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Foreign and
National Security Policy
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Objectives
• Trace the events that helped to shape contemporary
U.S. foreign policy.
• Examine the factors that favor presidents over
Congress in shaping U.S. foreign affairs.
• Evaluate how and to what extend the media, think
tanks, and interest groups influence U.S. foreign
policy.
• Explain some of the twenty-first century challenges
forced by the United States.
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Why are we
the way we
are?
Why does it
matter to you?
How do
American
values and
goals
continue to
guide U.S.
policies
toward the
world?
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Core
Questions:
U.S. Foreign Policy in Historical Context
• National security policy: centers on efforts to ensure a
state’s political and economic safety.
• Often responses to changes in the world and at home.
• Two enduring traditions:
• Idealism: the view that American foreign policy should
reflect the universal truths contained in the Declaration of
Independence.
• Realism: the view that U.S. foreign policy should serve the
national’s self-interest regardless of the tactics used or the
nature of the states enlisted as partners.
• Realpolitik
• Isolationism: policy of limited involvement in international
matters that prevailed in the U.S. throughout most of the 19th
century and between the two world wars.
• Monroe Doctrine of 1823
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U.S. Entry onto the World Stage
Spanish-American War
WWI
WWII
Cold War
Arms Race and Detente
• 1898: abandoned isolationism; helped Cuban rebels gain independence from
Spain and seized Puerto Rico, Guam and Philippines.
• Wilson maintained neutrality until a German submarine sank the Lusitania. After
WWI isolationism again. Senate rejected entry into the League of Nations.
• Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Pacific theatre responsibilities for the U.S.
Grand alliance of nations. U.S. and Russia emerged as superpowers.
• United Nations created after WWII. Marshall Plan: assistance provided by U.S.
to the nations of Europe to help with devastation.
• Iron curtain and the emergence of Marxism-Leninism. U.S. policy of
containment. Warsaw Pact.
• Proxy wars. Arms race and mutual assured destruction (MAD) as deterrence.
• Détente: relaxing of superpower tensions during the Cold War in the 1970s.
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A Unipolar System
• When the Berlin Wall fell, the world
was left with one superpower – the
United States.
• Cold War was over although Korea
still divided between North and
South, Communist and democratic
states, respectively.
• NATO still survives although
redefining purpose.
• New stresses emerged: Iraq
invasion of Kuwait in 1990; coalition
strategy to defeat the Iraqi Army and
Saddam Hussein.
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Trade Policy and Enlargement
• After the conclusion of WWII, American factors
met U.S. demand but also 40% of the world’s
demand – many factories in Europe were
destroyed.
• After Europe recovered, its industries became
competitors.
• 1970s, Germany and Japan became industrial
powers.
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Trade Policy and Enlargement
• U.S. government encouraged free trade; lowered
taxes (tariffs) on imported goods.
• Used bilateral agreements (nation-to-nation) to lower
tariffs.
• Belief: Global economy was the key to national
prosperity and international peace.
• Enlargement: Clinton-era policy encouraging nations
to adopt democracy and market economies as the way
to overcome uncertainties in a post-Cold War world.
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Failed States and Multilateral
Intervention
• Ethnic violence emerged once the iron hand of
communist rule was relaxed over Eastern Europe.
• No longer a bipolar world: suppressed animosities
based on ethnic and religious conflicts emerged.
• America’s foreign policy strategy had to deal with
internal collapses of states world wide (failed states).
• Fear that instability would spread to regions
• Successful intervention efforts in Yugoslavia
• No intervention in Rwanda; Somalia attempt but
withdrawal after American forces were massacred
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• Constitution divides control of U.S. foreign policy between the
president and Congress.
• Congress sometimes asserts itself, but presidents dominate.
• Corwin: invitation to struggle for the privilege of directing
American foreign policy
• Third force: foreign policy and national security
bureaucracies
• Constitutional ambiguity surrounds the respective powers of the
president and Congress.
• Bipartisan consensus: Truman and Republicans on Marshall
Plan
• Sometimes agreement cannot be reached: particularly during
divided government
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Controlling U.S. Foreign Policy
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• Constitutional ambiguity partially resolved in the executive’s
favor.
• As the U.S. became more engaged in the world and war
became a constant possibility, presidential power grew.
• Crisis situations that emerged (with U.S. forces stationed in
Europe and Asia) required rapid decisions in Washington.
• Presidents enjoy institutional advantages in dealing with
such immediate problems. Quick decision-making ability.
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Presidential Prominence
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• Modern presidents claim the right to decide when the United
States should initiate the use of force.
• Presidents have also sought to be the sole voice of American
foreign policy.
• During war time, Congress and the Courts have deferred to
presidential leadership during wartime.
• Rally around the flag
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Presidential Prominence
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• Declared wars: U.S. history, Congress, and the president have agreed to
wage war on 11 foreign nations.
• There have also been undeclared wars: conflicts for which the government
did not formally declare war; often initiated by president’s directive and
without explicit congressional approval.
• Following the withdrawal of U.S. combat forces from Vietnam, Congress
sought to avoid repeating what war critics widely regarded as a “presidential
war.”
• War Powers Resolution: legislation passed by Congress over President Richard
Nixon’s veto in 1973 and intended to prevent a recurrence of a future war like
Vietnam
• Church committee: result was that Congress replaced the weak and informal
oversight that it had been exercising with new and permanent intelligence
committees with oversight responsibilities
• Struggles between administrations and Congress in foreign policy continue
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Congress’s Foreign Policy Prerogatives
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The National Security Apparatus
• Bureaucrats actively engage in determining foreign and
defense policy.
• Two events have deeply shaped that government
apparatus: emergence of the Cold War and 9/11.
• National Security Act of 1947
• Established the Joint Chiefs of Staff: permanent structure to
coordinate military action and strategy among senior offices
of the Army, Navy, Marines, and Air Force.
• Created CIA
• Merged Departments of War and Navy into Department of
Defense
• Created National Security Council
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The National Security Apparatus
• President George W. Bush created the Homeland
Security Council, and Congress worked to create the
Department of Homeland Security (2002).
• Congress insisted on creating a Director of National
Intelligence (DNI) who has responsibility for
coordinating the activities of the government’s 16
intelligence agencies (2005).
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Nongovernmental Influences in
Foreign Policy
• The media
• Print and electronic: NYT, Washington Post, Wall Street Journal, and
CBS News often shape the agendas of policy makers.
• Pentagon Papers: NYT published portions of a top-secret history of the
Vietnam War completed by the Department of Defense in 1971.
• Today, newspapers have declining readership and are covering
foreign affairs less. Networks give less attention as well.
• Generally the commitment to international news has declined.
• Specialty magazines report on foreign affairs, but have limited
audiences.
• May not need huge audience; but instead it may be important who
reads about it – opinion leaders.
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Nongovernmental Influences in
Foreign Policy
• Think tanks
• Organizations whose specialists conduct research and
exchange their views with other experts from government
and the media.
• Interest groups
• Many actively seek to shape foreign policy.
• Example: American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC)
• Public opinion
• Important factor in shaping U.S. foreign policy.
• But can it be manipulated?
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• Concern that the U.S. influence in the world is declining.
• More nations challenge U.S. dominance in aspects of “soft power” and nonsecurity issues have grown increasingly important during the post-Cold War
era.
• U.S. remains world’s preeminent military power, but limits on its use.
• Are we able to encourage the cooperation of other members of the
international community?
• National Intelligence Council, a group of U.S. government officials that
provides strategic advice on long-term trends, has suggested that U.S.
power is declining and anticipates a world with multiple powers
• U.S., China, India, Russia, and others
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Challenges for U.S. Policy Makers Today
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• U.S. confronts new economic powerhouses such as the European
Union and China. Russia, Brazil, and India have enormous potential.
• Trade deficit with China
• Balance of payments deficit: the deficit that arises when the total value of
goods and services sold by Americans to non-Americans is less than the
total value of goods and services purchased by Americans from abroad.
• Running a chronic trade deficit can have both economic and political
implications.
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The Rise of Economic Rivals
• Loss of investment in U.S. government securities.
• Impact actions of the Federal Reserve: raising interest rates to stimulate
foreign investment.
• Declining importance of the dollar
• Fewer countries holding dollars causes U.S. borrowing to become more
expensive and hinders trade.
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• 11.1 million illegal immigrants may be living in U.S.
• Enter U.S. to gain employment or escape political persecution
in their home country.
• Heavy consumers of health, housing, and education services.
• U.S. government has stepped up enforcement efforts, worked
toward some legalization policy, and border control.
• State officials have lost confidence in federal policy making and
enforcement.
• Arizona 2010 law that required police to check immigration
status
• Challenged in federal court
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Illegal Immigration
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• Energy is both a domestic and foreign policy issue.
• Release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into the
atmosphere that creates a hole in the ozone layer.
Global surface temperatures rise as a result.
• Outcomes: melting of polar ice caps, rising sea
levels, changing global climate patterns
• Heated political debate: environment versus economy
• Most scientists believe that global warming will have a
pervasive and long-term effect on the world.
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Global Warming
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• Kyoto Protocol
• U.S. less proactive on global warming; less likely to work
toward the reduction of carbon emissions.
• Obama has not been able to gain support for cap and trade.
• Obama had success in Copenhagen global summit in 2009
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Global Warming
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• Nuclear weapons pose a special threat to the world.
• Best estimate: nine nations have 20,000 nuclear warheads in their
arsenals.
• Worries that this arsenal will grow.
• 189 nations have signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty that
went into effect in 1970.
• Five of those nations with nuclear weapons pledged not to spread
weapons to other nations, to limit their use, and to work toward
disarmament: U.S., the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom,
France and China.
• Since the signing of the NPT, four additional states have acquired
nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, North Korea, and probably Israel.
• None are participatory in the treaty.
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Nuclear Proliferation
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• Currently 440 nuclear reactors in 29 nations.
• International Atomic Energy Agency has estimated that all could
develop nuclear weapons in a fairly short time.
• Iran is of foremost concern.
• Other concern: Could a non-state group, specifically terrorists,
steal or purchase a nuclear weapon?
• Collapse of the U.S.S.R. posed a proliferation nightmare, with
nuclear weapons and nuclear facilities scattered across Central
Europe and much of Asia.
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Nuclear Proliferation
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Terrorism
• U.S. arsenal of nuclear weapons has little utility in
confronting the threats posed by al Qaeda and other
international terrorist groups.
• Fear of another 9/11
• Commission on the Prevention of Weapons of Mass
Destruction and Terrorism
• Prediction of a biological terrorist attack
• War on Terror
• U.S.A. PATRIOT Act: gave new power to the federal
government to pursue terrorists at home
• Iraq and Afghanistan
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• Both Congress and the public have grown weary of lingering conflicts.
• Persian Gulf War stands out from the others because it did not trigger
a large increase in U.S. military forces.
• Sustained military efforts take a toll.
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Superpower Fatigue
• Superpower fatigue: Graham E. Fuller, a former senior CIA official, wrote
an essay – focus on U.S. ambitious international agenda that included
unilateral action to suppress international threats and to expand freedom
in the world and the fact that foreign nations resisting our leadership and
many voices at home were criticizing the administrations actions.
• Most countries viewed the invasion of Iraq as a violation of
international law—worried about other nation’s doing the same.
• Also many countries viewed U.S. mission as not spreading
democracy but replacing governments it did not like.
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