Download Justice Administration

CHAPTER SEVEN
Court Organization and Operation
Courts and camps are the only place to learn the world in.
—EARL OF CHESTERFIELD
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
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be familiar with the ramifications of the adversarial
system
know the importance of citizen groups in the
courtroom
understand the organization and administration
of our dual (federal and state) court systems
comprehend the roles and functions of the
Judicial Conference of the United States and
the Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts
be able to explain the kinds of jurisdiction that
courts possess
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Kenneth J. Peak
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(cont.)
At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
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be familiar with state courts and trial courts of
general and limited jurisdictions
know the four components of court unification, how
a unified court is organized, and the functional and
financial advantages of court unification
understand the importance of court decor and
decorum
understand why the courts' caseloads have
increased
understand the influence of courts on policymaking
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Inside the Courts
Decor, Decorum, Citizens - Hallowed Places
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Practically everything one sees & hears in an
American courtroom is intended to convey that
the courtroom is a hallowed place in our society.
Scarcely any political question arises in the US
not resolved, sooner or later, into a judicial question.
The physical décor one finds in the courts convey
this sense of importance.
Courtroom design also provides a safe, functional
space conducive to efficient/effective proceedings.
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the arrangement reflects society’s view of appropriate
relationships between defendant & judicial authority
Justice Administration: Police, Courts, and Corrections Management, 6/e
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.
Inside the Courts
Decor, Decorum, Citizens - Hallowed Places
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A formal level of decorum is accorded this
institution.
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all people must rise when the judge enters
permission must be granted to approach the bench
a general attitude of deference is granted the judge
A vitriolic utterance that could lawfully be directed
to the president of the United States could result
in an individual being jailed for contempt of court.

when directed to a judge
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Inside the Courts
Justice in the Eye of the Beholder
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Whether or not justice is obtained in the courtrooms
depends on the interests or viewpoints of the
affected or interested parties.
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a victim may not agree with a jury’s verdict;
a civil case winnner may not believe that he/she
received an adequate sum for suffering or damages
Because the definition of justice is not always
agreed on, the courts must appear to provide justice.
Many people today are put off by accounts of what
they perceive as coddling of offenders and ravages
of the “law’s delay”.
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Inside the Courts
Seeking Truth in an Adversarial Atmosphere
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Emerson stated “every violation of truth . . . is a stab
at the health of human society.”
Most people would agree the traditional, primary
purpose of the courts is to provide a forum for
seeking and obtaining the truth.
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US Supreme Court declared in 1966 in that “the
basic purpose of a trial is the determination of truth”
Many Americans have the impression that truth is
being compromised and even violated with regularity
in apparatus of our justice system.
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and an impediment is the adversarial system itself
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Inside the Courts
A Dual Court System
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It is important to know that this country has a dual
court system.
One national federal court system.
50 state courts system.
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plus the system of the District of Columbia
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Federal Court Organization/Administration
The Supreme Court: Jurists, Traditions, & Work
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Judges And Advocacy - the US Supreme Court is
the highest & one of the oldest courts in the nation.
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nine justices: 1 chief justice & 8 associate justices
All who wish to advocate must first secure admission
to the Supreme Court bar.
Applicants must have been admitted to practice in
the highest court of their state for 3 years and file a
certificate attesting the applicant is in good standing.
Applicants must swear or affirm to act “uprightly and
according to law, and . . . support the Constitution of
the US.”
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Federal Court Organization/Administration
The Supreme Court: Jurists, Traditions, & Work
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Inside The Court: Revered Traditions And
Practices - on the architrave above the portico of
the Supreme Court Building are inscribed the words
“Equal Justice Under Law.”
Justice Robert Jackson once described the Court’s
uniqueness: “We are not final because we are
infallible, but we are infallible because we are final.”
In many respects, the Court is the same institution
that first met in 1790.
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Federal Court Organization/Administration
The Supreme Court: Jurists, Traditions, & Work
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Caseload & Conferences - the Court does not
meet continuously in formal sessions during its term.
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sessions are divided into 4 separate, related activities
Time is allocated to reading through the petitions for
review of cases that come annually to the Court.
Second, the Court allocates time for oral arguments
The third allotment is for private discussions of how
each justice will vote on cases they have just heard.
A fourth block of time is for work on writing opinions.
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Federal Court Organization/Administration
The Supreme Court: Jurists, Traditions, & Work
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The Court has complete discretion to control the
nature and number of the cases it reviews.
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The Court hears only a tiny fraction of the thousands
of cases it is petitioned to consider.
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by means of the writ (order) of certiorari
when it declines to hear a case, the decision of the
lower court stands as the final word on the case
Adding to the Court’s workload is a steady growth in
legislation requiring judicial interpretation.
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and an increasing number of constitutional & other
issues that can be reviewed in the federal courts
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Federal Court Organization/Administration
US Courts of Appeals
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The courts of appeals are the intermediate courts
of appeals for the federal court system.
A court of appeals hears appeals from the district
courts located within its circuit, as well as appeals
from decisions of federal administrative agencies.
The courts are staffed by 179 judges nominated
by the president and confirmed by the Senate.
As with the Supreme Court, the caseload of the
courts of appeals has grown as well; in 2001 there
were 57,464 cases filed; by 2006 that number had
risen to 70,375—a 23 percent increase.
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Federal Court Organization/Administration
US District Courts
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Congress created 94 US district courts, of which 89
are located within the 50 states.
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As with the other federal courts, the president
nominates district judges, who must be confirmed.
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at least one district court in each state; some states
have more, such as California, New York, & Texas
they serve for life unless removed for cause
US district courts are courts of original jurisdiction
for all major violations of federal criminal law.
District Criminal cases filed increased from 62,957
in 2002 to 68,090 in 2006, or about 8 percent.
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Federal Court Organization/Administration
US Courts of Appeal & US District Court Circuits
Figure 7.1 Geographic boundaries of US Courts of
Appeals and US District Courts. Source: US Courts
of Appeals and US District Courts
www.uscourts. gov/images/circuitmap.pdf.
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Federal Court Organization/Administration
Judicial Conference of the US
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The administrative policymaking organization of the
federal judicial system.
Membership consists of the chief justice, the chief
judges of each of the courts of appeals, one district
judge from each circuit, and the chief judge of the
Court of International Trade.
Meets semiannually for 2-day sessions.
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most of the work is done by about 25 committees
The Judicial Conference directs the Administrative
Office of the US Courts and plays a major role in
impeachment of federal judges.
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Federal Court Organization/Administration
Administrative Office of the US Courts
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Since 1939, the day-to-day administrative tasks of
the federal courts have been handled by the
Administrative Office of the US Courts (AO), a
judicial agency.
The director of the AO is appointed by the chief
justice of the Supreme Court and reports to the
Judicial Conference.
The AO is also the housekeeping agency of the
judiciary, responsible for allotting authorized funds
and supervising expenditures.
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State Courts
Last Resort
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Courts of last resort are usually referred to as
state supreme courts.
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These courts do not use panels in making decisions.
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specific names differ from state to state, as do the
number of judges from five to as many as nine
the entire court sits to decide each case
All have a limited amount of original jurisdiction in
such matters as disciplining lawyers and judges.
In those 11 states without an intermediate court of
appeals, the state supreme court has no power to
choose which cases will be placed on its docket.
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State Courts
Last Resort
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The ability of most state supreme courts to choose
cases makes them important policymaking bodies.
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Nowhere is the policymaking role more apparent
than in deciding death penalty cases.
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state supreme courts handle 100 or so cases that
present the most challenging legal issues in the state
which in most states are automatically appealed to
the state’s highest court, bypassing the intermediate
courts of appeals
State supreme courts are the ultimate review board
for matters involving interpretation of state law.
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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State Courts
Appellate
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Like federal counterparts, state courts have
experienced growth in appellate cases that
threatens to overwhelm the state supreme court.
To alleviate caseload burden, officials in 39 states
created intermediate courts of appeals (ICAs).
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ICAs must hear all properly filed appeals
ICAs represent the final stage of the process for
most litigants.
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very few cases make it to appellate court, and of
those cases, only a small portion will be heard by
the state’s court of last resort
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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State Courts
Unified Court Systems
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Historically, state court reform has centered on
implementing court unification.
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since the 1900s, organization of US courts has
been a primary concern of reformers who believe
the multiplicity of courts is inefficient
A unified court system would shift judicial control
to centralized management.
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the loose network of independent judges & courts
would be replaced by a hierarchy with authority
concentrated in the state capital
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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State Courts
Unified Court Systems - Perceived Benefits
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Simplified court structure - variations among
counties would be eliminated.
Centralized administration - the state supreme
court working with state/county court administrators.
Centralized rule making - the state supreme court
should have the power to adopt uniform rules that
would be followed by all courts in the state.
Centralized budgeting - a single budget would be
prepared for the state judiciary & sent to legislature.
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. • All Rights Reserved.

Two systems—one unified on a statewide basis &
one not—demonstrate unification in action.
 the states of Illinois and New York
Figure 7.4 Illinois and New York
court structures. Source: Bureau
of Justice Statistics, State Court
Organization, October 2007, p.5
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Trial Courts
General Jurisdiction: Major Trial Courts
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There are an estimated 2,000 major trial courts in
the 50 states and DC, staffed by over 11,000 judges.
General jurisdiction means these courts have the
legal authority to decide all matters not specifically
delegated to lower courts.
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common names are district, circuit & superior courts
The great majority of the nation’s judicial business
occurs at the state, not the federal, level.
As most criminal cases do not go to trial, the
dominant issue in courts of general jurisdiction is
what penalty to apply to the guilty.
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Trial Courts
General Jurisdiction: Major Trial Courts
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Note the variety of functions and programs that exist
in addition to the basic court role of hearing trials
and rendering dispositions.
Figure 7.5 Organizational
structure of a district court
serving a population of
300,000 (MIS = Management
Information Systems).
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Trial Courts
Limited Jurisdiction: Lower Courts
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At the lowest level trial courts of limited jurisdiction,
also known as inferior courts or lower courts, which
decide a restricted range of cases.
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district, justice, justice of the peace, city, magistrate,
or municipal courts
85 percent of all judicial bodies in the US
created/maintained by city/county governments
not part of the state judiciary.
The caseload can be divided into felony criminal
cases, nonfelony criminal cases, and civil cases.
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The Influence of Courts in Policymaking
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The judicial branch has the responsibility to
determine legislative intent of the law and provide
public forums—the courts—for resolving disputes.
Determining what the law says and providing a
public forum involve the courts in policymaking.
Policymaking can be defined as choosing among
alternative choices of action, particularly in the
allocation of limited resources “where the chosen
action affects the behavior and well-being of others
who are subject to the policymaker’s authority.”
The policy decisions of the courts affect virtually
all of us in our daily lives.
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The Influence of Courts in Policymaking
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Because many of the Constitution’s limitations on
government are couched in vague language, the
judicial branch must eventually deal with potentially
volatile social issues.
It may appear that the courts are too broad in their
review of issues.
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it should be remembered judges “cannot impose their
views… until someone brings a case to court”
Decisions of the courts can be overturned by
legislative action.
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the judicial branch depends on a perception of
legitimacy surrounding its decisions
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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SUMMARY
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This chapter reviewed the distinctive nature of
the courts and their organization and some of
their administration.
Several areas were highlighted, including the
nature of the courts in terms of the status they
are accorded and their use of the adversarial
system in trying to arrive at the truth
The dual system of courts in our country–courts
of last resort, appeals courts, and trial courts at
the federal and state levels; how federal courts are
administered & movement toward court unification.
Also discussed is the role of courts in policymaking.
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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(cont.)
SUMMARY
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
A need and an issue indicated in this chapter is
that of court reform due to the often confusing
way in which courts and judges are organized
and utilized.
Another issue raised is the burgeoning caseloads
of the courts.
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Kenneth J. Peak
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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CHAPTER NINE
Court Issues and Practices
Justice is such a fine thing that we cannot pay too dearly for
it.
—EARL ALAIN RENE LESAGE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
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understand the differences between the due
process and crime control models
have a firm grasp of the growing trend toward
problem-solving courts
be knowledgeable about courthouse violence, both
actual and potential, and what must be done to
assess and deal with threats to court actors
be familiar with the problems and consequences of,
and solutions for, trial delays
understand the two systems used in scheduling
cases
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Kenneth J. Peak
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(cont.)
At the conclusion of this chapter, the student will:
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be able to explain the courts' role in media relations
know the importance of alternative dispute
resolution (ADR) and why it is considered the wave
of the future
be familiar with a recent major U.S. Supreme Court
decision concerning federal sentencing guidelines
be conversant with such issues as gender bias,
juveniles being tried as adults and shackled in
courtrooms, the exclusionary rule, the use of
cameras in the courtroom, and plea bargaining
understand some issues facing courts in the future
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Justice from the Due Process
& Crime Control Perspectives
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The due process model holds that defendants
should be presumed innocent, the courts’ first
priority is to protect suspects’ rights, and granting
too much freedom to law enforcement will result in
the loss of freedom & civil liberties for all Americans.
Standing in contrast is the crime control model,
which views crime as a breakdown of individual
responsibility and places the highest importance on
repressing criminal conduct, thus protecting society.
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Courthouse Violence
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Judges deal with “a segment of society that most
people don’t have to deal with—people who are
violent, might be mentally unstable, are desperate
because they don’t have much more to lose.”
Increasingly true when one considers some of the
recent violent acts committed against the judiciary.
These have been many incidents of courthouse
violence across the nation in recent years.
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mirroring the society, our courts have become
dangerous venues
Threats against federal judicial officials alone now
averaging about 700 annually.
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Courthouse Violence
Types of Courthouse Violence
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Nontargeted courthouse violence - an individual
with no specific intention of engaging in violence.
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Targeted courthouse violence - an individual who
expressly intends to engage in courthouse violence.
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but during, at the conclusion of, or shortly after the
court proceeding, becomes incensed & defiant at
some procedure or outcome and acts out
deliberately focus on specific individuals or judiciary
Of the two groups, the nontargeting group has been
responsible for most of the violent incidents in our
nation’s courthouses.
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Courthouse Violence
Making a Threat Assessment
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Targeted violence is the end result of understandable
and often discernible processes of thinking & acting.
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One must distinguish between expressing a threat
and posing a threat.
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neither impulsive nor spontaneous
many who make threats do not pose a serious risk
& many who serious risk will not issue direct threats
Violence is the product of an interaction among the
attacker, his/her situation, the target, and the setting.
At minimum, all courts should employ security
procedures.
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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Problem-Solving Courts
“Therapeutic Justice”
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The 90s saw a wave of court reform across the US
as judges and other court actors experimented with
new ways to deliver justice.
Problem-solving courts are still very much a work
in progress, but they share some common elements.
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they use their authority to forge new responses to
chronic social, human, and legal problems
The results have been impressive.
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studies have found that these first-generation courts
reduced probation violation & dismissal rates,
improved public safety and are worth pursuing
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Kenneth J. Peak
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Problem-Solving Courts
Social & Historical Forces that Set the Stage
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Breakdown & loss of respect for social/community
institutions, such as families and organized religion.
A surge in the nation’s incarcerated population.
Emphasizing accountability of public institutions.
Advances in quality/availability of therapeutic
interventions, particularly drug treatment programs.
Shifts in public policies & priorities.
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the “broken windows” theory
Rising caseloads and increasing frustration with the
standard approach to case processing.
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Problem-Solving Courts
Not “McJustice”
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Declining public confidence, judges moaning their
courts are places of “McJustice” & “plea-bargaining
mills,” attorneys looking at their roles, & outcomes
have led to calls for “therapeutic jurisprudence.”
Critics worry defendants may be coerced into
participating in these courts.
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In the Spotlight
Drug Courts
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By the end of 2004, there were 1,212 drug courts
operating, another 476 were being planned.
Successful completion of the program results in
dismissal of charges, reduced or set-aside
sentences, lesser penalties, or a combination.
The drug court model includes the following:
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incorporating drug testing into case processing
nonadversarial relationship between defendant & court
referring defendants in need of treatment
access to treatment and rehabilitation services
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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In the Spotlight
Mental Health Courts
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In the past, courts generally treated the mentally ill in
the same manner as any other defendant, and the
results were devastating.
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because of high levels of recidivism, this situation is
slowly changing
The premise is that defendants are better served if
they are diverted to treatment programs and remain
under regular supervision for a fixed period of time.
In exchange for guilty pleas, defendants are put
on probation and given a treatment plan.
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sex offenders & violent criminals are barred
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The Dilemma of Delay
“Justice Delayed…”
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There is no consensus on how long is too long to
bring a criminal case to trial, no agreed-on definition
of unnecessary delay.
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The crime control model requires swift justice to
protect society by incarcerating offenders.
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the concern is unnecessary delay, and the test
centers on prosecutor & defense attorney conduct
due process, a more thoughtful, careful approach.
The public often hears of cases languishing on
dockets for years.
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which erodes public confidence in the judicial process
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© 2010 Pearson Higher Education,
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The Dilemma of Delay
The Consequences

Delay can jeopardize values & guarantees inherent in
our system & deprive defendant rights to speedy trial.
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lengthy pretrial incarceration can cause a defendant
to plead guilty
Delay can also strengthen a defendant’s bargaining
position; prosecutors are more apt to accept pleas
to a lesser charge when dockets are crowded.
A contributor to court delay is lack of incentive to
process cases speedily.

the Supreme Court has refused to give the rather
vague concept of a “speedy trial” a precise time frame
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The Dilemma of Delay
Suggested Solutions

The best-known legislation addressing the problem is
the Speedy Trial Act of 1974, amended in 1979, and
has proven effective over the years.


federal prosecutors have a total of 100 days from
time of arrest until trial
Laws to speed up trials at state level have had less
success than federal law because most state laws
fail to provide courts with adequate, effective
enforcement mechanisms.

time limits specified by speedy trial laws are seldom
followed in practice
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The Dilemma of Delay
Case Scheduling: Two Systems


A key part of addressing case delay concerns ability
of the court administrator to set a date for trial.
Individual Calendar System - a simpler procedure
for scheduling cases.



a primary advantage is continuity
often affected by major differences in case stacking
Master Calendar System - judges oversee given
stages of a case.


primary advantage is judges can be assigned to the
job they do best
difficult to pinpoint location or responsibility for delay
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The Dilemma of Delay
Two Systems - Which System Is Better?

Debate has developed over which is better, though
the answer likely depends on the nature of the court.



small courts, such as US district courts, use the
individual calendar system more successfully.
metropolitan & state courts almost uniformly use
the master calendar system.
Research indicates that courts using the master
calendar experience greater difficulty.

in courts where the master calendar system was
discontinued, delay was greatly reduced
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Decreasing Litigation
Alternative Dispute Resolution

Several methods are now being proposed to reduce
the number of lawsuits in this country.




one limits punitive damages, with only the judge
being allowed to levy them
another is to force losers to pay winner’s legal fees
Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) is
appropriate when new law is not being created.
The two most common forms of ADR used today
are arbitration and mediation.


arbitration is similar to a trial, though less formal
mediation is less formal and more friendly
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Recent Supreme Court Decisions on
Federal Sentencing - Guidelines

Two recent US Supreme Court decisions concern
federal sentencing guidelines & judges’ sentences.



first was the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984
creating the US Sentencing Commission to
establish sentencing policies and guidelines
in 2007, the Court explained what it meant
by “advisory” and “reasonableness”
The Court found district court judges do not have to
justify deviations from federal Guidelines, with broad
discretion to impose “reasonable sentences”.

even if the Guidelines call for different sentences
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Courts’ Media Relations

Good media relations can be very important for
the courts—particularly in high-profile cases.


people often wonder why the courts act as they
do with respect to public information
The National Center for Courts & Media was
established to foster better communication and
understanding between judges & lawyers, and
between judges & journalists.

the goal is to eliminate unnecessary friction
between courts and the media
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Other Issues
Gender Bias

As our society has become more diverse, gender
bias problems have increased.



36 states have created task forces to investigate
gender bias in the legal system
Although it is difficult to estimate the true extent of
gender bias, it is important to recognize and deal
with it whenever it occurs.
Perceptions of gender bias are a serious matter
because they affect litigants’ view of the fairness
of the justice system.
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Other Issues
Should Juveniles Be Tried as Adults?


In the mid-90s, focus on crimes began to shift from
drugs to juvenile crime, particularly violent crime.
Numerous states are responding by making it easier
to transfer juveniles from juvenile to adult courts


The philosophy & treatment of juveniles are quite
different in the latter courts.



thus juveniles tried as adults
the process is adversarial instead of amicabl
punitive rather than treatment-oriented
States are also lowering the age and increasing the
list of crimes for which juveniles can be transferred.
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Other Issues
Should Juveniles Be Tried as Adults?

Advocates of restorative justice emphasize that
juveniles are a prime example of a group where
efforts at reconciliation are likely to yield more
positive results than punitive measures.




should juveniles be prosecuted as adults?
under what conditions sentenced & incarcerated?
should potential/traditional rehabilitative philosophies
& functions of juvenile court be taken into account?
These questions must be addressed in light of the
hardened nature of today’s violent juvenile offenders,
& terms of what the future holds for juvenile violence.
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Other Issues
Should Juveniles Be Shackled?

At issue is whether children as young as 10 need
to be shackled for court security.


The US Supreme Court & federal courts have held
shackles on a defendant can unfairly influence a jury.


and if chains on young defendants make them look
& think of themselves that way
adult defendants may appear in court in shackles,
but not in front of their jury
Routine shackling is a better-safe-than-sorry
approach when teenage impulsiveness leads to
an escape attempt or attack on a person in court.
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Other Issues
Should Juveniles Be Shackled?


Conversely, advocates argue that policies requiring
juveniles to be shackled are unnecessary because
most juveniles are there for nonviolent offenses.
Overall, it would appear that momentum is building
against the use of shackles in juvenile court.


at least in terms of a state’s having a broad policy
requiring juveniles to be restrained
There seems to be more agreement that need for
shackling should be decided on a case-by-case
basis.
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Other Issues
Should the Exclusionary Rule Be Banned?


The exclusionary rule became controversial for
crime control & due process advocates when adopted
in 1961 by the US Supreme Court in Mapp v. Ohio.
For experts inclined toward the due process model,
illegal conduct by the police cannot be ignored.

they believe that a court that admits tainted evidence
tolerates unconstitutional conduct that produced it and
demonstrates an “insufficient commitment to the
guarantee against unreasonable search and seizure.
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Other Issues
Should Cameras Be Banned?

The widely televised trial of O.J. Simpson clearly
caused a reconsideration of this issue.



perceptions that Simpson’s lawyers played to the
cameras had an impact in several cases that followed
Opponents complain televising trials distorts the
process, encouraging participants to play to cameras.
Supporters of the practice maintain televising trials
has educational value, providing the public with a
firsthand view of how courts operate.

Studies found viewers of a televised trial became
more knowledgeable about the judicial process
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Other Issues
Does Plea Bargaining Belong?



Some people in the court system believe plea
bargaining reduces the courthouse to something
akin to a Turkish bazaar - justice on the cheap.
Others believe it makes the job of judge, prosecutor,
& defense attorney much easier.
Regardless of which side one supports, it is ironic
that police & civil libertarians oppose plea bargaining.


but for different reasons
A bargained agreement on reduced charges may be
the product of initial overcharging and/or of evidence
problems that surface later.
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Jury Science

Scientific jury selection—hiring a private consulting
firm to sample a geographical area and determine
what constitutes a jury of one’s peers—has existed
for many years.



methods used & services provided by many firms
today to assist trial attorneys are relatively new
Many private firms provide consultation concerning
jury selection and focus on the thought processes
of jurors to also make the jury more predictable.
They also prepare courtroom graphics, animations,
and estimates of the probability of damages based
on jury research.
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Future Considerations
Shifts in Philosophy and Practice





Private businesses offering adjudication, arbitration,
& mediation will increasingly compete with courts.
Judicial decisions, such as small claims, traffic &
status offenses will be made by nonlawyer judges.
Court programs will be increasingly decentralized.
Court organizational structures will be less formal,
with less reliance on hierarchical, bureaucratic
structures & shared leadership.
Not to be overlooked in the courts’ future are the
impacts of high technology & integration of criminal
justice information systems.
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Future Considerations
Trends & Expectations To Shape the Courts






Demand for culturally appropriate court and justice
services, including interpreters.
Diverse expectations for the courts’ role in society.
Alterations in family composition.
More demand for acceptance of alternative lifestyles.
Increasing manipulation of public opinion about crime
and the courts using mass media.
Rapidly emerging information/networking technology.
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SUMMARY




This chapter discussed challenges involving the
courts, generated from both internal and external
sources, for today and for the future.
It is obvious that contemporary and future court
issues and operations carry tremendous challenges
for administrators.
Court leaders must be innovative, open to new
ideas, accountable, well trained, and educated
for the challenges that lie ahead.
Legislators and policymakers must be more aware
of difficulties confronting courts & be prepared to
provide additional resources.
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