is possible, and extra costs or opportunity
costs will be incurred.
However, there might be meta-cognitive benefits for staff as well
as students. Peer assessment can lead staff to scrutinise and
clarify assessment objectives and purposes, criteria and
marking scales.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Potential Disadvantages
A tendency for peer marks to bunch around the
median is sometimes noted
Student acceptance (or belief in reliability) varies
from high to low quite independently of actual
reliability.
Reliability tends to be higher in advanced courses;
lower for assessment of professional practice than
for academic products.
Discussion, negotiation and joint construction of
assessment criteria with learners will deepen
understanding, give a greater sense of ownership,
and increase reliability.
Peer assessments are generally less reliable when
unsupported by training, checklists,
exemplification, teacher assistance and monitoring.
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Potential Disadvantages
Poor performers might not accept peer
feedback as accurate.
Students unwilling to accept responsibility,
(especially initially, in a small socially
cohesive group, or if they see it as
substitutional).
Use and abuse of peer power relationships
should be monitored
Others???
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Quality Implementation
 Clarify Expectations, Objectives and Acceptability
 Match Participants & Arrange Contact
 Develop and Clarify Assessment Criteria
 Provide Quality Training
 Specify Activities
 Monitor the Process, and Coach
 Moderate Reliability and Validity
 Evaluate and Give Feedback
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Questions ?
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Contact
Keith Topping
School of Education
University of Dundee
Dundee DD1 4HN
[email protected]
http://www.dundee.ac.uk/eswce/staff/kjtopping.php
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland
Workshop
Consider the advantages of peer
assessment in your context – list them.
Consider the disadvantages of peer
assessment in your context – list them.
Are the expected issues actually
supported by the literature?
How do the lists balance out?
What might you do next?
Professor Keith Topping
University of Dundee, Scotland