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Chapter 8 Water & Minerals Water - Life begin as single sell bathed in a nourishing fluid - When Grows – each cell has to remain next to water to stay alive. Water Is a unique among nutrients Most Indispensable of all Body need more water each day than any other nutrient. 50 times more water than protein We can survive a deficiency of any of the other nutrient for a long time – But not in case of water. Water— The Most Essential Nutrient Nutrient most needed by the body. Makes up part of every cell, tissue, and organ in the body. Accounts for about 60% of body weight: Bone is more than 20% Muscle is 75% Teeth are about 10% BODY FLUIDS & MINERALS Most of the body’s water weight is contained inside the cells Some water bathes outside the cells Remainder fills the blood vessels HOW DO THE BODY KEEP THIS BALANCE Water move freely through cell membranes Cell pumps minerals across membrane Cell direct where the mineral salts Go & this determines where the fluid flow Water Distribution - Blood - Intracellular Fluid 40% - Extracellular Fluid 15% - Some Water incorporated in chemical compounds and not available for other uses - Also take part in Chemical Reactions Role of Water - Maintain body temperature - Act as transporter - Cleanses the tissue - Solvent - Actively participate in chemical reactions - Provide media for chemical reactions - Act as a lubricant - Serve as a shock absorber Maintaining Water Balance - Thirst & Satiety Govern Water Balance - Hypothalamus Monitor the Concentration of Blood - > 1% loss cause thirst - Between 1%-2% cause lack of concentration - 5% loss cause difficulty in concentration - Increase Heart Rate - Water also diverted from skin to Blood vessels - That Increase Body Temperature Water Distribution The distribution of water between various sections depends on the differences in the concentration of solutes such as: proteins sodium potassium and other small molecules The concentration differences drive osmosis. Blood Pressure Water also moved with “Blood Pressure” Blood Pressure Blood pressure is the amount of force exerted by the blood against the walls of arteries Water Balance The amount of water in body remain relatively constant. Water can not be stored in the body Water intake must be equal to the out put The amount of water in body remain relatively constant. Water— The Most Essential Nutrient Water Requirements Water can not be stored in the body Water intake must be equal to the out put Lack of sufficient water in the body causes deficiency symptoms more rapidly than any other nutrient. A typical man losses & consume almost 3 liters water daily. An individual doing light work at 84F will loose about 2 to 3 L sweat/day Intense physical activity in a hot environment can increase this to 2 to 4 L in an hour. Regulating Water Intake - A constant supply of water without excess or deficiency is needed in the body - Water intake must equal water loss in order to maintain water balance - Desire to drink, or thirst is triggered by the thirst center in the brain when: – – It senses a decrease in blood volume or An increase in the concentration of dissolved substances in the blood - A decrease in the amount of water in the blood also reduces saliva secretion. - Together, signals from brain and dry mouth motivate the consumption of fluid. Regulating Water Intake However, these signals to consume water are not perfect regulators of water intake. Thirst is quenched almost as soon as fluid is consumed and long before water balance is restored. Also, the sensations of thirst often lags behind the need for water The thirst mechanism often become unreliable WATER AND EXERCISE Water in blood known as plasma Plasma act as water in car radiator This particularly critical to human during exercise Sweating is similar to Air-Conditioning system It only work when sweat evaporate In humid environment, double dangerous Loosing water Body temp. does not fall WATER AND EXERCISE In humid day, particular attention should be given to fluid need How much sweat you loose depends on the intensity & duration of the activity If you don’t replace lost water Plasma volume will decrease And water will be pulled from muscles and organs LACK OF WATER DURING EXERCISE CAUSES: Cramps in muscles Heart is forced to beat faster Less plasma will circulate to transport heat to the skin Cause heat build up A water loss equal to 2% of body weight can reduce muscle work capacity by 20% to 30% ATHLETE CAN LOSE TWO OR MORE QUARTS OF FLUID DURING EVERY HOUR OF HEAVY EXERCISE, AND MUST BE REHYDRTAED BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER THE EXERCISE HOW MUCH WATER DO WE NEED TO DRINK A DAY? • Depends on:– – – Type of food Environmental temperature Activity level etc. • Under normal conditions – Adult consume & excrete about 1.5 to 3 quarts of water – That is about 9 cups for women and 13 cups for men per day. OR – 1 to 1.5 ml of water for each calorie spent in a day • A person who expends 2000 cal. a day needs 2 to 3 lt. of fluids • If sweating more water need FACTORS THAT INCREASE WATER NEED • • • • - • • • • • • • • - Alcohol consumption Diseases such as diabetes Physical activity Forced air environments such as air-planes or sealed buildings Heated environments Hot weather Increased dietary fiber, protein, salt or sugar Medication (diuretics) Pregnancy & breast feeding Diarrhea, vomiting or fever Surgery, blood lose or burns Very young or old age Options for Drinking Water Dissolve almost everything on encounters including: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Toxic pollutant organic chemical heavy metals pesticides manure All have been detected in public drinking waters Options for Drinking Water Public water system remove most hazards ENVIRONMENATL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA) is responsible to ensure the quality of drinking water. The method of Chlorination of water to kill bacteria is used by EPA Chlorination itself may cause cancer but almost 25000 people die every day for disease caused by organisms carried by water and easily killed by chlorine. OPTIONS FOR DRINKING WATER 1. Drink tap water- municipal water is held to minimum standard for purity 2. Use home purifying equipment each system has advantages & disadvantages maintenance or filter replace 3. Bottled water OPTIONS FOR DRINKING WATER • Typically 250 to 10,000 time costlier than tap water • There is no agency to monitor the quality of bottled water • However, Bottled water sold in interstate commerce is regulated by the FDA • FDA requires yearly test but standards are substantially less rigorous than those applied on U.S. tap water. • When buy bottled water look for the trade mark of the International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) - - Also look at waters place of origin Determine the water source OPTIONS FOR DRINKING WATER • Consumer group tested bottled water & disapproved the notion of superior safety • 103 brand tested about third were contaminated with o o o Bacteria Arsenic Organic chemicals • At least a quarter (1/4) bottles were drawn directly from tap water. • In reality, all water comes from same source. TYPES OF WATER & HEALTH The makeup of water differs Variations can have significant health implications : Where it comes from How it is processed One of the most basic distinctions, hard versus soft water, is based on the concentrations of three minerals: Calcium Magnesium Sodium TYPES OF WATER & HEALTH • Hard Water- High in Ca & Mg concentration • Soft water- High in Sodium concentration • Soft Water: – – – • Aggravate hypertension & heart diseases Dissolves easily certain contaminant metals i.e cadmium & lead from pipes. Cadmium- affect enzymes by displacing Zn & disturbing Fe & Cu transfer during pregnancy. Hard Water: – – Calcium in hard water protect against there problem Calcium and Magnesium are vital for healthy Heart Water— The Most Essential Nutrient Hard water: water with a high concentration of minerals such as calcium and magnesium. From a health standpoint, hard water seems to be the better alternative. Soft water: water containing a high sodium concentration. The excess sodium adds more of the mineral to our already sodium-laden diets. It dissolves potentially toxic substances such as lead from pipes BODY FLUIDS & MINERALS Salt: Compounds composed of charged particles (ions) i.e. K+ Cl Ions: Electrically charged particles, such as Na + or Cl Electrolytes: Compounds that partly dissociate in water to form ions i.e. potassium Ion (K+) & chloride Ion (Cl-) Fluid & Electrolyte Balance: Maintenance of the proper amounts & kinds of fluids & minerals in each compartment of the body. BODY FLUIDS & MINERALS Minerals play extremely important role in maintaining : Fluids & electrolyte balance Acid- Base balance Body’s proteins & some minerals serve as buffers WATER & MINERALS When life force leaves the body, what is left behind becomes nothing but a small pile of ashes. Carbohydrate, Protein, Fat & Water & Vitamins disappear. As Co2 & Water Remaining minerals- weigh only about 5 lbs. Ca & P make up to 3/4th of total minerals Minerals Minerals are divided into 2 groups. Major minerals Trace Minerals or Trace Elements Major Minerals – are those, needed greater than 100 mg/ day or Trace Minerals – needed less than 100 mg/day Minerals Minerals: small, naturally occurring, inorganic, chemical elements; the minerals serve as structural components and in many vital processes in the body. Inorganic: being or composed of matter other than plant or animal. Minerals Minerals are inorganic elements Needed by the body as structural components and regulators of body processes Minerals may combine with other elements in the body, but they retain their identity Unlike vitamins, they are not destroyed by heat, oxygen or acid. Minerals • MINERALS IN DIET • – minerals come from both Plant and animal sources – In some food, the amounts of mineral is predictable, such as: – Iron in meat or – Magnesium in green leaves (chlorophyll) – Amounts of some trace minerals in food vary depending on the mineral concentration in the soil and water such as: • • – Iodine higher near oceans Food processing and refining also affect the mineral contents of food. Some minerals are added unintentionally through contamination. Minerals • MINERALS IN THE DIGESTIVE TRACT – Absorption of minerals from digestive tract varies dramatically such as: • • • Sodium 100% Calcium typically 25% Iron may be as low as 5% – For some minerals the amount absorbed depends primarily on the amounts consumed – For others absorption is affected by: • • • Composition of diet Nutritional status of the person Life stage Minerals Some dietary components decrease mineral bioavailability Mineral ions that carry the same charge compete for absorption, such as: Ca++, Mg++, Zn++, Cu++ and Fe++ All carry two + charges, high intake of one may reduce the absorption of others. Minerals Bioavailability is also affected by the binding of minerals to other substances such as: Phytic acid- an organic compound containing Phosphorus found in whole grains, bran and soy product. It binds: Ca, Zn, Fe and Mg Tannins – found in Tea, reduce iron absorption Oxalates – found in spinach, Rhubarb, Chocolate, reduces calcium and iron absorption. MINERALS IN THE BODY – Minerals are transported in the blood bound to plasma protein or specific transport protein – The binding of minerals to transport-protein help: Regulate their absorption and Prevents reactive minerals from forming free radicals • • – Minerals perform a wide range of Structural and Regulatory Roles • • » » Structure: Ca, P, Mg and Fluoride are used as structural components Regulatory: Iodine – Thyroid hormone Chromium – Blood Glucose Zinc – Gene expression Minerals Many minerals serve as cofactors necessary for enzyme activity such as · Selenium · Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn Some minerals interact – for example · Ca and P · Na and K Minerals Many minerals serve as cofactors necessary for enzyme activity such as Selenium Cu, Zn, Fe, and Mn Some minerals interact – for example Ca and P Na and K Minerals MINERAL DEFICIENCY Iron, Iodine and calcium deficiencies are world wide problem Sodium (Na) – Found naturally in many foods. – Component of sodium chloride (table salt), a food seasoning and preservative. – The use of highly salted foods can contribute to high blood pressure (hypertension) in those who are genetically susceptible. – Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend consuming little sodium and salt and staying below the upper limit of 2300 mg of sodium per day. Sodium (Na) About 40% water is in side the cells and about 15% bathes the outsides of the cell. That is maintained with the help of Sodium, Potassium and Chloride. Electrolytes also help in: Nerve to nerve communication Heartbeat Contraction of muscles Na is a +ive ion in NaCl 40% of its weight – 30-40% on bones Sodium (Na) • Functions – major part of the body fluid and electrolyte balance system • • • maintain acid- base balance muscle contraction nerve transmission • Excretion • • sweat urine • Amount of Na excrete in a day equals the amount we ingest. Sodium Electrolytes Sodium, potassium, and chloride are examples of body electrolytes. Potassium, which is usually found in the fluids inside the cells, carries a positive charge. Sodium and chloride are usually found in the fluids outside the cells. Sodium carries a positive charge. Chloride carries a negative charge Sodium Sodium Many whole foods are low in sodium Whole foods = < 10% of sodium in the U.S. diet Salt added during cooking or at the table = 15% of the sodium Sodium added by food manufacturers to processed foods = 75% of sodium in the U.S. diet Sodium Sodium and Blood pressure - more than 2400 mg/ day causes blood pressure - Increase intake of salt Increase rate of: o hypertension o CVD o Cerebral hemorrhage AND o Hypertension- related stroke As blood pressure increases the risk of death from CVD also increases. DASH (dietary approaches to stop hypertension) diet Increase fruit, vegetable, fish, whole grain & low fat dairy products and Reduce red meat, butter, high fat foods as well as salt Potassium (K) • One of the characteristics of hypertension is that it has been called a “silent killer” that cannot be felt and may go undetected for years. • That’s why it is crucial to have your blood pressure checked on a regular basis. Diagnosis of hypertension requires at least two elevated readings. • The DASH diet and reducing the amount of sodium consumed lower blood pressure. Tips to Reduce HBP Risk 1. Adopt an eating pattern rich in fruits, vegetables, legumes, and low-fat-dairy products—similar to the DASH diet—with reduced saturated fat content. 2. Maintain a normal weight. Lose weight if you’re overweight; even losing just a few pounds can reduce blood pressure if you’re overweight. 3. Keep your sodium intake at or below recommended levels—not more than 2,300 milligrams a day. Tips to Reduce HBP Risk 4. Pursue an active lifestyle: Walk briskly, swim, jog, cycle, or do other moderately paced aerobic activities. Aim for at least 30 minutes of activities daily. 5. If you drink, use moderation—no more than one drink a day for women, and no more than two drinks a day for men. 6. Don’t smoke. Cigarette smoking raises blood pressure and seriously increases risk for heart disease. Potassium (K) • K is the principal positive(+) charged ion inside body cell • Play major role: – – – Maintaining fluid & electrolyte balance Cell integrity Critical to maintain heart beat • Sudden death occur during – – – – fasting kwashiorkor sever diarrhea eating disorders Are caused by the loss of Potassium. Potassium (K) – – – dehydration leads to K loss when brain cell losses K – victim loses the feel of thirst diuretic causes K loss, must be taken under physician; supervision • K- deficiency is unlikely – fruits and veg. effect of lowering blood pressure is may be due to K- contents – K from food is safe but K –injected in vein can stop the heart – K- over dose normally are not life threatening as long as taken by mouth • High K in stomach causes vomiting Potassium (K) Potassium(K) The Major Minerals Calcium (Ca) Chloride (Cl) Magnesium (Mg) Phosphorus (P) Potassium (K) Sodium (Na) Sulfur (S) Calcium - Most abundant mineral in body • Bones store 99% of the body’s calcium, which plays two roles: – – • Calcium serves as a cofactor for several enzymes. – • Supports and protects soft tissues. Serves as a calcium bank, providing calcium to body’s fluids. Cofactor: a mineral element that, like a coenzyme, works with an enzyme to facilitate a chemical reaction. Calcium is essential for nerve impulses, muscle contraction, heartbeat, maintenance of blood pressure, & blood clotting. Calcium Minerals of bones are in constant flux Ca & P as calcium phosphate crystallize on the foundation material composed of collagen Hydroxyapatite crystals give rigidity Flourapatite- fluoride displace thy “hydroxy” part of hydroxyapatite & make flourapatite- Resists bone- Dismantling Teeth are formed in a similar way turnover of minerals is slow Calcium less than 1% Calcium in blood is vital to life. It is required for: Transmission of never impulses Muscle contraction Maintain cell membranes Maintain Blood pressure Blood clotting Act as cofactor for several enzymes Therefore, Blood calcium is tightly controlled Calcium Sources – Milk and milk products contain the most calcium per serving – Milk contains both Vitamin D and lactose, both of which enhance calcium absorption. – many greens are also good choices, but a complication enters in absorption. – fish and shellfish are also good source of calcium. – Some foods contain binders( such as PHYTIC ACID,OXALIC ACID) that combine chemically with calcium and other minerals such as iron and zinc. • • Higher fiber in diet higher calcium is required. The higher the diet is in protein, the greater the amount of calcium excreted. Calcium Milk and milk products typically contain more calcium than other food sources. Milk also contains vitamin D and lactose which can enhance calcium absorption Calcium Sources Calcium Sources Factors effecting Calcium Absorption Some foods contain binders such as : PHYTIC ACID OXALIC ACID which combine chemically with calcium and other minerals such as iron and zinc. Higher fiber in diet higher calcium is required. The higher the diet is in protein, the greater the amount of calcium excreted. Calcium Sources Calcium-fortified foods are available for those who cannot take milk products. Milk allergy: the most common food allergy; caused by the protein in raw milk. Lactose intolerance: an inherited or acquired inability to digest lactose as a result of a failure to produce the enzyme lactase. BONE: A LIVING TISSUE – – – – – Bone is a living metabolically active tissue Constantly being broken down and reformed in a process called Bone Remodeling Bone is formed by cells called Osteoblast And broken down or resorbed by cells called Osteoclast During bone formation Osteoblast’s activity exceeds During bone breakdown activity of Osteoclast exceeds BONE: A LIVING TISSUE – – – – Most bones are formed early in life. In children, bone formation occur more rapidly than breakdown Even after growth stop, MASS continue to increase into young adulthood when Peak Bone Mass is achieved (Between 16 to 30) In Healthy Adults, bone breakdown and formation are in balance, so bone mass remain constant – – After age 32 to 45, the amount of breakdown begin to increase than which is formed. If enough bone is lost, skeleton is weakened and fracture _ this is called Osteoporosis OSTEOPOROSIS Caused by a loss in both: Protein matrix Mineral deposits of bone In U.S about 28 million people have Osteoporosis or at risk due to low bone mass. 80% of them are women Osteoporosis leads to 1.5 million fractures of Hips, Pelvis, Legs, Arms, Hand and Ankles/year Cost between $10 to 15 billion per year OSTEOPOROSIS – Bones explodes into fragments – Many elderly people with hip fracture never able to walk – Osteoporosis occurs during the later years but – Develop silently much earlier and after 30 or 40 years, the hip gives way. – Causes are not fully understood, but risk depends on: • • The level of peak bone mass The rate at which bone is lost OSTEOPOROSIS – Peak bone mass and rate of bone mass loss are affected by: • Age • Genetics • Gender and • Lifestyle – – – – – – – – Genetic factors are believed to account for as much as 70% Risk is greater in women than men because men have a higher peak bone mass This postmenopausal bone loss is related to a drop in levels of the hormone estrogens Decline estrogen affects bone cells and reduce intestinal Ca absorption During this period, women lose a disproportionate amount of bone After the post menopausal period, women continue to lose bone but more slowly Osteoporosis- related fractures occur in one out of every two women over age 50 and In about one in every 8 men over 50 OSTEOPOROSIS – – – – – Life style factors that affect bone mass include: Smoking Alcohol consumption Exercise & Diet • • • • • • High protein diet High sodium diet Caffeine Soft drinks Low vitamin K And insufficient Ca and Vitamin D – Although, Ca is the most significant dietary mineral affecting osteoporosis risk, other minerals including: • Na, P, Mg & several trace minerals also affects bone mass OSTEOPOROSIS To prevent osteoporosis higher Ca intake in early life are recommended- that help achieving maximum Peak Bone Mass Phosphorus (P) • Combined with calcium to form calcium phosphate; gives rigidity to bones and teeth. • Part of DNA and RNA; necessary for all growth; genetic code. • Plays major role in energy production as a component of enzymes and B vitamins. • Transports nutrients. Phosphorus (P) Magnesium Acts in all cells of muscle, liver, heart and other soft tissues. Helps relax muscles after contraction. Bone magnesium is a reservoir. Deficiency not likely but can occur in certain conditions Magnesium Sources of Magnesium • Most Americans receive ¾ of recommendation – – – – – – – nuts whole grains sea food cocoa legumes dark green veg. chocolate avocado • Magnesium easily washed away or peeled away Magnesium • • • • • • • • • • • Toxicity Mostly reported in older people May caused by Mg- containing laxatives antacids & other medications Symptoms diarrhea electrolyte imbalance acid base imbalance dehydration Magnesium • • • • • • • • • • • • • Magnesium Deficiency Symptoms weakness appetite loss muscle twitches confusion If extreme - Convulsions - Hallucinations - in children growth failure -CVD & heart attacks - bizarre movement (eye, face) -difficulty in swallowing Chloride (Cl) From chlorine – a deadly green gas In body chloride ion play important role a major – ive ion outside the cell it accompanies Na & inside accompanies K so maintain fluid balance also part of HCl in stomach principle source is SALT (NaCl) Sulfur (S) Sulfur Present in some amino acids and all proteins. No recommended intake. No known deficiencies Body does not use S by itself as A nutrient- but present in essential nutrient i.e. Thiamin, biotin & protein Sulfur (S) S. plays most important role in helping strands of protein in to assume a functional shape. -skin ---- rigid proteins contain high contents - hair -nails also part of insulin The Trace Minerals • Iodine I • Iron • • • • • • • Fe Zinc Z Selenium Se Florid F Chromium Cr Copper Cu Magnesium Mn Molybdenum Mo Iodine (I) Influences energy metabolism iodine is a part of Thyroxin- : Responsible for based metabolic rate Growth and development Promote protein synthesis Deficiency disease is called Goiter 200 million people are affected with this disease worldwide. · Severe thyroid undersecrtion by women during pregnancy causes irreversible mental and physical retardation called cretinism. Iodine (I) IODINE IN THE DIET Seafood and sea water high in Iodine Plants grown close to sea are high in iodine Plants grown inland, Iodine contents depends on the Iodine in the soil Iodized salt (1/2 teaspoon provide full day requirement) Iodine (I) Deficiency During pregnancy cause irreversible mental and physical retardation in the infant – known as Cretinism o can be averted if treated with in first 6 months Iodine deficiency is one of the world most common and most preventable cause of mental retard Iron (Fe) Every living cell- plant or animal contain iron Most of the iron in the body is part of two proteins: hemoglobin myoglobin also help enzymes needed to make new cells o amino acids o hormones and o neurotransmitters Iron (Fe) Body treat Iron as a precious mineral – liver & spleen break RBC & salvage iron for recycle- body losses very little iron usually as nail clippings, hair cuts and skin. 75% world population have inadequate intake of iron. Iron (Fe) Iron in Diet Come from both plant and animal sources Much of the iron in animal product is HEME IRON— absorption 25% Leafy green vegetables, legumes and whole grains are source of NON-HEME IRON—absorption between 2 to 20% Iron (Fe) Iron Deficiency Most common nutritional deficiency iron- deficiency anemia smaller & lighter color cells – 40% worlds population weakness headaches inability to concentrate Children deprived of Iron Become restless irritable unwilling to play or work unable to pay attention PICA- craving for non-food substances i.e. clay, ice, toothpaste etc. Iron (Fe) Iron absorption Two forms – Heme (hemoglobin or Myoglobin) In meat, poultry, fish, etc. Non-heme in plants Healthy person can absorb 25% heme iron 2%-20% non- heme iron Absorption depend on MFP-factor – increase, non hem. Iron Vitamin C – increase, non hem. Iron Iron absorption Tannins in tea & coffee- decrease Ca &P in milk- decrease Phytates in plants – decrease Iron content of food is high if cooked in iron pan- less available Iron Sources - - red meat fish poultry shell fish egg legumes dried fruits spinach Iron Toxicity Iron is toxic- difficult to excrete Defenses- controlling at entry Intestine cells trap iron & hold it when stores filled less iron is a absorption Iron-overload- caused by hereditary defect Tissue damage of liver Infections- bacteria thrive on Fe-rich blood Effects most severe in alcohol abusers Elevated iron stores related to CVD – higher oxidation of LDL Vitamin C higher Iron absorption thus higher problem of iron overload Iron supplements are a leading cause of fatal accidental poisoning Iron DRI Values Men 8mg 18mg Women childbearing age - 51 yrs & older pregnancy 8mg 27mg Zinc (Zn) Very small quantity – But work in every cell with protein – helping nearly 100 enzymes make parts of the cell’s genetic material make heme in hemoglobin help pancreas with its digestive function help metabolize Ch2O, protein & pat liberate Vitamin A. from storage in the liver dispose of damaging free radical regulate gene expression in protein synthesis Zinc (Zn) Other Functions Of Zn - - Zn also affects behavior & learning Assist in immune function Wound healing Sperm production Taste perception Fetal development Growth & development of children Needed to produce the active form of vitamin A in visual pigments Zinc (Zn) Zinc Toxicity Low Cu absorption Low Fe absorption Low HDL in blood Upper tolerable intake level 40 mg/day Zinc (Zn) - - Sources meat legumes shellfish grains poultry vegetables Selenium (Se) Assists a group of enzymes that defend against oxidation Also play role in activating thyroid hormones may protect against some forms of cancers Deficiency may cause specific type of heart disease Widely distributed in foods i.e. meat, shellfish, fruits & vegetables grown in Se- rich soil Toxicity possible with supplement Hair loss, Diarrhea Nerve abnormality Tolerable upper intake level 400mg Fluoride Not essential for life but beneficial in diet because inhibit the development of dental caries Fluoride replaces OH- group of hydroxyapatile & form fluoroapatite also act on the bacteria which causes plaque on teeth. Source Drinking Water If fluoride 2-8 ppm cause discoloration of teeth, or “fluorosis” Chromium (Cr) Work closely with the hormone insulin when Cr lacking- insulin function is impaired – cause diabetes- like condition- that resolve with Cr high sugar diet deplete the body supply of Cr. Chromium (Cr) Cr will not build extra muscle tissue or melt off fat” Cr does not reduce blood cholesterol Chromium compound used in various industries are know Carcinogens Chromium in foods in non-toxic by comparison 200mg/day is safe Chromium is widely distributed recommend minimum intake 50mg 90% U.S adults consume less Best source are liver, whole grains, nuts, cheese Copper (Cu) Most vital role is to help form hemoglobin & collagen many enzymes depends on Cu for its O2- handling ability Cu assists in reaction leading to energy release Regulate the activity of certain genes Cu dependent enzymes “Superoxide dismutase” helps control damage from free radical activity in the tissue. Copper (Cu) Cu Deficiency Copper deficiency is rare but not unknown can severely disturb growth and – metabolism can impair immunity & blood flow through arteries Toxicity From food in unlikely but supplement can cause toxicity Tolerable upper intake level 10,000mg/day Sources Organ meat, sea food, nuts, seeds water supply through copper plumbing Trace Minerals Known essential for animals: human requirement under study Arsenic Boron Nickel Silicon Vanadium Cobalt Body’s Defenses against Free Radicals Two main systems reserve of anti oxidants enzyme system Both are not 100% effective if insufficient radical- fighting agents or high free radicals health problems can develop Following can help reduce damaging affects of oxidants Anti Oxidant Nutrients Internal defense system