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abnormal
PSYCHOLOGY
Fourth Canadian Edition
Chapter 2
Current Paradigms and the Role of Cultural
Factors
Prepared by:
Tracy Vaillancourt, Ph.D.
Modified by: Réjeanne Dupuis, M.A.
What is a Paradigm?
• A model of reality: the way reality is or is
supposed to be
• It is a set of beliefs that shape our perception of
events and help us explain these events
• It is a set of concepts and methods used to
collect and interpret data (Kuhn, 1992)
• A paradigm guides the definition, examination,
and treatment of mental disorders
Paradigms in Abnormal Psychology
• Biological Paradigm
• Cognitive-Behavioural Paradigm
– Behavioural perspective
– Cognitive perspective
• Psychoanalytic Paradigm
• Humanistic-Existential Paradigms
• Integrative Paradigm
Biological Paradigm
• Continuation of the somatogenic
hypothesis
– Mental disorders caused by aberrant or
defective biological processes
– Often referred to as the medical model or
disease model
– The dominant paradigm in Canada and
elsewhere from the late 1800s until middle of
the twentieth century
Behaviour Genetics
• Study of individual differences in behaviour attributable
to differences in genetic makeup
– Genotype – unobservable genetic constitution
• Fixed at birth, but it should not be viewed as a static entity
– Phenotype – totality of observable, behavioural characteristics
• Changes over time; product of an interaction between genotype and
environment
• Methods
– Family method
• Index cases, or probands
– Twin method
• Concordance rates
– Adoptees method
Molecular Genetics
Tries to specify particular gene(s) involved and precise functions of
target genes
Overview
• 46 chromosomes (23 pairs); thousands of genes per chromosome
• Allele – any one of several DNA codings that occupy the same
position or location on a chromosome
– Person’s genotype is his or her set of alleles
• Genetic polymorphism
– Involves differences in the DNA sequence that can manifest in different
forms
– Entails mutations in a chromosome that can be induced or naturally
occurring
• Linkage analysis
– Method in molecular genetics that is used to study people
• Typically study families in which a disorder is heavily concentrated; genetic
markers
•
Gene-environment interactions
The Nervous System
• The nervous system is composed of billions of neurons
• Each neuron has four major parts:
–
–
–
–
•
•
•
•
(1) the cell body
(2) several dendrites
(3) one or more axons of varying lengths
(4) terminal buttons
Nerve impulse
Synapse
Neurotransmitters
Reuptake
Synapse
Structure of Brain
• Meninges – 3 layers of nonneural tissue
that envelop the brain
• Cerebral hemispheres – constituting most
of the cerebrum
– “Thinking” centre of the brain
– Includes the cortex and subcortical structures
such as the basal ganglia and limbic system
• Corpus collasum – major connection
between the two hemispheres
Structure of Brain (cont.)
• Cerebral cortex – upper, side, and some of the lower
surfaces of hemispheres
– Consists of six layers of neuron cell bodies with many short,
unsheathed interconnecting processes
– Grey matter – thin outer covering
– Gyri – ridges
– Sulci – depression or fissures
• Deep fissures divide the cerebral hemispheres into several
distinct areas called lobes
– Frontal lobe – lies in front of the central sulcus
– Parietal lobe – behind frontal lobe and above the lateral
sulcus
– Temporal lobe – located below the lateral sulcus
– Occipital lobe – behind the parietal and temporal lobes
Functions of the Brain
Examples of Functions
• Vision in occipital lobe
• Discrimination of sounds in temporal lobe
• Reasoning and other higher mental processes, as well
as regulation of fine voluntary movement, in frontal lobe
• Left hemisphere – responsible for speech and perhaps
for analytical thinking in right-handed people
• Right hemisphere – discerns spatial relations and
patterns, and is involved in emotion and intuition
– But keep in mind that the 2 hemispheres communicate
with each other constantly via the corpus collasum
Important Functional Areas
1. Diencephalon (contains thalamus and hypothalamus)
– Thalamus- relay station for all sensory pathways except the olfactory
– Hypothalamus- highest centre of integration for many visceral
processes, regulating metabolism, temperature, perspiration, blood
pressure, sleeping, and appetite
2. Midbrain
– Mass of nerve-fibre tracts connecting the cerebral cortex with pons,
medulla oblongata, cerebellum, and spinal cord
3. Brain stem
– Comprises pons and medulla oblongata and functions primarily as a
neural relay station
4. Cerebellum
– Related to balance, posture, equilibrium, and to smooth coordination of
body when in motion
5. Limbic system
– Controls visceral and physical expressions of emotion
The Brain
Evaluation of the
Biological Paradigm
• Rapid progress is being made in understand brainbehaviour relationships and the role of specific genetic
factors
• Neuroscience helps improve psychological treatments
• Caution against reductionism – the simplification of a
phenomenon to its basics elements
• Nervous system dysfunction are not always due to a
neurological defect
• At times, a psychological intervention has a similar effect
on the biology as a psychotropic medication would (see
p. 46)
Cognitive-Behavioural Paradigm
• The Behavioural Perspective
• The Cognitive Perspective
The Behavioural Perspective
• The behavioural (learning) perspective
– Views abnormal behaviour as responses
learned in the same ways other human
behaviour is learned
• Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Modelling
Classical Conditioning
• Ian Pavlov
(1849-1936)
Operant Conditioning
• J. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
• Law of effect
– Behaviour that is followed by + consequences will be
repeated
– Behaviour that is followed by – consequences will be
discouraged
• Positive reinforcement
– Strengthening of a tendency to respond by virtue of
the presentation of a pleasant event - Positive reinforcer
• Negative reinforcement
– Strengthens a response by the removal of aversive
events
• Modelling
Behaviour Therapy
• Sometimes called Behaviour Modification
• Systematic desensitization
– Counterconditioning and Exposure
– Aversive conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
– Time-out
• Modelling
– Assertion training
The Cognitive Perspective
• Focuses on people:
– Structure experiences, interpretet experiences, relate
current experiences to past ones
– Schemas
• Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
– Main focus: Cognitive restructuring
•
•
•
•
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy
Meichenbaum’s Cognitive-Behaviour Modification
Behaviour Therapy and CBT in Groups
Evaluation of the
Cognitive-Behavioural Paradigm
• Criticism
– Particular learning experiences have yet to be discovered;
e.g., showing how some reinforcement history leads to
depression (life-time observation)
– Practicing new behaviours (satisfying activities) does not
prove that the absence of rewards caused for the abnormal
behaviour
– How does observing someone lead to a new behaviour?
Cognitive processes must be engaged
– Schemas are not well defined; regarded as causing
depression, BUT no explanation of what causes the ‘gloomy’
schemas
– Unclear differences between behaviour and cognitive
influences: importance of behaving in new ways for change to
occur
Evaluation of the CB Paradigm
(cont.)
• Contributions
– Integration of 2 perspectives, i.e., CBT, has
shown benefits in psychotherapy
– Strong evidence of its benefits in improving
depression, anxiety disorders, eating
disorders, autism, and schizophrenia
– Ex.: CBT can be more effective long-term than
antidepressants in treating depression
Psychoanalytic Paradigm
Psychopathology results from unconscious conflicts in the
individual
Structure of Mind (according to Freud)
• ID
– Present at birth
– Part of the mind that accounts for all the energy needed to run the
psyche
– Comprises the basic urges for food, water, elimination, warmth,
affection, and sex
• EGO
– Primarily conscious
– Begins to develop from the id during the second six months of life
– Task is to deal with reality
• SUPEREGO
– Operates roughly as the conscience
– Develops throughout childhood
Psychoanalytic Paradigm (cont.)
• Objective anxiety vs.
• Neurotic anxiety vs.
• Moral anxiety
• Defence Mechanisms
– Unconscious
strategies used to
protect the ego from
anxiety
• Examples
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Repression
Denial
Projection
Displacement
Reaction formation
Regression
Rationalization
Sublimation
Psychoanalytic Therapy
• The goal is to remove earlier repression, face childhood
conflict, and resolve it from adult reality
• Free association
• Dream analysis
– Latent content
• Some key components of psychoanalytic therapy
– Transference
– Countertransference
– Interpretation
Modifications in the
Psychoanalytic Theory
•
•
•
•
•
Group Psychodynamic Therapy
Ego Analysis
Brief Psychodynamic Therapy
Contemporary Analytic Thought
Interpersonal Therapy
Evaluation of the
Psychoanalytic Paradigm
• Criticism
– Theories based on anecdotes during therapy sessions
are not grounded in objectivity, thus, not scientific
– Freud’s observations, recollections could be unreliable
• Contributions
– Childhood experiences held shape adult personality
– There are unconscious influences on behaviour
– People use defense mechanisms to control anxiety
and stress
– Valid research shows the effectiveness of
psychodynamic therapies
Humanistic-Existential Paradigms
• Similar to psychoanalytic therapies, in that they are
insight-focused
• But psychoanalytic paradigm assumes that human
nature is something in need of restraint
• Humanistic and existential paradigms
– Place greater emphasis on the person’s freedom of
choice
– Free will as the person’s most important characteristic
– Exercising one’s freedom of choice take courage and
can generate pain and suffering
– Seldom focus on cause of problems
Carl Roger’s Client-Centred Therapy
• Also known as person-centred therapy
• Our lives are guided by an innate tendency toward selfactualization, thus focusing on positive factors
• Based on following assumptions:
– People can be understood only from the vantage point of
their own perceptions and feelings (phenomenological
world)
– Healthy people are aware of their behaviour, are innately
good and effective, and are purposive and goal-directed
– Therapists should not attempt to manipulate events for the
individual
• Create conditions that will facilitate independent decisionmaking by the client
• Features – unconditional positive regard & empathy
Humanistic-Existential Paradigm
(cont.)
• Humanistic Paradigm
– All people are striving to reach self-actualization;
– Anxiety occurs when there is a discrepancy between
one’s self-perceptions and one’s ideal self;
– Carl Rogers – Client-Centred Therapy
– Gestalt Therapy – Fritz Pearl
• Existential Paradigm
– Anxiety arises when what individuals does not bring
meaning in their lives (Viktor Frankl)
– Learning to relate authentically, spontaneously to
others
Evaluation of the
Humanistic-Existential Paradigms
• Criticism
– Therapists inferences of the client’s phenomenology
(world) may not be valid
– Assumption not demonstrated: People are innately
good and would behave in satisfactory and fulfilling
ways if faulty experiences did not interfere
– Self-awareness does not necessarily lead to change
• Contributions
– Rogers insisted that therapy outcomes be empirically
evaluated
Consequences of
Adopting a Paradigm
• Eclecticism / integration in psychotherapy
• Guides the data that will be collected and how they will
be interpreted
• Leads to ignoring possibilities and overlook other
information
• Most therapist use a Prescriptive Eclectic Theory, a
combination of ideas and therapeutic techniques
– CBT therapists show empathy; Learning therapists
inquire about clients’ thoughts; Freud was directive
and encourage behaviour change
Integrative Paradigm
• Diathesis-Stress Paradigm
• Biopsychosocial Paradigm
• Both paradigms emphasize the interplay
among the biological, psychological, and
social / environmental perspectives
Diathesis-Stress Paradigm
• Focuses on interaction between predisposition
toward disease (diathesis) and environmental, or
life, disturbances (stress)
• Diathesis
– Constitutional predisposition toward illness
• Any characteristic or set of characteristics that
increases a person’s chance of developing a disorder
• That is: genetic, psychological, environmental factors
can be predisposing to the development of a mental
disorder
Biopsychosocial Paradigm
Risk Factors
Protective Factors
Cultural Considerations
• Canada, A Multicultural Country
– Acculturation and ‘Cultural Mosaic’ vs.
– Assimilation and ‘Melting Pot’ in U.S.
• Canada and U.S. differ on the following aspects:
– Language
– Foreign birth
– Visible racial differences
Cultural Considerations (cont.)
• Mental Health Implications of Diversity in Canada
– Extremely low rates of mental disorder in Hutterites, MA
– ‘Healthy Immigrant Effect’
– Similar levels of behavioural problems among
French/English-Canadians and Caribbean/FilipinoCanadian adolescents
– Under-usage of mainstream mental health services by
members of minority groups:
• Asians in Canada (Chinese, Indian, Filipino, Vietnamese) and
West Indian
Cultural Considerations (cont.)
• Aboriginals and Mental Health Problems
– Depression, drug abuse, suicide, low self-esteem,
PTSD symptoms, violence, obesity, and diabetes are
widespread
– Institutional discrimination over 300
• Inuit people moved to the Far North
• Indian Residential Schools for 100 years
• Moving Aboriginals in reserves
– Aboriginal children are raised by relatives, thus moving
between households, which is not a sign of trouble
– Treatment, due to importance of family, may be
conducted in the home with all members involved
Cultural Considerations (cont.)
• Diagnosing and Assessment
– Most assume that clients to best when matched w/
clinician of similar cultural background, however,
– Similarity in values or cognitive match may be more
relevant for clients’ improvement
– The use of professional interpreters needs to become
universal across Canada
– Mental health professionals need to be trained in
cultural and ethnic particularities
– Clinicians must be aware that members of many
minority groups are angry at a sometimes insensitive
majority culture
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