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Civil Rights in America 1865-1990s Successes Failures Union is restored. Many white southerners remain bitter toward the federal government and the Republican Party. Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments guarantee African Americans the rights of citizenship, equal protection under the law, and suffrage. After federal troops are withdrawn, southern state governments and terrorist organizations effectively deny African Americans the right to vote. The South’s economy grows and new wealth is created in the North. The South is slow to industrialize. Freedmen’s Bureau and other organizations help many black families obtain housing, jobs, and schooling. Many black and white southerners remain caught in a cycle of poverty. Southern states adopt a system of mandatory education. Racist attitudes toward African Americans continue, in both the South and the North. Reactions to Freedom Rides Americans were horrified by the violence which had greeted the bus in Anniston. Despite the potential danger involved, Freedom Rides continued during the summer. Many riders were arrested. Attorney General Robert Kennedy had originally been opposed to lending federal support to the Freedom Rides. However, he later sent federal marshals to protect the riders. Kennedy also pressured the Interstate Commerce Commission to prohibit segregation in all interstate transportation. The Justice Department began to sue communities that did not comply. Integration at “Ole Miss” In 1961, James Meredith, an African American student at Jackson State College, applied for admission to the allwhite University of Mississippi, known as “Ole Miss.” When Meredith was rejected, he sought help from the NAACP. The NAACP argued that Meredith’s application had been rejected on racial grounds. When the case reached the Supreme Court, Meredith’s claim was upheld. Meredith continued to face problems as he enrolled at Ole Miss. Mississippi Governor Ross Barnett personally blocked Meredith’s way to the admissions office, and violence erupted on campus. The situation became a standoff between the governor and the Justice Department. President Kennedy sent federal marshals to escort Meredith around campus. Clash in Birmingham Marches in Birmingham In April 1963, Martin Luther King joined the Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth in a civil rights campaign in Birmingham, Alabama. City officials ordered civil rights protesters to end the march that was part of this campaign. When they did not, King and others were arrested. While in Birmingham Jail, King wrote a famous letter defending his tactics and his timing. Response to the Marches King was released more than a week later and continued the campaign, making the difficult decision to allow young people to participate. Police attacked the marchers with highpressure fire hoses, police dogs, and clubs. As television cameras captured the violence, Americans around the country were horrified. Kennedy on Civil Rights During the 1960 presidential campaign, Kennedy won the support of many African American voters. Kennedy had voted for civil rights measures in the Senate but had not actively supported them. As President, he moved slowly on civil rights issues, not wanting to anger southern Democrats. Hours after Kennedy had given a speech against discrimination, civil rights leader Medgar Evers was murdered. This murder made it clear that government action was needed. After violence erupted in Birmingham in 1963, Kennedy introduced a stronger civil rights bill than he had originally planned. This bill called for an end to segregation in public places and in situations where federal funding was involved. March on Washington To focus national attention on Kennedy’s bill, civil rights leaders proposed a march in Washington, D.C. The March on Washington was held in August 1963. More than 200,000 people came to the peaceful and orderly march, including musicians, religious leaders, and celebrities. At the march, Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered what was to become his best-known speech, “I Have a Dream.” Despite the success of the march, Kennedy’s civil rights bill remained stalled in Congress. Civil Rights Act of 1964 Johnson’s Role After Kennedy was assassinated, President Johnson worked to build support for Kennedy’s civil rights bill. The house passed the bill, but civil rights opponents in the Senate stalled it with a filibuster. This technique involved preventing a vote on a measure by taking the floor and refusing to stop talking. The Act Is Passed Johnson countered the filibuster with a procedure called cloture, a threefifths vote to limit debate and call for a vote. In June 1964, the Senate voted for cloture. Soon afterwards, the bill passed, becoming the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Fighting for the Vote In 1964, leaders of the major civil rights groups organized a voter registration drive in Mississippi. About 1,000 African American and white volunteers participated in what came to be called Freedom Summer. Violence plagued Freedom Summer as volunteers were beaten, shot at, arrested, and murdered. African American churches and homes were burned and firebombed. Members of SNCC along with newly registered Mississippi voters organized the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP). The MFDP sent delegates to the 1964 Democratic national convention, insisting that they were the rightful representatives from Mississippi. The Selma March To call attention to the issue of voting rights, King and other leaders decided to organize marchers to walk from Selma, Alabama, to Montgomery, about 50 miles away. Violence erupted at the start of the march. President Johnson sent military assistance to protect the marchers. When the march resumed, more people joined it, making a total of about 25,000 marchers. Voting Rights Act of 1965 & 24th Amendment The Voting Rights Act of 1965 allowed federal officials to register voters in places where local officials were preventing African Americans from registering. It also effectively eliminated literacy tests and other barriers to voting. The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1964, outlawed the poll tax, which was still in effect in several southern states. Malcolm X & Black Power Radical and militant political leaders emerged outside the mainstream civil rights movement. One of these leaders was Malcolm X. Born Malcolm Little, Malcolm X joined the Nation of Islam, also called the Black Muslims, which preached black separatism and self-help. As a minister of the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X spread the ideas of black nationalism, a belief in the separate identity and racial unity of the African American community. In 1964, Malcolm X made a pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holy city of Islam. Seeing Muslims of all races praying together changed his views on separatism, but he had only nine months to spread his new beliefs. In February 1965, he was shot to death. Self-Sufficiency The leader of the Nation of Islam, Elijah Muhammad, also believed in black nationalism. Elijah Muhammad did not believe in seeking political change. He taught that Allah (the Muslim name for God) would bring about a “Black Nation,” a union among all nonwhite peoples. Meanwhile, he thought that blacks should lead righteous lives and work to become economically self-sufficient. Black Power Movement SNCC Shifts Gears SNCC became more radical under the leadership of Stokey Carmichael. Carmichael advocated ideas of black power, which called upon African Americans to embrace their heritage, build communities, and lead their own organizations. Black power fostered racial pride but also led to a major split in the civil rights movement. Black Panther Party “…the nature of a panther is that if you push that black panther into a corner, he will try to go left to get out of your way. And if you keep him there, then he's going to try to go right to get out of your way. And if you keep oppressing him and pushing him into that corner, sooner or later that panther's going to come out of that corner to try to wipe out whoever's oppressing it in the corner…” -Seale recalling Newton’s explanation of the Black Panther symbol Beginnings: Historical context: a. Urban riots in Los Angeles, Detroit, Chicago, and Harlem b. Protests against the Vietnam War Upset about unemployment, poor housing conditions, poor health care, police brutality, etc. Beginnings: Founded in 1966 by: a. Huey Newton b. Bobby Seale Took the symbol (black panther) from Carmichael’s Lowndes County Freedom Organization in Alabama Ideology: Adopted Malcolm X’s belief in armed selfdefense Established organizations within the community to remedy problems State Capitol March: May 1967 Protested Mulford Act (“Panther Bill”)-would repeal the law allowing citizens to carry loaded weapons as long as they were openly displayed Brought national attention to party Chapters organized across the country Huey Newton: (1942-1989) Founder Born in Louisiana Family eventually moved to Oakland, CA Several skirmishes with the law (“Free Huey”) Received Ph.D. in social philosophy at UC-Santa Cruz in 1980 Murdered in Oakland, CA on August 22, 1989 “Free Huey”: Oct. 1967: Stopped by Oakland police Dec. 1967: Black Panthers unite to support Newton Sept. 1968: Found guilty of voluntary manslaughter Aug. 1970: After numerous appeals, charges are dropped and Newton is set free David Hilliard: Chief of Staff One of the first members of the party Took over when Newton was in jail (1967-1970) 1969: Imprisoned for carrying loaded gun in public place (violated Mulford Act of 1967) 1993: Established the Huey P. Newton Foundation with Fredrika Newton (Huey’s wife) Bobby Seale: (1936-present) Co-founder & Chairman Born in Texas Served in the U.S. Air Force but was discharged for bad conduct Met Newton while attending Merritt College in Oakland, CA Arrested multiple times Eldridge Cleaver: (1935-1998) Minister of Information •Born in Arkansas •Joined Black Panthers in 1967 •Wrote Soul on Ice and Soul on Fire •Ran into trouble with the law and fled with his wife to escape charges Eldridge Cleaver: Transformation Returned to U.S. in 1975 a changed man Renounced the party Became a born-again Christian Ran unsuccessfully for senator of CA (had run for President in 1968 under the Peace and Freedom Party) Stokely Carmichael: (1941-1998) Honorary Prime Minister NAG and SNCC leader Joined Black Panthers in 1967 Against Newton’s belief in working with white allies and consequently left the party Other Prominent Members: Fred Hampton H. Rap Brown George Jackson Bobby Hutton Other Prominent Members: Fredrika Newton Kathleen Cleaver Angela Davis Food Programs: Collected donations of food and supplies from local merchants and provided hot meals for children and food giveaways to entire families… Free Clothing: “Black Panther Party members went out and asked businessmen to donate sets of clothes, for school children on up to teenagers. We tried to get brand new clothing, because black people are tired of handme-downs.” -Bobby Seale Health Clinics: "She [Sheeba Haven] recruited people to train her in how to run the clinic. Dr. Tolbert Small was the clinic's physician, but Haven served as its first office manager. Party members were sent to the clinic as their work assignment. Haven developed a reputation for being somewhat of a staff sergeant. She demanded cleanliness, and sterile procedures.“ -Hugh Parson Other Accomplishments: Brought attention to poor prison conditions Protested against police brutality Increased voter registration Inspired other groups to form a. Brown Berets b. Red Guard c. Young Lords d. Gray Panthers COINTELPRO: Stood for Counter-Intelligence Program Purpose was to "expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize the activities of the Black nationalists" (according to FBI documents) Informants in the party Assassinations of party leaders and members Decline of the Party: Late 1970s Disintegration of the original leadership Many members imprisoned, killed, or expelled during 1968-1972 Internal stress within the leadership Substance abuse FBI and COINTELPRO’s efforts to destroy the party Black Power Video Cleveland’s mayoral election Attempt to elect first black mayor in America --Carl Stokes—wins primary-voter education process Stokes was elected mayor of America’s 10th largest city by a narrow margin Oakland, CA Rise of the Black Panthers Observed police actions against black community members Carried loaded guns in public in accordance with the law Charged with disturbing the peace Hate for oppression-- not whites Death of a police man puts more pressure on Panthers— Newton is arrested SNCC=Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee joins together with the Panthers Decline of the Party: Elaine Brown became the new party leader Obtained funds to build 300 new housing units Project to rebuild downtown provided 10,000 new jobs Party died out by the end of the 1970s Tragedy of 1968 Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. Martin Luther King was fatally shot on April 4, 1968, while mobilizing support for the Poor People’s Campaign, an effort to reduce economic injustice. King’s death provoked violent riots in more than 120 cities. Following his death, many Americans lost faith in the idea of nonviolent change. Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy Robert F. Kennedy was another major advocate for civil rights. Kennedy was shot by an assassin while campaigning for the 1968 Democratic presidential nomination, hours after winning California’s primary. Kennedy’s death ended many people’s hopes for an inspirational leader who could help heal the nation’s wounds. Black Panther Questions What impression did the Black Panthers make on America during the Civil Rights Movement? Were the Black Panthers successful? Explain… How did the techniques of the Panthers differ from that of more prominent Civil Rights leaders like MLK Jr.? Background of Women’s Movement The 1960s saw a resurgence of feminism, a term first used in 1895 to describe the theory of political, economic, and social equality of men and women. The women’s movement in the 1960s sought to change aspects of American life that had been accepted for decades. More women had begun to achieve higher levels of education, and many desired the same available to men. The civil rights movement helped give the women’s rights movement inspiration, strategies, and legal tools. Women who worked for civil rights applied the skills they had gained to the women’s movement. Many women were frustrated to discover that the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission set up by the 1964 Civil Rights Act did not take women’s discrimination claims seriously. Women’s Groups Organize Betty Friedan’s 1963 book The Feminine Mystique became an important influence in the women’s movement. Women began forming consciousness-raising groups dedicated to increasing their members’ awareness of women’s situation in society. In 1966, a group of 28 professional women, including Betty Friedan, formed the National Organization for Women (NOW). NOW advocated women’s issues such as fair pay, equal job opportunities, a more realistic portrayal of women in the media, and a more even balance of responsibilities in marriage. Betty Friedan The purpose of NOW is to take action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream of American society now, exercising all privileges and responsibilities thereof in truly equal partnership with men." " Roe v. Wade NOW and other groups worked to reform laws governing a woman’s decision to choose abortion instead of continuing an unwanted pregnancy. In 1973, the Supreme Court legalized abortion in its Roe v. Wade decision. The verdict in this case was, and remains, highly controversial. The decision established the trimester rule on the principle of “viable life”: states cannot prohibit abortion in the 1st tri, can only place very limited restrictions during the 2nd tri, and may protect the fetus during the 3rd trimester. Equal Rights Amendment The Equal Rights Amendment was a proposed Constitutional amendment to guarantee equality between men and women Political conservatives such as Phyllis Schlafly opposed the ERA, arguing it would hurt families and allow the military to draft women. Although the ERA was at first highly supported, it failed to gain ratification by the necessary number of states and was, therefore, not added to the Constitution. Voices of Ethnic Protest Like African Americans, other minority groups demanded equal rights after World War II. Mexican Americans found that peaceful protest could slowly bring about some of their goals. Groups such as the Community Service Organization and the Asociación Nacional México-Americana worked toward these goals. Native Americans faced problems of poverty, discrimination, and little real political representation. The 1953 government policy of termination, or elimination of reservations, met with resistance and was eventually discarded. Latino Movements Latinos, or people whose family origins are in Spanish-speaking Latin America, made up a growing percentage of the American population in the 1960s and 1970s. Specific groups of Latinos tended to settle in certain areas. Mexican Americans, also known as Chicanos, settled in the West and Southwest. Many Cuban immigrants settled in Florida, while Puerto Ricans moved to the Northeast. Chicano activists began encouraging Mexican Americans to take pride in their culture and its dual heritage from Spain and the ancient cultures of Mexico. Some Chicano activists claimed that non-Latinos had undermined Mexican Americans’ control over their own lives. Poor conditions in Latino neighborhoods supported this claim. Three factors created a steady stream of Latin American immigrants to the United States. 1 2 3 After World War I, the United States limited immigration from Europe. Beginning with World War II, the U.S. experienced a growing demand for inexpensive labor. At the same time, Latin American countries had increasing populations and shrinking job opportunities. Beginning in 1942, Mexican immigrants came to the United States under the farmhand program, which granted them temporary guest-worker status. These Latino farm workers played an important role in U.S. agriculture during and after World War II. In 1965, the Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments made Latino immigration easier. The U.S. Latino population has grown steadily ever since. Like other minorities, Latinos fought for equal rights. Migrant farmworkers worked long hours in poor conditions for low pay. Cesar Chavez organized these workers to form the United Farm Workers union, or UFW. “To be a man is to suffer for others” Cesar Chavez Chavez and the UFW Migrant farm workers, who moved from farm to farm providing needed labor, were among the country’s most exploited workers. In the 1960s, activists Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta organized Mexican field hands into what became the United Farm Workers (UFW). Using the tactics of nonviolent action, the UFW won collective bargaining rights for Latino migrant farm workers in California. Political and Legal Tactics Some Chicanos sought change by running for political office. Several won seats in the House and Senate. New political groups, including La Raza Unida (The United Race), formed to work for better housing and jobs. Legal aid for Mexican Americans was provided by the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund, an organization which also encouraged Mexican American students to become lawyers. Native Americans As the original occupants of North America, Native Americans have always occupied a unique social and legal position in the United States. Issues of land claims between Native Americans and state and federal governments continued. One such issue involved Seneca-owned land in New York State on which the federal government wanted to build a dam. Congress agreed to pay damages to the Seneca, but these payments did not restore their hunting and fishing lands, homes, or sacred sites. A new activist organization called the American Indian Movement (AIM) was formed in 1968 to push for enforcement of treaties, better living conditions, and more opportunities for Native Americans. AIM later began to fight for Native American legal rights as well, including autonomy, or self-government. Native American Confrontations In 1972, demonstrators protested the violation of treaties between the United States and various Indian groups by occupying the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, D.C. In 1969, Native American protestors attempted to claim Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay. In 1973, AIM led a standoff at the Oglala Sioux village of Wounded Knee, refusing to leave until the government agreed to investigate poor conditions there. To bring jobs and income to reservations, the Kennedy and Johnson administrations encouraged industries to locate there. This plan, however, did not meet with Native American approval. Several laws passed in the 1970s, including the Indian Education Act of 1972 and the Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act of 1975, favored Native American rights. Student Activism Students for a Democratic Society and the New Left — Organized in 1960, Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) had a major impact on the New Left, a political movement that advocated radical changes to deal with problems such as poverty and racism. The Teach-in Movement — Begun at the University of Michigan in March 1965, teach-ins, or special sessions at which issues concerning the war could be discussed, soon became a popular means of expressing antiwar sentiment. Continued Protests — Hundreds of demonstrations continued at colleges and universities around the country. One of the most dramatic, at Columbia University in New York City, linked the issues of civil rights and the war.