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The Scientific Study of Research Questions
Alan Monroe
Chapter 1
What does it mean to be scientific?
What does it mean to be scientific?
It is defined by the attempt to identify and test empirical
generalizations. The key is empirical: it refers to facts, or the
real world: that which exists and can be know through the
senses – what can be seen, touched, heard, smelled.
How do you test empirical statements?
The test must be objective (free from bias, and can be duplicated)
Generalizations
Generalizations: What we are looking for
We want to make statements about entire classes of objects, rather than just about
individual cases.
Individual Level Analysis: Often Insufficient
How specific people may behave, whether they vote, and whether or not they are
educated is of little value. But if we gather data on a large number of people
from many places, and across time, we can make generalizations about how
“individuals” with certain social characteristics behave politically. (3)
The objective is to explain and predict.
Empirical and Normative Questions
Empirical and Normative Questions
Many things we think about the world are normative, rather than empirical, that is,
they reflect our judgments about what should be.
Scientific method cannot deal directly with normative (non-empirical) questions.
Hence, we need to be able to distinguish between the two:
Empirical and Normative Questions
Empirical Statements: “refers to what is or is not true and can be confirmed or
disproved by sense experience.” It can be tested.
Examples:
Bill Clinton was reelected president in 1996
Howard Dean was the Chair of the Democratic Party
Objective analysis of data from sensory observation can either prove or disprove an
empirical statement. It can be tested.
…
Empirical and Normative Questions
Normative Statements: they deal with value judgments, that is, questions of what is
good or bad.
Examples:
Is Obama a good President?
Is democracy the best form of government?
Should taxes be increased?
Such questions cannot be answered objectively.
…
Empirical and Normative Questions
Why cannot you answer normative questions in political science?
You can deal with normative questions/issues in scientific research, but can only do
so indirectly. What you need to do is reformulate normative questions as
empirical questions.
Reformulating Normative Questions as Empirical
There are two ways of doing this:
1) Change the Frame of Reference: Move from a normative judgment to a
question about the normative judgments people make. (easier, but less useful)
Example:
Would it be a good idea to legalize drugs? (normative)
Do most college students favor the legalization of
drugs? (Frame)
Limits on campaign spending in Congressional races
should be adopted. (normative)
More Republicans favor spending limits than
Democrats. (frame)
Reformulating Normative Questions as Empirical (6)
Reformulate Normative Questions as Empirical:
2) Ask empirical questions about the assumptions behind normative
judgment. (more useful)
Example:
Would it be a good idea to legalize drugs? (normative)
Would the legalization of drugs decrease the occurrence of other
crimes? (assumption)
Limits on campaign spending in Congressional races should be
adopted. (normative)
Do spending limits advantage or disadvantage incumbents?
(assumption)
…
Research Questions (8)
Designing a Research Question:
Research should begin with a coherent question. It helps focus your
thinking, research and writing.
Elements of a Good Question:
Clarity
Testability
Theoretical significance
Practical significance
Originality
…
Research Questions: (8)
Clarity: needs to give clear direction to the research, that is, it should direct
the type of research and data that will be used. But do not be too
focused. To reduce study to a particular city, or state, if you are
discussing urban development, or economic policy might limit value of
research. Hence the value in comparative studies.
Examples:
Why is voter turnout low in the US? (lacks direction: does not tell us
where we should look, at…)
Does same day registration increase turnout? (direct us to certain
research)
…
Research Questions: (9)
Testability: have to be able to answer the question with empirical inquiry.
Theoretical Significance: answering the question should increase our
general knowledge and understanding of the topic.
Hence, it is important to know what has already been written on the
topic. Do a Literature Review.
Practical Significance: answering the question should have be useful to
some real-life application.
Originality: does not have to be completely new question, but should at
least be a new take on something.
The Scientific Research Process: (10)
Steps in the research process:
1) Formulate Question
2) Formulate hypotheses
3) Formulate Design
4) Research (Collect Data)
5) Analysis
6) Draw Conclusion
…