Download Introduction to Earth Science

Introduction to Earth Science
Scientific Measurement
A. Observations
- using the senses to gather data
(information) from the environment
- May extend the senses through the
use of certain tools
- Two types of observations
Scientific Measurement
1. Qualitative Observations
- describe properties of an item that are
not easily measured
- (Ex.: color, shape, texture, etc,)
Scientific Measurement
2. Quantitative
Observation
- observations where
a property can be
measured using a
tool that extends the
senses
- (Ex.: length, mass,
volume, etc.)
Scientific Measurement
B. Measurements
1. Length
- distance between
two points
- Depending upon
the item being
measured, it may
also be width or
height
Scientific Measurement
2. Volume
- how much space an
object takes up
- For regular solids
(cubes, rectangular
prisms, cylinders,
spheres, etc.) the
volume can be
calculated using a
formula
Scientific Measurement
- Volume of rectangular
solids:
- V=lxwxh
- Volume of cylinder:
- V =  x r2 x h
- Irregular solid volume is
determined using water
displacement
(Archimedes’ Principle)
Scientific Measurement
3. Mass
- how much matter an
object contains
- Determined by using
a balance (either
triple-beam or
digital)
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Scientific Measurement
4. Time
- measured using a
stopwatch
5. Temperature
- measured with a
thermometer
- For most
measurements,
temperatures are
recorded on the Celsius
scale
Scientific Measurement
- For weather
variables,
temperatures are
recorded on the
Fahrenheit scale
Scientific Measurement
C. Density
- describes how much
mass is found in an
amount of space
- density is constant for
substances at given
temperatures
ex.: water's density at
4.0  C is always 1.0 g/cm3
- density can change
Scientific Measurement
- in general, density
decreases as a
substance is heated
- in general, density
increases as a
substance is cooled
Scientific Measurement
- density is also affected
by pressure
- if the same amount of
mass is compressed
(squished) into a
smaller space, the
density increases
- if the pressure on an
object, like a gas,
decreases, its volume
will expand while its
mass stays the same,
causing the density to
decrease
Scientific Measurement
- exception = water density decreases
as it is cooled (ice
floats in liquid water)
- density can be
calculated using the
following equation:
Scientific Measurement
D=M/V
D = density
M = mass
V = volume
/ = divided by
Scientific Measurement
- may need to use
density equation to
determine volume or
mass
- if you are looking for
either mass or
volume, put density
over 1 and cross
multiply and divide
Systems
D. Open and Closed Systems
1. Open System - a system that freely
allows for the exchange of matter and
energy
2. Closed System - a system that only
allows for the free exchange of energy
Systems
B. Dynamic Equilibrium
- a constantly shifting state of balance
- Earth is essentially a closed system that
operates under dynamic equilibrium
Earth System Spheres
- Earth can be viewed
as an essentially
closed system
composed of
several interacting
spheres
1. Geosphere - all of
the solid parts of
Earth and the
processes that
involve them
Earth Systems Spheres
2. Hydrosphere - all of
the liquid water on
Earth’s surface
3. Atmosphere - the
layer of gases
surrounding Earth
4. Biosphere - all of
the living things on
Earth
Cycles
-
repeating patterns
in nature
- Ex.: tides, Moon
phases, etc.
1. Water Cycle
- movement of water
between the four
Earth spheres
Cycles
-
involves the processes
of:
a. Precipitation - water
falling out of Earth’s
atmosphere
b. Evaporation - when
water goes from a liquid
to gas
in plants, water escapes
from leaves transpiration
- combination of evaporation
and transpiration =
evapotranspiration
Cycles
c. Runoff - water
flowing over Earth’s
surface
d. Infiltration - water
moving into the soil
e. Condensation when water goes
from a gas into a
liquid
Cycles
2. Carbon Cycle movement of carbon
between the four
spheres
- involves the processes
of:
a. Photosynthesis - plants
and phytoplankton
remove carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere
Cycles
b. Cellular Respiration when organisms take in
carbohydrates and
release carbon dioxide
as a waste product
c. Carbonization - when
carbon compounds are
formed in the oceans
- oceans absorb about
40% of atmospheric
carbon dioxide
Cycles
- carbonization also
occurs in Earth’s
crust through the
formation of the
mineral calcite,
which is found in
limestone and
marble
Cycles
3. Energy Cycle
-exchange of energy through
the Earth system
amount of energy received
by Earth equals the
amount of energy lost by
Earth
Amount of energy gained
compared to amount of
energy lost = Earth’s
energy budget
Earth essentially functions
as a black body - releases
the same amount of energy
that it gains on a daily
basis
Cycles
a. Solar Energy - energy
from the Sun
- makes up 99.895% of all
of Earth’s energy
budget
b. Geothermal Energy heat energy from
Earth’s interior
- makes up 0.013% of
Earth’s energy budget
Cycles
c. Tidal Energy energy produced by
the Moon and the
Sun pulling on Earth
- makes up 0.002% of
Earth’s energy
budget
Cycles
3. Laws of
Thermodynamics -- how
energy moves through
a system
a. First Law of
Thermodynamics energy can neither be
created nor destroyed,
it may only be
transformed from one
form to another (Law of
Conservation of
Energy)
Cycles
b. Second Law of
Thermodynamics when energy is
converted from one
form to another, it is
always changed from a
more concentrated,
more useful form to a
less concentrated, less
useful form
Cycles
4. Albedo - how energy is
reflected or absorbed
by a surface
- low albedo - little
energy relfected (mostly
absorbed)
- Ex.: forest (5-10)
- hIgh albedo - most
energy reflected (little
absorbed)
- Ex.: snow bank (80)
- Earth has an albedo of
about 30
Scientific Inquiry
-
methodical system of
problem solving
- Involves the
processes of:
1. Observing - recording
data (information) from
the environment
- observations may be
either qualitative
(properties that are not
easily measured) or
quantitative (easily
mesured with a
measuring device)
Scientific Inquiry
2. Asking Questions questions are usually
based upon natural
phenomena and require
the use of
experimentation in
order to be answered
3. Hypothesizing formulating an educated
guess that attempts to
answer and/or explain
the question
Scientific Inquiry
4. Testing a Hypothesis tests and experiments
are carried out in order
to either support or
refute a hypothesis
5. Sharing Results - after
an experiment has been
carried out, the results
are frequently reported
in a scientific journal
- before a scientific paper
may be published, it
first must undergo peer
review
Scientific Inquiry
- during peer review,
experts in the field that
the paper covers
scrutinize the work of
the scientist who wrote
it
- If the paper has merit, it
is edited further and
then possibly eventually
printed
Scientific Inquiry
- If the paper is
rejected, it mey be
returned to the
scientist with
suggestions for
revision and further
study before it is
ready for publishing
Scientific Inquiry
5. Scientific Theories v.
Scientific Laws
- after a hypothesis has
been supported many
times, then it might be
incorporated into a
scientific theory
- a scientific theory is an
explanation for a natural
event to which no
exceptions have been
currently found
Scientific Theory
- As new discoveries are
made, a theory may be
modified to incorporate
that new knowledge
- In science, a theory is
not just “some idea” as
the word is commonly
used
- Scientific theories have
been proven to be
reliable over a long
period of time
- Ex.: big bang theory
Scientific Inquiry
- scientific laws are
generalizations about
how the natural world
behaves under certain
conditions
- scientific laws are NOT
based on hypotheses
- Scientific laws are
discovered and there
are never any
exceptions to them
Scientific Inquiry
- Unlike theories,
scientific laws may
not be altered if new
discoveries are
made
- Ex.: law of gravity