Download Russian Revolution Revision Booklet

Red Flag:
Lenin & the Russian Revolution, 1894-1921
Knowledge Review
This booklet contains key points of knowledge from the curriculum.
It is arranged by topic as follows;
1.
Imperial Russia
16.
Stolypin
2.
Tsar Nicholas II and Family
17.
Russia and the First World War
3.
The Nature of Tsarist Government
18.
Revolution of February 1917
4.
Peasants and Agriculture
19.
Provisional Government
5.
Industry and Industrial Workers
20.
Dual Power
6.
Political Discontent
21.
Lenin’s April Theses
7.
Religious and National Minorities
22.
July Days
8.
Revolutionary Groups in Russia
23.
Kornilov Coup
9.
Causes of 1905 Revolution
24.
Revolution of October 1917
10.
Bloody Sunday
25.
Bolshevik Consolidation of Power
11.
Peasant Unrest in 1905
26.
Civil War
12.
Russo-Japanese War
27.
War Communism and Famine
13.
Potemkin Mutiny
28.
Kronstadt Rebellion
14.
October Manifesto
29.
New Economic Policy
15.
The Dumas
You should use this booklet to support your revision. It is
designed to accompany your own notes, not replace them.
This booklet gives key points of knowledge that can be used in
answering the recall based questions, and will also contribute
to the recall element of source based questions.
If there is any information contained in this booklet that you
do not understand or that needs clarification, ask your
teacher as early as possible.
Along with the key knowledge points, this booklet includes
examples of recall based questions for you to practise.
In addition to revising these points of knowledge and practising recall based questions, it is
also important to practise your skills in answering source based questions.
Question Types
Your National 5 History exam will contain six different types of question.
The first three are recall questions. This means they are primarily about testing how well you
can remember key information, and present it in an answer. For these recall questions, you
are not given any information on the question paper. You can only use the knowledge you
have learned – making this booklet extremely important.
1. DESCRIBE – (5 or 6 marks)
In this question you must describe events of experiences by using five or six pieces of
your own knowledge or recall. This knowledge review provides the essential key points
of knowledge that you would require to gain these marks.
2. EXPLAIN – (5 or 6 marks)
In this question you must give five or six reasons why an event or experience happened
in that particular way. As with the ‘describe’ question, you use your own knowledge
or recall, but in this question you have to demonstrate how the information you have
recalled caused the event or experience.
3. TO WHAT EXTENT – (8 marks)
In this question you require to present your knowledge in a balanced way which leads
to a judgement about how important a particular factor was in explaining why an
event or experience happened. You should include at least five pieces of knowledge
or recall.
There are three types of source handling questions, where you are given some historical
information and asked certain question related to that information.
4. EVALUATE THE USEFULNESS – (5 or 6 marks)
Although many of the marks available in this question are for commenting on who
wrote the source, when they wrote it, why they wrote it and what it contains, there
are marks available for pointing out key points of information that are not included in
the source, but which you are able to recall.
5. COMPARISON – (4 marks)
In this question you will be given two sources and asked to make clear connections
between them, comparing what they say about a particular event or experience.
Although you do not need to include any knowledge or recall directly in your answer, a
good understanding of the topics will help you identify comparisons more easily.
6. HOW FULLY – (5 or 6 marks)
In this question you will be given a source that contains several key points about an
event or experience. You are expected to identify those key points from the source
and also include additional relevant information that you can recall, but that is not
included in the source.
Therefore, even for the source handling questions, thorough understanding of the key
points of information contained in this knowledge review is essential.
Imperial Russia
 Russia is the largest country in the world. It covers about 8 million square miles.
 Due to its vast size there are huge differences in climate and culture between the far
west ‘European’ end of the country and the eastern ‘Asian’ part of Russia.
 In 1900, Russia was only one of several countries within the Russian Empire. The
Empire had a population of over 130 million, however less than half of them were
actually Russian.
 Other nationalities within the Russian Empire included, Ukrainians, Georgians, Poles,
Estonians, Fins, Turkmen and Iranians.
 The Empire was ruled over by a Tsar. For almost 300 years the Tsars had come from
the Romanov family.
 Most Russians belonged to the Russian Orthodox Church, which was a very
influential organisation in the Empire. However, within the Empire there were also
Roman Catholics, Muslims and Jews.
 80% of Russia’s population were peasants, living in small rural communities.
 Less than 2% of Russians were the ‘nobility’, who between them owned 25% of the
land. This made them the wealthiest men in Russia.
 Education was limited in Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century, with only
50% of the population being able to read or write.
 The transport network was of very low quality, with poor roads that made moving
across Russia extremely difficult.
 The Russian government also controlled people’s movement, with passports required
to journey from one area to another.
 The Trans-Siberian railway was built during the 1890s. It was 9600km long, and linked
the Empire from east to west. It took one week to complete the journey.
Tsar Nicholas II and Family
 Nicholas was born in 1868. His grandfather was Tsar Alexander II at the time.
 When he was 13, his grandfather was assassinated by a bomb thrown by a Polish
revolutionary. Young Nicholas was taken to view his grandfather’s bloody body.
 His father became Tsar Alexander III, and immediately launched a campaign to repress
any revolutionary groups in the Empire.
 Nicholas became Tsar in 1894 when his father died.
 Despite him being heir to the throne, his father had never involved Nicholas in
politics. This left Nicholas unprepared and untrained for rule.
 Nicholas was married to a German princess called Alexandra in November 1894. She
was known as the Tsarina. They had five children – four daughters and one son.
 Nicholas was a loving husband and father – who was more interested in family life than
affairs of government.
 His son, Alexei, suffered from haemophilia. This meant his blood did not clot properly
and his life was always at risk. This weighed heavily on the Tsar’s mind.
 Nicholas was very much influenced by his wife, and many Russians resented this.
 Nicholas was convinced that his role was to maintain the absolute nature of Tsarist
rule, and not to offer concessions or reforms.
 The Tsar and his family were seen as remote by most Russians.
The Nature of Tsarist Government
 The Tsar was an autocrat. This meant that he had absolute power to make decisions
and did not need to consult anyone else.
 In reality the Tsar had ministers and advisers who suggested policy, and often the Tsar
would agree with their advice.
 Tsarist government was built upon three ‘pillars’. These were bureaucracy, the army,
and the church.
 Russian bureaucracy consisted of the thousands of civil servants who ran government
affairs. These included ministers, local inspectors, and teachers.
 There was widespread corruption, and bribing officials to get what you wanted was
common practice.
 The government included the Ministry of the Interior, with responsibility for keeping
control of what happened inside the Empire.
 Within the Ministry of the Interior was the Okhrana – the secret police. They ensured
that dangerous opponents of the Tsarist regime were arrested and silenced.
 Opponents were often sent into exile in the Siberian wilderness in the east.
 The Russian army was the biggest in the world, and was nicknamed the ‘steamroller’.
 The officers were taken from the nobility, and were wealthy men.
 Most peasants had to serve in the army for three years from the age of 21.
 The army was not well trained or well equipped. This made it less effective in foreign
wars. However it was very successful at crushing any opposition movement against
Tsarist rule.
 The Orthodox Church was the official church of the Russian Empire, and the Tsar
was the head of the Church.
 Its priests were paid by the government, and were able to influence policy in support
of their faith and against other religions. Notably, Jewish communities were
subjected to campaigns of intimidation and violence known as ‘pogroms’.
 The Church taught that to defy the rule of the Tsar was to defy the will of God, as
the Tsar had been appointed by God.
Explain how the Tsarist system of government controlled Russia at the beginning of the
twentieth century. (5)
Peasants and Agriculture
 Until 1861 the Russian peasants had been ‘serfs’. As serfs the peasants had basically
been the property of the landowners. They were unable to move away, and were
forced to work on their masters’ land.
 Tsar Alexander II had ‘emancipated’ (freed) the serfs in 1861. However they peasants
had to compensate their former owners. This compensation was known as a
‘redemption payment’.
 In order to meet redemption payments the peasants were given large loans by the
government. These loans had to be repaid, and the interest meant many peasants
slipped further into debt.
 Many peasants lived in communes, known as ‘mirs’. Here the decisions on how the land
should be farmed were made by an assembly of respected local elders.
 Land captains enforced the system on behalf of the Tsarist government. They had
the power to inflict violent physical punishment on peasants.
 Peasants also had to pay high taxes on what they produced. They also paid tax on
basic supplies, such as cooking fuel, which they purchased.
 Life expectancy for peasants was low. Disease and malnutrition were common in
peasant communities.
 Housing was extremely poor in peasant communities. Filth and squalor were the norm.
 Farms were small, and farming methods were extremely old-fashioned. This meant that
a family’s land often did not produce enough for them to live on.
 There were widespread famines among peasants in 1898, 1901 and 1902.
 Peasants began relocating to the growing industrial cities in the hope of improving
their lives.
Industry and Industrial Workers
 20% of Russia’s population lived in towns. Most of these were factory workers.
 Many of the industrial workers were peasants who had left their land to seek a better
life.
 About 50% of Russian workers were employed in ‘heavy’ industries such as railways,
iron production and coal mining.
 Russian industry was growing rapidly. By 1914 Russian steel production was ten times
what it had been in 1880. Coal production was four times what it had been in 1890.
 Living conditions in the towns were terrible for workers. Many lived in overcrowded
barracks. Often several families shared a single flat.
 Some workers shared beds – with one man sleeping while another was on shift.
 Given the cramped conditions and the poor level of sanitation, infectious disease was
inevitably spread rapidly.
 Factories were owned and controlled by a few wealthy men. They provided the money
to start up the factories and invest in machinery, and they took the profits.
 Workers were expected to work very long hours, with twelve hours per day being usual
for men and women.
 Pay was extremely low. In addition taxes were high, leaving workers with practically
no money to live on.
 Industrial workers could be physically beaten for making mistakes in their work. They
could also be fined money from their already low wages.
 Trade unions were banned, and so Russian industrial workers had no way of expressing
their grievances. If strikes did occur the police and army were used to suppress the
discontent.
 In 1912 miners in the Lena goldfields were striking for improved pay and conditions.
Troops opened fire on a peaceful protest, and 10 miners were killed.
Describe the experience of Russian industrial workers before 1914. (6)
Political Discontent
 There were no elections in Russia before 1905, and so anyone who opposed the Tsarist
regime had no way to change their system of government.
 Political parties were not allowed, and so those that did exist were illegal and kept
themselves secret.
 The Okhrana ensured any opposition was dealt with quickly and severely.
 However, discontent with the Tsarist government did exist, and groups such as
People’s Will had campaigned for greater democracy for decades. It was a member of
People’s Will that assassinated Tsar Alexander II in 1881.
 Increased population in Russian towns and cities meant that political discontent could
spread much more easily. As people were in close contact with each other ideas could
be exchanged more effectively than in remote rural communities.
Religious and National Minorities
 Russians made up less than half the total population of the Empire. Other national
groups included Ukrainians, Poles, Georgians, Kirghiz, Romanians and Iranians.
 Many of these national minorities resented Russian dominance.
 The Tsarist government tried to control these minorities by destroying their distinct
cultural identities. The aim was to make them all more Russian, and then they would
not object to being ruled by Russians. The name of this policy was ‘Russification’.
 Languages such as Polish and Ukrainian were banned in schools and universities.
Cyrillic – the alphabet and writing style used in Russia – was insisted upon instead of
the western style alphabet.
 Only the Russian Orthodox Church was an officially recognised religion. Other faiths,
such as Muslims and Jews were persecuted by the authorities.
 Jewish communities in particular suffered violence and intimidation in ‘pogroms’.
 Some national minorities were prohibited from holding public office, or professional
jobs such as doctors or teachers.
 Some local landowners had their land confiscated and redistributed to Russian nobles.
If local landowners accepted the process of Russification, they would be allowed to
keep their property.
 Russian legal codes were introduced across the Empire. If they differed from existing
local laws, the local laws were scrapped.
 Villages suspected of harbouring opponents of the Tsarist regime sometimes had their
entire population removed and replaced with Russians.
 Russian currency was introduced across the Empire.
 Russia was a vast Empire, and controlling all aspects of life across the territory was
impossible. It was the areas closest to St Petersburg that suffered the most from
Russification. This included Ukraine, Poland, Finland and Lithuania.
 Instead of making national minorities more content to be ruled by Russia, the policy of
Russification simply made these groups more hostile than before.
To what extent did national minorities within the Russian Empire suffer more problems
than other sections of Russian society under the Tsarist regime? (8)
Revolutionary Groups in Russia
 There were three main opposition groups to the Tsar before 1905. These were the
Social Democrats, the Social Revolutionaries, and the Liberals.
 Both the Social Democrats and the Social Revolutionaries were socialist parties. They
believed in redistributing power and wealth to the workers and peasants. They
believed it was unfair that a few wealthy factory owners and landowners gained all the
profit from the work of ordinary Russians.
 The most significant socialist writer was a German called Karl Marx. The Social
Democrats and Social Revolutionaries were heavily influenced by his ideas.
 Marx believed that the redistribution of power would happen through a violent
revolution.
 The Social Democrats were popular with industrial workers. They wanted to sweep
away Tsarism and replace it with a government controlled by workers.
 In 1903 there was an argument among members of the Social Democrats and they split
into two groups – Bolsheviks and Mensheviks.
 Bolsheviks (which means majority) were led by a man named Lenin. They believed that
the revolution should be led by a small party of dedicated intellectuals, who would
guide the uneducated population to a socialist outcome.
 Mensheviks (which means minority) were actually the biggest group of Social
Democrats. They believed that the revolution would be best achieved by gaining a
broad representation among the workers. Mensheviks wanted workers to vote on
decisions, rather than being guided a small elite like the Bolsheviks.
 The Social Revolutionaries were popular among the peasants. They were also led by
intellectuals, who wanted to persuade the vast numbers of peasants to rise up and
seize land. This would start the revolution.
 Some members of the Social Revolutionaries were in favour of using terrorism to
achieve their goals.
 The Social Democrats and the Social Revolutionaries wanted to remove the Tsar from
power.
 The Liberals were in favour of increased democracy and individual freedoms.
However, they did not want to get rid of the Tsar. They preferred to limit his powers
by making him share authority with Ministers. The Ministers would report to a
parliament elected by the people.
 The most significant party among the Liberals was the Constitutional Democrats, also
known as the Kadets.
Causes of the 1905 Revolution
 There were a number of factors which came together to cause the Revolution of
1905. They can be split into three types of discontent – economic, political and
military.
 Industrial workers were becoming increasingly unhappy with poor working conditions
and low pay. Discontent spread quickly in crowded cities.
 There were severe food shortages in the towns and cities of Russia.
 Peasants were struggling to keep up with their redemption payment loans, leading to
financial hardship for many families.
 The Tsarist government had taken loans from foreign countries to help pay for
Russia’s industrial growth. This growth had slowed down after 1900. Despite the fall
in profits, the loans still had to be repaid. This created a financial crisis.
 Tsar Nicholas sacked Sergei Witte as Prime Minister in 1903. Witte was seen as a very
efficient Minister. For many Russians, Witte’s sacking proved that Nicholas was
ineffective and a poor decision-maker.
 Middle class Russians were increasingly demanding more say in how they were
governed. They were attracted to parties such as the Liberals.
 National minorities hated the policy of Russification, and were desperate to escape
from Russian control.
 Russian industrial workers set up committees to demand better pay and conditions.
These committees were known as Soviets, and their members were elected.
 The nobility feared that a full scale revolution would take place if moderate reforms
were not granted. They believed that the refusal of Nicholas to allow any concessions
was making the discontent more serious.
 Russian soldiers and sailors were unhappy with their low pay, difficult conditions, and
incompetent officers.
 War with Japan was a disaster for Russia, with defeats throughout 1904/5. This led to
a loss in confidence in the Tsarist government.
Explain why there was a revolution in Russia in 1905. (5)
Bloody Sunday
 There was growing discontent in St Petersburg over food shortages and poor
pay/conditions for factory workers.
 On Sunday January 9th 1905, a large crowd of workers marched to the Winter Palace.
They intended to hand over a letter to the Tsar asking him to help address their
concerns.
 They demonstration was led by Father Gapon. This Russian Orthodox priest is
believed to have been acting as a spy, on behalf of the Okhrana.
 The day before the march, Father Gapon wrote to the Tsar, guaranteeing his safety
and assuring him that the crowd would mean him no harm.
 Many of the protestors were dressed in their best clothes, and carried religious images
of Tsar Nicholas. These images were called ‘icons’. The protestors sang hymns.
 When they crowd arrived at the Winter Palace they were met by a line of armed
soldiers. As the crowd stood in front of the Palace, some troops panicked and fired
upon them. Cossack cavalry charged the protestors.
 Official records stated that 96 people were killed. The protest organisations claimed
that thousands had been killed.
 The Tsar was not in the Winter Palace at the time. When he heard what had
happened he made a sad note in his diary.
 Father Gapon fled Russia, but returned later in 1905. He was eventually assassinated
in 1906 by revolutionaries, who condemned him for his links with the police.
Explain why violence erupted in St Petersburg on Sunday 9th January 1905. (5)
Peasant Unrest in 1905
 In 1905 there were rumours across the Empire that the government was planning to
evict any peasants who had fallen behind with their redemption payments.
 The Tsarist government did not believe that the Russian peasants could ever be a
serious political force, as although there were huge numbers of them they were not
sufficiently interested in politics to take any action.
 Throughout 1905 there were a series of local uprisings. These were generally
uncoordinated and organised by local individuals.
 Peasants would protest by cutting down trees or grazing animals on landlords’ land
without permission.
 Landlords were threatened and intimidated by the peasants on their land. Cockerels
with their throats slit were left on doorsteps as a warning.
 Some manor houses were burnt down as peasants took out their years of frustration
against the wealthy landowners.
 The Russian Peasants Union was established in August, in an attempt to coordinate
the unrest. This aimed to prevent the protest from dying out by providing a national
plan and strategy. By the end of 1905 there were almost 500 branches of the Peasants
Union across the Empire, with almost 200,000 members.
 The government deployed troops to crush the resistance. Extreme violence was used
against protesting peasants.
 The government announced that redemption payments would be cancelled for
peasants.
 A combination of the violent actions of the troops and the redemption payment
concession brought an end to the discontent among the peasants.
Russo-Japanese War
 Russia and Japan competed for influence at the far east of the Russian Empire, at the
Pacific Ocean.
 The Russians needed a warm water port, as the eastern Russian port of Vladivostock
was frozen shut during the winter. They had encroached south into Manchuria (now
part of China) and had gained control of Port Arthur.
 In February 1904 the Japanese attacked Port Arthur, damaging the Russian Navy’s
largest battleships in the region.
 The Tsar and his advisers hoped a short, successful war would unite the Empire and
boost his popularity.
 Throughout 1904 the Russian forces suffered a series of humiliating defeats at the
hands of the Japanese.
 A Russian fleet set sail from the Baltic Sea in September 1904, heading for the Pacific.
It took almost nine months to make the journey, as they had to sail around the south
of Africa.
 On 27th May 1905 the Baltic fleet met the Japanese fleet in battle. In one day the
Russians lost eight battleships and over 5000 sailors. The Japanese lost only three
small boats and 100 men. This was another embarrassing defeat for the Russians.
 The Tsar was blamed for the humiliation, and as a result his popularity dropped
further – especially among the military.
Potemkin Mutiny
 The Russian Navy had a fleet stationed on the Black Sea.
 Conditions for sailors were extremely harsh, with poor quality rations and very low
pay. There was also a great deal of discontent with the leadership of their officers
and the brutal nature of punishments given to sailors.
 On 14th June 1905 the sailors on the battleship Potemkin were ordered to eat their
meat rations, even though the meat was infested with maggots.
 Fearing punishment, the sailors began a violent mutiny. Several officers, including the
captain, were killed, and the sailors took control of the ship.
 The mutineers sailed the Potemkin to the port of Odessa, where they were greeted as
heroes by the local population, who were unhappy with their own lives under the
Tsarist government. A dead mutineer was given a lavish funeral with a large crowd
present. The government sent in loyal troops, who fired on the crowd.
 The Potemkin set sail from Odessa, and crossed the Black Sea to Romania. Once
there the mutineers left the ship and merged into the local population.
 The mutiny demonstrated to the Tsarist government that they could not rely on the
loyalty of the armed forces, and forced them to accept the need for concessions.
Describe the events involving the battleship Potemkin in 1905. (6)
October Manifesto
 In October 1905 the Tsar issued the October Manifesto. This was a document which
guaranteed basic civil liberties to Russians.
 Tsar Nicholas was unwilling to issue the Manifesto, as it reduced his absolute
autocracy. He was finally persuaded by his advisers that moderate reform was
necessary to avoid a full-scale revolution.
 The Manifesto contained a promise that Russians would be allowed to vote in
democratic parliamentary elections.
 Political parties and trade unions were allowed. Criticism of the government was also
allowed. It became legal to hold public meetings.
 It was stated that no new law would be passed by the government without the
approval of the new parliament.
 The Manifesto promised that nobody would now be arrested without a fair and just
reason.
 Liberal discontent against the Tsar was satisfied with the terms of the October
Manifesto, and their opposition came to an end. Tsarist supporters formed a new
political party called the Octobrists, in support of the Manifesto.
 Any remaining opposition from the left-wing of Russian politics now lacked mainstream
liberal support, and was ruthlessly crushed.
The Dumas
 The name given to the Russian parliament established by the October Manifesto was
the Duma. Between 1906 and 1914 there were four Dumas elected.
 Tsar Nicholas had issued the Fundamental Law in April of 1905, stating clearly that he
would always retain absolute personal authority.
 The First Duma first met in April 1906. Most of the elected members were Liberals
(Kadets) or represented the Labour group (mainly Social-Revolutionaries).
 The Duma demanded the release of political prisoners. The Tsar’s prime minister –
Ivan Goremykin – refused. When the Duma then demanded Goremykin’s resignation
the Tsar disbanded it, after only ten weeks.
 Outraged at this, many Kadets left St Petersburg and travelled to Vyborg in Finland.
From there they issued an Appeal to Russians to stand up to the government and
demand the reinstatement of the Duma. The Vyborg Appeal was largely ignored by
Russians, and Kadet membership of the Second Duma was dramatically reduced.
 The Second Duma protested against the heavy-handed approach to law and order
undertaken by the government, and especially by the Okhrana. It first met in February
1907, and was disbanded by the Tsar in June of the same year.
 A new prime minister, Peter Stolypin, changed the rules on who could vote in
elections. This resulted in a Third Duma which was overwhelmingly supportive of the
Tsar. Parties representing peasants and workers lost most of their seats.
 Octobrists and other right wing parties had well over 50% of the seats. They were
believed to be so much under the Tsar’s control that they were nicknamed “The
Master’s Duma”.
 The Third Duma ran for a full five year term between 1907 and 1912. It rarely
criticised the Tsar or his government.
 In 1912 the Fourth Duma was elected. Its membership was broadly similar to the Third
Duma.
 In August 1914 the Fourth Duma voluntarily disbanded itself to allow the government
to concentrate on conducting the war against Germany without unnecessary political
distraction.
Explain why the Dumas failed to provide significant democratic reform in Russia. (6)
Stolypin
 Peter Stolypin was from a landowning background, and became the Tsar’s prime
minister in July 1906. He had established a reputation for brutality in his role as
Minister of the Interior (in charge of the police) during the 1905 Revolution.
 He introduced reforms to the voting system which meant that many of those who
opposed the Tsar lost their right to vote. As a result the Third Duma was made up of
deputies more supportive of the Tsar.
 Stolypin regarded all opposition to the government as terrorism. He used terror
tactics himself to combat the opposition.
 Special military courts were established, and over 2,000 suspects were executed. The
hangman’s noose became known as “Stolypin’s necktie”.
 Stolypin closed down most, but not all, trade unions and newspapers.
 Stolypin aimed to reform Russian agriculture. He wanted to reduce the authority of
the village committee (mir). To do this he created a new class of wealthy peasant
known as kulaks.
 Peasants were forced to relocate to areas with a shortage of labour. The population
of rural eastern Russia increased by 250% during Stolypin’s time in power.
 Education was a priority for Stolypin. By 1914 government spending on education was
four times as much as it had been in 1906. Literacy levels increased significantly.
 He introduced policies to support industry. Following slow industrial growth before
1905, industrial output grew by 34% between 1906 and 1911. The pay and conditions for
industrial workers did not noticeably improve.
 Stolypin was enthusiastic about the policy of Russification. Under his authority the
Poles and Ukrainians suffered especially harsh treatment. Muslims and Jews were
persecuted and pressured to convert to Orthodoxy.
 Stolypin was deeply unpopular with the public and also with the Tsar’s other advisers.
He was assassinated in a Kiev theatre by a radical called Dmitri Bogrov in September
1911. Bogrov was also a police informant.
Describe the reforms implemented by Peter Stolypin during his time as prime minister,
1906-1911. (6)
Russia and the First World War
 Russia entered the First World War in August 1914. Initially there was a wave of
patriotic enthusiasm across Russia.
 The name of St Petersburg was regarded as too German sounding, and so the city was
renamed Petrograd.
 By the end of 1914 one million Russian soldiers had died at the front.
 The Russian army was poorly led, lacked equipment, and was badly trained.
 They suffered huge defeats at the battles of Tannenburg Lakes and Masurian Lakes.
 The Russian economy suffered because of the war. Shortage of workers and poor
transport meant that food was in short supply in the cities. This caused high inflation,
with prices increasing much faster than wages.
 Tsar Nicholas left Petrograd to assume personal control of the Russian war effort.
This was a mistake as it meant Russians could blame the effects of the war directly on
him, and it also left the unpopular Tsarina in a position of authority.
 The Tsarina was German, and so was not trusted by many Russians. She had great
influence over the Tsar, and many of the nobles resented this.
 She was also rumoured to have an inappropriate relationship with Rasputin, a monk
from Siberia who seemed able to control the haemophilia of the Tsarina’s son.
 Rasputin had a reputation from drunkenness and womanising. His powerful position
with the Tsarina angered nobles, and he was murdered in December 1916.
Revolution of February 1917
 At the beginning of 1917 Russia was experiencing its coldest winter since the start of
the war, and shortages were being felt particularly harshly.
 In the middle of February, workers at the huge Putilov munitions factory in Petrograd
went on strike for better wages.
 23 February was International Women’s Day, and thousands of women took to the
streets of Petrograd to mark the occasion. The rally quickly turned into a riot about
bread shortages.
 The striking workers and the protesting women joined forces to demand change.
Students also took to the streets.
 When the Tsar heard about the riots he ordered his commanders to crush the
protestors using military force. Over the next few days about 40 demonstrators were
shot and killed.
 On 27 February soldiers refused the order to open fire, having sympathy with the
demands of the protestors. Instead the killed their officers and joined the riot. This
mutiny quickly spread to other military units.
 The Duma met, and hearing the demands for change in the streets, they set up a
Provisional Government to rule the country.
 Tsar Nicholas tried to return to Petrograd, but his train was stopped 160km from the
city. On board he was forced to abdicate – give up his power.
 He initially wanted his brother, Michael, to take over from him, but Michael refused.
This ended the rule of the Tsars of Russia.
 Nicholas and his family were arrested and taken to a remote country house to be held
until the Provisional Government could decide what to do with them.
To what extent was anger about the influence of Rasputin the main cause of the
revolution of February 1917? (8)
Provisional Government
 The Provisional Government ruled Russia from February until October 1917.
 They had not been voted for by the people. They were members of the Duma who had
assumed control as the February Revolution took place. This made some Russian
argue they had no right to govern.
 A big mistake of the Provisional Government was to continue Russian involvement in
the war. Most Russians were fed up of the suffering and death, and wanted peace.
 In April 1917 a Provisional Government minister called Miliukov sent a telegram to
Britain and France promising that Russia would continue fighting in the war. When
this telegram became public it caused outrage and Miliukov had to resign. The
Provisional Government became even more unpopular.
 From July onwards the Prime Minister was Alexander Kerensky.
 The Provisional Government claimed that they did not want to stay in power. They
were only governing Russia until fair democratic elections could be held. These were
planned for November 1917.
 This meant they often delayed making big decisions until after these elections. This
made them look weak and indecisive.
Dual Power
 At the same time as the Provisional Government was being formed by the Duma,
workers, soldiers and sailors were setting up their own organisation to take control. It
was an elected committee called a Soviet.
 The Petrograd Soviet was a powerful body that many workers and soldiers looked to
for guidance,
 The Provisional Government had political power, but the Petrograd Soviet had
practical power. This sharing arrangement is called ‘dual power’.
 The Petrograd Soviet issued Order Number 1 to the Russian army. It stated that they
should follow orders from the Provisional Government, so long as the Petrograd
Soviet agreed with them.
 This arrangement made the Provisional Government weaker, but without the
agreement of the Soviet they would lose power completely.
Explain why the Provisional Government found it difficult to govern Russia effectively
after February 1917. (5)
Lenin’s April Theses
 Lenin was the leader of the Bolsheviks. He had been in exile for many years, and was
living in Switzerland in 1917.
 The Germans organised his return to Petrograd, as they were keen to do anything to
destabilise Russia and remove her from the war.
 Lenin travelled in a sealed train, and arrived in Petrograd in April 1917. He
immediately made a speech at the station which has become known as his April
Theses.
 He argued that Russia should immediately pull out of the war, the socialist parties
should stop cooperating with the Provisional Government, land should be shared out
among the peasants, workers should have control of factories, and the Soviet should
have all power.
 This was an extremely radical position, and seemed likely to lose support. Many
Bolsheviks disagreed with Lenin, but he persuaded them to go along with his ideas.
 Through popular slogans such as “Peace, Land and Bread”, support among workers for
Lenin’s position steadily grew.
July Days
 In July 1917 there was rioting in Petrograd. Thousands of workers and soldiers took to
the streets chanting Bolshevik slogans.
 Lenin believed this was the start of a second revolution, and he gave it support.
However he was not entirely enthusiastic, thinking the time was not yet right for a
successful uprising.
 Over three days of unrest the Provisional Government crushed the protests with the
help of loyal troops.
 Because the Bolsheviks had supported the protests, the Provisional Government
closed down their newspapers and arrested many of their leaders. Lenin himself had
to flee in disguise to Finland.
 This was a low point for the Bolsheviks.
Kornilov Coup
 General Kornilov was appointed as commander-in-chief of the Russian army by
Kerensky in July 1917.
 He believed that “dual power” made his job of winning the war impossible.
 Kornilov decided to take over Russia through military force, and marched on
Petrograd. He claimed he could save the government from its own weakness.
 Kerensky turned to the Bolsheviks and their supporters to protect Petrograd against
Kornilov’s troops.
 They were given weapons and organised their supporters into the Red Guards – to
defend the city.
 Bolshevik supporters among railway workers stopped troop trains from progressing,
and Bolsheviks met with soldiers and convinced them that Kornilov had misled them,
and their loyalty should be to the Soviets.
 Kornilov’s army melted away, and he himself was arrested.
 After successfully saving Petrograd from Kornilov, the Bolsheviks were seen as heroic
while the Provisional Government again looked weak.
 The Red Guard refused to hand back the weapons they had been issued, meaning the
Bolsheviks now had armed supporters throughout Petrograd.
Explain how General Kornilov’s attempted coup strengthened the Bolshevik position. (5)
Revolution of October 1917
 Lenin returned from Finland in October 1917.
 On 10 October he appeared at a meeting of leading Bolsheviks and persuaded them
that they should lead a fresh revolution before the election planned for November.
 Two leading Bolsheviks – Zinoviev and Kamenev – disagreed with this policy. They
published the Bolshevik plans in the newspaper. This meant everyone knew the
Bolsheviks intended to seize power.
 Kerensky and the Provisional Government were far too weak to do anything to stop
them.
 A leading Bolshevik called Trotsky was put in charge of planning this new revolution,
as chairman of the Military Revolutionary Committee.
 Overnight on the 24/25 October 1917 the Bolsheviks took control of Petrograd.
 They assumed control of key communications points in the city – bridges, railway
stations and telegraph offices.
 The battleship Aurora fired shells to signal the start of the revolution.
 The Red Guard stormed the Winter Palace and quickly overcame the few defenders.
The members of the Provisional Government were arrested. Kerensky managed to
escape and flee the city.
 On 26 October there was a planned meeting of Soviet representatives from all across
Russia. When the meeting opened Lenin announced that the Bolsheviks had already
seized power and established a new government.
 Within a week Petrograd and Moscow were under Bolshevik control.
Bolshevik Consolidation of Power
 The Bolsheviks issued a number of ‘decrees’.
 The Decree on the Press allowed them to close down newspapers. Publications that
did not support their seizure of power were targeted. By December 1917 any
newspaper opposed to the Bolsheviks was made illegal.
 In October the Decree on Land made private ownership of land illegal. Land was
confiscated by the Bolsheviks and redistributed to peasants.
 In October the Bolsheviks passed the Decree on the 8-hour Working Day. This limited
the working day to eight hours and the working week to forty-eight hours. There were
also controls introduced on overtime and holidays.
 The Bolsheviks had promised peace and immediately after seizing power they ordered
Russian forces to stop fighting.
 Between December 1917 and March 1918 the Russians and Germans negotiated a
peace treaty. It was signed at the Polish city of Brest-Litovsk.
 In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the Bolsheviks gave away over a quarter of Russian
territory to the Germans in return for peace.
 The Bolsheviks took strict measures to crush any opposition. They formed the Cheka,
which was a Bolshevik version of the Tsar’s Okhrana.
 The Cheka grew quickly and became a powerful organisation that investigated,
arrested, and punished opponents of the new government.
 Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in November as planned. The
Bolsheviks were not the most successful party – winning only 175 seats compared to
370 for the Social-Revolutionaries.
 When the Constituent Assembly met for the first time on 5 January 1918 they refused
to vote in favour of Decrees introduced by the Bolsheviks since October.
 The next day armed Bolsheviks prevented the Constituent Assembly from meeting,
and it was disbanded.
Describe the methods used by the Bolsheviks to consolidate their power. (6)
Civil War
 Opponents of the Bolsheviks were not content to abandon Russia, and a civil war was
inevitable. In the civil war the Bolshevik forces are normally referred to as the ‘Reds’
and the oppositions as the ‘Whites’.
Opposition to the Bolsheviks
 Some opposition to the Bolsheviks came from ex-Tsarist army officers. Although
they had been unhappy with Tsar Nicholas, they were even more deeply opposed
to the Bolshevik policies.
 Moderate socialists also opposed the Bolsheviks. They believed that Russia
should be a democracy, and the Bolshevik treatment of the Constituent
Assembly showed they were not democratic.
 National minorities, such as Ukrainians and Poles, had long wanted to escape
Russian domination. This did not change under the Bolsheviks.
 Some peasants opposed the Bolsheviks. They wanted even more freedom, and
formed their own ‘Green’ armies. They were not linked to any of the other
opposition groups.
 By coincidence in Russia at the time were 100,000 Czech soldiers. They were
travelling east through Russia in an attempt to eventually make it back to central
Europe to resume their fight against Germany.
 One of the Czechs was accused of murdering a Bolshevik, and as a result the
Czech Legion joined the civil war. They were effective fighters.
 Foreign powers such as Britain, France and USA, wanted to remove the
Bolsheviks from power in order to allow Russia to return to the war against
Germany.
 Approximately 200,000 foreign soldiers entered Russia during the civil war, mostly
in the extreme north and east. After the war against Germany stopped in
November 1918 there was a limited amount of support offered by foreign powers.
The Red Army
 Trotsky had established the Red Guard to fight the Kornilov Coup. He now
expanded this into a Red Army to defend the revolution against the Whites.
 He travelled constantly around Russia by train. He gave inspirational speeches to
troops and ensured their loyalty.
 Harsh discipline was introduced to the Red Army. Failure to follow orders or
deserting your post could mean execution.
 The Cheka also used their terror tactic in areas controlled by the red Army to
crush any opposition.
 Ex-Tsarist officers with much more experience of warfare than the Bolsheviks
were drafted into the Red Army. Some joined willingly, having become convinced
of the positives of Bolshevik rule. Others were forced to cooperate when their
families were threatened or taken hostage.
 The Red Army used conscription to ensure high numbers of soldiers. At its
height there were 5 million soldiers in the Red Army.
 Each unit of the Red Army contained a political officer whose role was to ensure
soldiers and officers remained loyal to the Bolsheviks.
Events of the Civil War
 Between October 1917 and autumn 1918 the Reds quickly defeated forces loyal to
the Provisional Government and consolidated their control of the area around
Petrograd and Moscow.
 They also spread their control rapidly along the railway lines eastwards until they
were stopped by the Czech Legion at Cheliabinsk and pushed back.
 Worried by the possibility that the Tsar and his family would be rescued by the
Whites and restored to power, the Cheka murdered the entire family at
Ekaterinburg in July.
 In autumn 1918 three separate armies controlled by Admiral Kolchak moved
towards Moscow from his base in Omsk.
 At the same time the defeat of Germany in the First World War meant that the
Reds could reclaim much of the land and resources lost under the Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk. This helped them halt Kolchak’s advance and counter-attack to
defeat the Czech Legion at Cheliabinsk.
 The greatest crisis of the Civil War for the Reds occurred when Denikin,
Commander-in-Chief of the White armies, advanced from his base in
Ekaterinodor to within 400km south of Moscow in October 1919. At the same
time another White army, led by Yudenich, advanced from Tallinn in Estonia
towards Petrograd.
 If the commanders had been able to coordinate their efforts they could have
broken through, but they did not attack simultaneously and the Reds held them
at bay.
 From autumn 1919 onwards the Reds pushed the White armies back west and
south. Denikin was removed from his command, and his replacement, Wrangel,
fought fiercely as he and his army were forced to retreat. Final defeat for
Wrangel came in November 1920 when his troops were evacuated from Crimea.
 The Reds spent the remainder of the civil war dealing with low level resistance
from national minorities and peasant groups
 Throughout the civil war both Reds and Whites carried out brutal atrocities
against anyone they felt supported their enemies.
Reasons for Red Victory
 The Bolsheviks exploited the fact that almost nobody in Russia wanted to return
to the Tsarist rule to suggest they were the only true protectors of the
Revolution.
 The Bolsheviks controlled Russia’s heartland. The territory around Petrograd
and Moscow contained a huge population, most of Russian industry and almost
all Russia’s railway.
 Trotsky was an extremely able leader who created a very efficient army. The
leadership of the Reds was united behind the policies of Lenin.
 The Bolsheviks used propaganda effectively to influence Russians to support
their cause.
 The White leaders were uncoordinated, and so their attacks were not well
planned.
 Junior officers in the White armies were extremely brutal, especially to peasants.
This reduced any support the Whites might have had.
 The Bolsheviks were prepared to go to any lengths to secure victory.
 Foreign intervention made it appear that the Whites were supporting an invasion
of Russia. The Bolsheviks described themselves as the only group who could save
Russia from foreigners.
 However, foreign intervention was too half-hearted to make any real difference
to the end result.
War Communism and Famine
 During the civil war, Lenin and the Bolsheviks introduced an economic policy known
as War Communism. Russians were told that the policies were severe and hard, but
they were necessary in order to win the civil war.
 One of the main features of War Communism was the banning of private trade. Shops
and factories were taken under direct government control.
 Money was abolished. Barter was used to obtain what you needed.
 Workers’ committees, which had been running businesses since the October
Revolution were replaced by strict managers who could bring quick improvements.
 Fines were introduced for workers who did not perform well enough.
 Workers were not free to move location, or change jobs, as their ration books were
controlled by their employer.
 Rationing gave priority to workers and soldiers. The middle classes received the least
amount.
 Grain was seized – requisitioned – from peasants by the Cheka. The peasants were
left a small amount on which to feed themselves and their families and the government
took the rest.
 Requisitioning meant there was no motivation for peasants to produce more, as the
Cheka would only leave them a minimal amount. This led to a drop on food
production.
 War Communism led to widespread famine. Up to five million people are estimated to
have died as a result.
 Industrial production also fell, as discontented workers took strike action despite the
threat of violent consequences.
 A thriving criminal black market developed, where those with sufficient money could
obtain more supplies.
To what extent was Trotsky’s leadership responsible for Red victory in the Civil War? (8)
Kronstadt Rebellion
 The Kronstadt naval base was on an island just off the coast of Petrograd. The
sailors from Kronstadt had been at the centre of the October Revolution and had
fought for the Reds in the civil war.
 By March 1921 the sailors had had enough of the Bolshevik control. War Communism,
food shortages, the Cheka, and the lack of democracy had convinced the sailors that
a change was needed.
 They mutinied and issued a list of demands. They wanted free elections, freedom of
speech, the release of political prisoners, and an end to grain requisitioning.
 The Red Army was sent to deal with the uprising. They crossed the thick ice of the
frozen bay and ruthlessly crushed the sailors.
New Economic Policy
 Following the Kronstadt rebellion, Lenin realised he needed to change the economic
policy of the Bolsheviks. He admitted that he had made a mistake.
 He introduced a New Economic Policy (NEP) in March 1921.
 Under NEP small-scale businesses were allowed to return to private ownership. Large
industries such as coal mining or steel manufacture were kept in government control.
 A new currency was introduced, meaning workers were paid in money rather than
goods or vouchers.
 Foreign investment was encouraged to boost Russian industry.
 Grain requisitioning was ended. Instead the peasants paid a fixed tax on their
production. This meant the more they produced the more they could keep for
themselves. They were allowed to exchange this excess grain for other goods.
Explain how the New Economic Policy differed from War Communism. (5)