Download 1. English language press

1. English language press
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
1
1. English language press
Jen Waters, writing in The ‘Washington Times’, wrote that the
English of today may not be the English of tomorrow.
The nature of language is that it's always changing, says Naomi
Baron, professor of linguistics at American University.
The English language, and for that matter any language in the world, is a
progressively altered form of the languages spoken in previous
generations, all the way back to the origin of language itself.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
2
The English language has an attested history of about 13
centuries, says Professor Jay Jasanoff, chairman of the
department of linguistics at Harvard University who holds a
doctorate in linguistics.
"There are written records of it from about 700 A.D.," he
says, "but the English of that period was as different from
modern English as a foreign language”.
As time passed, French became the biggest contributor to
the English vocabulary.
English, like other European languages, also has words
borrowed from Latin and Greek roots.
To put it into categories, English progressed from Early
Modern English (Shakespeare) to Modern English.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University of Mumbai.
3
Bill Frawley, dean of arts and sciences at
George Washington University, "Look at the
preposition used: the war on Iraq, the war
with Iraq, the war in Iraq, the war against
Iraq," he says.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
4
Students who have studied German or French
will notice similarities between English and
French/German. The German word 'milch' is
very close in sound to the English 'milk'.
Likewise, the German 'wasser' and English
'water', 'brot' and 'bread', 'fleisch' and 'flesh'
closely resemble each other. Latin words like
'ad hoc', 'bona fide', 'modus operandi' have
been lifted exactly the way they are in English.
In Greek words as 'aeon' means 'an age',
'kudos' means 'glory'.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
5
As Britain’s colonies grew, so did the spread of
the language and its dominance. The first
English dictionary was compiled by English
schoolteacher Robert Cawdrey in 1604. The
only surviving copy is found at the Bodleian
Library in Oxford.
Second English Language Dictionary had been
prepared by Samuel Johnson's in 1755.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
6
Johnson's Dictionary remained the Englishlanguage standard for over 150 years, until the
Oxford University Press began writing and
releasing the Oxford English Dictionary in short
fascicles from 1884 onwards. It took nearly 50
years to finally complete the huge work, and
they finally released the complete OED in twelve
volumes in 1928. It remains the most
comprehensive and trusted English language
dictionary to this day, with revisions and updates
added by a dedicated team every three months.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
7
The first Newspaper of the world ‘Oxford
Gazette’ was started in 1655; it was biweekly.
After 24th issues it had became ‘London
Gazette’.
First daily of London was ‘Daily courante’
started in 11th march 1702 by E. Mallet.
Beginning of the 18th century Paul Julius
Reuter stared their news agency.
Reuter stared their service in India from 1866.
Now a days Reuter has 14 thousand journalist.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
8
The biggest Newspaper of the England ‘The
Times’ has stared in 1784. First editor was
John Walter.
The first America`s newspaper started in 24th
April 1704 , namely ‘Boston Newsletter’. It’s
editor & publisher was John Campbell.
‘New York Sun’ started in 3rd September 1833.
‘New York Times’ or ‘New York daily Times’
started in 18th September 1851. It’s publisher
was Henry J. Raymond & George Jones.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
9
The Washington Post founded by Independentminded Democrat Stilson Hutchins in 6th
December 1877 from Pennsylvania as a mission.
In 1889 Hutchins sold the The Post to Frank
Hatton (The Republican Cabinet member).
Now a days The Post is associated with many
News channel, Radio channel & the Magazines.
The Washington Times founded in 1982. It has
gain a reputation for hard-hitting investigative
reporting & thorough coverage of politics and
policy.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
10
Affiliated Publication : Insight Magazine, The
world & I, National weekly, Middle east
Times, Tiempos' del Mundo, Segye Ilbo,
Segye Time USA, Chongyohak Shinmun,
Sakai Nippo, Wash. Golf Monthly.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University of
Mumbai.
11
Assignment
The Chicago Tribune :
http//chicagotribune.com
The Christian Science Monitor:
http//csmonitor.com
The San Francisco Gate: http//sfgate.com
The daily press: http//dailypress.com
The Washington Times: http//washtime.com
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University of
Mumbai.
12
Assignment
The Washington Post: http//washington.com
The New York Time: http//nytimes.com
The Los Angeles Time:
www.latimes.com/home
The wall Street Journal: www.wsj.com
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
13
The Origin and growth of the
English press in India
Portuguese took initiative & started their first
Newspaper in 1550, namely ‘Reflector’ for
religious publicity.
1578- Goa News
1602- Patrika.
British east India company’s officer William
Blots took initiative and started a Newspaper
ie, ‘India Gazette’ in September 1768.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
14
British east India company’s employee Jams
Augustus Hickey took initiative & started
‘Bengal Gazette’ alias Calcutta general
advertiser in 29 January 1780. This is the
landmark of the Indian Journalism.
Times of India : ‘Bombay telegraph’ &
‘Bombay courier’ merged with ‘Bombay times’
in November 3rd 1838. Due to the
mismanagement it was under gone to
controversy.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
15
Thomas J. Bennet purchased the rights of
Bombay times & renamed as ‘The Times of India’
in 1861.
He had taken help of master printer F. M.
Coleman. Later, they jointly formed the Company.
The Statesman : British Journalist Robert knight
started in 1875 in Calcutta, initially it was weekly
late on it has become daily.
The Hindu : G. Subramania Aiyer and M.
Veeraraghavcharier took initiative & started in
September 20th 1878. Initially it was weekly, in
1889 it become daily.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
16
Assignment
The Hindustan Times :
www.hindustantimes.com
The free Press Journal :
The Times of India : www.timesofindia.com
Deccan Chronicle:
The Statesman : www.thestatesman.net
The Tribune : www.tribunindia.com
The Hindu : www.hindugroupsonnet.com
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
17
Assignment
Mid-Day :
Sahara Times : www.saharatimes.com
The Indian Express : www.expressindia.com
The Nation Herald :
The Telegraph : www.telegraphindia.com
The Pioneer : www.dailypioneer.com
The Asian age :
DNA : www.dnaindia.com
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
18
Assignment
Afternoon : www.cybernoon.com
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
19
2. Hindi Language Press
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
20
The Hindi language is spoken in:
Himachal Pradesh
North Punjab
Haryana
Delhi
Rajasthan
Uttar Pradesh (and Uttaranchal)
Madhya Pradesh (and Chhattisgarh)
Bihar (and Jharkhand).
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
21
The Hindi language is a convergence of
several local languages and dialects such as
Khadi Boli (खडी बोली), Hindustani (ह द
िं स्
ु तानी),
Bangaru (बािंगरू), Vraja (व्रज), Bundeli (बिंद
ु े ली),
Awadhi (अवधी), Bagheli (बघेली), Gadhawali
(गढवाली), Chhattisgadhi (छत्तिसगढी), Magahi
(मग ी), Bhojpuri (भोजपुरी), Kanauji (कन्नौजी),
Maithili (मैथिली), Marwadi (मारवाडी), Mevati
(मेवाती) and Malavi (मालवी).
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
22
Linguistically speaking there are two distinct
ways in which Hindi is spoken - western Hindi
and eastern Hindi.
Khadi Boli, Bangaru, Vraja, Kanauji and
Bundeli combine to form western Hindi. Khadi
Boli is spoken in its original form in Merut and
Bijnore (UP). Bangaru is also called Haryanawi
( ररयाणवी) and is spoken in Haryana. Vraja is
spoken in Mathura and its surrounding areas.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
23
Kanauji is spoken in the plains of the Ganga
and the Jamuna. Bundeli is spoken in
Bundelkhand.
Awadhi, Bagheli and Chhattisgadhi combine to
form eastern Hindi.
Awadhi is spoken in Awadh and Chhattisgadhi
in Chhattisgadh.
Bihari, Rajasthani and Pahadi are also dialects
of Hindi. Bhojpuri, Magahi and Maithili are
branches of Bihari.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
24
Of all these Bhojpuri is the more widely spoken
language. (Films).
Shahabad, Champaranya and Saran districts of
Bihar and Gorakhpur and Banaras in Uttar
Pradesh are the regions where Bhojpuri is
spoken.
Magahi is spoken in Patna and Gaya while
Maithili is spoken in the region to the north of
the Ganga.
Rajasthani is spoken in all of Rajasthan and
Malwa.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
25
Mevati, Malavi, Jaipuri and Marwadi are
branches of Rajasthani. Of these Marwadi is
the most widely spoken language.
Khadi Boli Hindi is the language of
contemporary Hindi literature and is written in
the Devanagiri script. It is the national
language of India.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
26
About the 8th century is considered the time when
Hindi literature began to take shape.
Buddhism had spread wide in northern India at the
time.
The Vajrayan (वज्रयान) sect (religious Dominations) of
Buddhism was Tantrik (तािंत्रिक) in nature and was
very popular. The monks of these sects were known
as Siddha (ससद्ध).
The Siddha produced a lot of literature in the local
language and these books are said to be among the
first in Hindi literature.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
27
The Siddha opposed the alcoholism and sexuality
(Bramhacharya) that had entered the practices of the
Vajrayan sect at the time through their writings. The
writing was in poetry form.
Among the writers were Sarhapa (सर पा), Shabarapa
(शबरपा) and Luipa (लई
ु पा).
Along with the Buddhist Siddha, the Jains also
contributed to the literature of the language. Chief
among them were Svayambhudeva (स्वयिंभद
ू े व),
Devasen Soori (दे वसेन सूरी) and Pushpadanta
(पष्ु पदिं त).
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
28
The Jain writers wrote biographies, stories from
the Ramayana and Mahabharata and love stories
too. Although both the Buddhist and Jain writers
used several forms of literature, the chief poetry
form used by both was the doha (दो ा).
From the Siddha came the Natha (नाि) sect. The
Natha sect attacked the intense ritualism of the
time and focused on good conduct. Chief among
the authors from this sect was Gorakhnath
(गोरखनाि).
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
29
The Natha poets wrote of renunciation (tyga) and
yoga in their poetry. Hence, it is very stark (bare) in
nature. The sect produced many poets like
Gahininath (गह नीनाि), Charpatanath (चपपटनाि),
Chauranginath (चौरिं गीनाि) and Bhartruhari (भतप त री).
These poets composed their works between the 13th
and the 14th century. Of these poets Bhartruhari is
more well-known for his works on aesthetics, morals
and renunciation (tyga). The work of these poets
created valuable literature in the language and at the
same time brought to the common people the values
and morals of the time in their language.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
30
Between the 11th and the 12th century the Muslim
invaders (control led by arms forces) politically split
northern India and several small kingdoms were
formed. A new form of poetry emerged at the time.
The Bhat (भाट) or Charan (चारण) poets began writing
poems in admire of the local kings. The poems were
called Raso (रासो).
It was around the same time that Sheikh Farid (शैख
फरीद) wrote poetry in Punjabi mixed with Hindi. Amir
Khusrao (अमीर खस्र
ु ो) is also from the same period.
He wrote poetry that spoke about the common men
and women and their everyday painful efforts and
traditions.
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
7/6/2017
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
31
• Some of Khusrao's compositions are very wellknown.
• अम्मा मेरे बाबा को भेजो री - कक सावन यया
• बेटी तेरा बाबा तो बूढा री - कक सावन यया
• अम्मा मेरे भाई को भेजो री - कक सावन यया
• बेटी तेरा भाई तो बाला री - कक सावन यया
• अम्मा मेरे मामू को भेजो री - कक सावन यया
• बेटी तेरा मामु तो बािंका री - कक सावन यया
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
32
•
•
•
•
•
Khusrao also wrote several poems in the Qawwali
(कव्वाली) form that was very popular with the Sufi
saints and continue to attract listeners and singers
alike.
One of his more popular Qawwali goes like this छाप-ततलक तज दीन् ीिं रे तोसे नैना समला के
प्रेम बटी का मदवा त्तपला के,
मतबारी कर दीन् ीिं रे मोंसे नैना समला के
खस
ु रो तनजाम पै बसल-बसल जइए
•
7/6/2017
मो े सु ागन कीन् ीिं रे मोसे नैना समला के
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
33
Adhunik Kal (यधुतनक काल) or the modern period
started from 1850. It was the period when the
British had begun consolidating their hold over
India.
Prose writing in Khadi Boli spread in the 19th
century. The process was started by Lalluji Yadav
(लल्लुजी यादव) and Sadal Mishra (सदल समश्र) who
wrote books in Hindi for English officers.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
34
Both were employed with the Fort William
College in Kolkata. The Christian missionaries
began to write in Hindi spreading the message
of Christ.
The first school text books in Hindi for children
were written by Raja Shivaprasad (राजा
सशवप्रसाद).
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
35
A new wave of existential writing emerged after
1940. It was called Yatharthavad (यिािपवाद).
Farmers, Dalits, women, the exploited classes and
marginalised society found expression in this
writing.
Among the important writers of this time were
Pant (पिंत), Nirala (तनराला), Bhagavaticharana
(भगवतीचरण), Ramvilas Sharma (रामत्तवलास शमाप),
Kedarnath Agarwal (केदारनाि अगरवाल), Nagarjuna
(नागरजन
ु ा), Trilochana (त्रिलोचन), and Shamsher
Bahadursingh (शमशेर ब ादरु ससिंग).
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
36
Hindi Press in India :
The Hindi Press aggressively had been used for the
freedom fight movement by Lokmanya Tilak and
Mahatma Gandhi .
Motto of Hindi Press : Patriotism, Social reform &
Political progress.
First Hindi language Newspaper was ‘oodant
Martand’ started by Jugalkishor Sookool in 1826.
British Government tried to suppress the oodant
Martand and had not given postal concession for the
circulation to out side of the West Bengal.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
37
Hindi Press in India :
Due to the limited circulation and limited
Hindi readers it had been closed within a year.
Second Newspaper was ‘Bangadoot’ started in
1829. It’s editor was Nilratan Haldar. Raja Ram
Mohan Roy and Dwarkaprasad Thakur were
also associated with this Newspaper.
Third Newspaper was ‘Prajamitra’ from
Calcutta.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
38
First daily Hindi language Newspaper was
‘Samachar subah varshan’ started in 1854, it’s editor
was Shyam Sunder Sen.
In the period 1850 to 1857 Banaras Akabar,
Sudhakar, Tatwabodhini, Patrika & Satya these were
the very popular & remarkable Newspapers.
1914 during the period of first world war many
Newspaper were started form the Mumbai, Kolkata
& Patna. Some were ‘Shree Venketweshwar
Samachara’ from Mumbai, editor was Balmukund
Gupta. And ‘Bharat Mitra’ from Kolkata, editor was
Ambika prasd vajpai.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
39
In 1920 ‘Aaj’ was started form Banaras. It’s first
editor was Shree Prakash. It had played vital role in
freedom movement. People compare it with ‘London
Times’.
In 1920 ‘Desh’ was started from Patana founded by
Babu Rajendra Prasad. It was weekly knows as
Mouthpiece of Congress party.
Till 1924 total 102 Newspaper were published. Out
of these ‘Aaj’ from Banaras, ‘Swatantra’ from
Calcutta, ‘Arjun’ from Delhi & ‘Calcutta samachar’
from calcutta.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
40
‘Navrajastan’ Started by Ramgopal Maheshewari as a
weekly form Akola (Maharastra), after it had been
closed Maheshwari came to Nagpur.
Maheshwari strated ‘Nav Bharat’ in 1934 from
Nagpur as a weekly. It has been converted into daily
in 1938. Now a days it has been publishing from
Nagpur, Mumbai, Jabalpur, Bhopal, Raipur & Indor.
In 1936 ‘Hindustan’ started from Delhi by fridom
fighter pt. Madan Mohan Malviya. It’s Hindi edition
of Hindustan Times (english).
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
41
In 1946 ‘Dainik Bhaskar’ strated by late
Vishamberdayal Agrawal. Now a days it has been
publishing from … It’s a largest circulating daily of
India in urban areas.
In 1950 ‘Nava Bharat Times’ started by ToI groups.
In 1983 ‘Punjab Kesari’ started by Amar shahid lala
Jagat Narayanji from Jalandhar.
In 1989 ‘Lokmat Samachar’ started by late
Jawaharlal Darda. It’s a Hindi edition of leding
Marathi daily ‘Lokmat’. Now a days it has been
publishing from Nagpur, Akola & Aurangabad.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
42
In 1990 ‘Dainik Jagaran’ founded by late
Poornachandra Gupta through Jagaran publication
ltd. Its Delhi edition’s editor is Narendra Mohan. In
14th September, 2003 Government of India has been
published a postal stamp on him.
It is a largest circulating daily of India in rural areas.
In 1991 ‘Rashtriya Sahara’ started by Sahara India
Mass Communication ltd. Noeda (UP). Now a days it
has been publishing from New Delhi, Lakhanow &
Gorakhpur.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
43
According to RNI’s reports of 2008 :
Daily : 4,240
Bi-weekly : 176
Weekly : 9,110
Fortnightly : 2,780
Monthly : 2,990
Quarterly : 579
Half yearly : 183
Annuals : 35
Total : 20,096.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
44
1. Marathi language press
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
45
Marathi is the official language of the state of
Maharashtra. It is one of the very well evolved
and rich languages in India.
Stories, novels, biographies, essays, plays,
history, poetry, literature by the saints, folk
literature, encyclopaedias, science writing are
some of the genres that are abundantly found
in this language.
From about the twelfth century a lot of
literature has been produced in this language.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
46
The language traces similarity to Aryan Sanskrit.
However, Marathi did not originate from Sanskrit. In
fact, historians and anthropologists have differing
views on the origins of Marathi. There are influences
on Marathi of the Jainas and the Buddhists too.
The oldest known author in Marathi is Mukundraja
(मक
ु िंु दराज). He wrote the Viveksindhu (त्तववेकससिंधू) in
1188.
The Viveksindhu speaks of the philosophy of the Vedas
and the Upanishad. The writing is in poetry form. The
use of metaphor is not to make the verse sound good
but to explain the finer points of philosophy.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
47
The twelfth century in Maharashtra was
influenced heavily by the Mahanubhava
(म ानभ
ु ाव) sect founded by Chakradhar
(चक्रधर). Marathi owes a lot to this sect.
Chakradhar and his disciples appear to insist
on the usage of Marathi instead of Sanskrit.
Mukundraja did write in Marathi but he makes
it clear that he did so out of the compulsion of
wanting the people to understand what he
wrote.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of Communication &
Journalism, University of Mumbai.
48
About 1278, Mahendra (म ें द्र) or Mahimbhatt
(मह मभट्ट), a member of the Mahanubhava
sect, wrote the Lilacharitra (लीळाचररि) in
poetry form.
In the book Mahendra speaks about his
teacher Chakradhar, his preaching (give moral
advice in an obtrusive way) and events in his
life. Later, Kesoba (केसोबा), another of
Chakradhar's disciples put together 114
examples that Chakradhar used to explain the
details of life.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
49
Dnyaneshwar (ज्ञानेश्वर) was born within a short span
from Chakradhar (1275-1296). This was a time when
all kinds of complicated behaviour was prescribed and
a one dimensional perspective was made part of the
everyday discipline of living.
Dnyaneshwar chose to present the Bhavarthadipika
(भाविपदीत्तपका), a critique of the Bhagvad Gita in
Marathi.
The book comprises 9000 verses in the ovee (ओवी)
form. The Gita then was only available in Sanskrit.
Both the Gita and the Bhagvat, that the dominant
groups used to gain social power from, were ancient
texts.
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
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Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
50
Dnyaneshwar, Nivrutti (तनवि
त ी), Sopan (सोपान),
Muktabai (मक्
ु ताबाई) and Changdev (चािंगदे व) are the
five important composers in Marathi in this time
followed by Namdev (नामदे व), Savata Mali (सावता
माळी), Chokhamela (चोखामेळा), Gora Kumbhar (गोरा
किंु भार), Narahari Sonar (नर री सोनार), Joga
Paramanand (जोगा परमानिंद) and other saints.
The Varkari (वारकरी) sect was formed by
Dnyaneshwar and propagated by the saints after
him.
The years between 1050 and 1350 could be
considered the ancient period of Marathi literature.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
51
In the period 1533-1599 saint Eknath composed
several thousand poems. His performance of the
Ramayana was an important contribution to a
political awakening in Maharashtra of the time.
The Christian missionaries made significant
contributions to the Marathi language. The
Khristapurana (ख्रिस्तपुराण) written by Father
Stephens (1549-1619) is perhaps the most
prominent of these writings. This work is written in
the ovee form that was used by the poet saints right
from Dnyaneshwara to Eknath.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
52
Several Mohammedan poets wrote in Marathi
including Amber Hussein (अिंबर ु सैन), Sheikh Sultan
(शैख सुल्तान), Sheikh Mohammed (शैख मु म्मद) and
Shahamuni (शा मन
ु ी). These Mohammedan writers
wrote not just religious poetry but composed other
works too.
Several women too wrote poetry in Marathi at this
time. Chief among them were Muktabai (मक्
ु ताबाई),
Dnyaneshwar's sister, Janabai (जनाबाई), a woman
living with Namdev's family, Bahinabai (बह णाबाई),
Tukaram's disciple and Venabai (वेणाबाई), Ramdas's
disciple.
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DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
53
• Of these Janabai and Bahinabai are
particularly striking because they give an
everyday feminine perspective to the work of
the saint poets and the socio-political
environment within which the saints produced
their work. Janabai writes • यम् ी बळविंताच्या दासी कोण गभपवास सोसी
॥
• करू यमासी ताडण यमच
ु ा धनी नारायण ॥
• जनी म् णे री पाप उरो नेदी उरी ॥
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
54
This period of religious poetry was followed by the
Povada (पोवाडा) and the Lavani (लावणी) form of
composition. These two forms became very popular
during the reign of Shivaji.
The Povada was sung by a Shahir (शा ीर). The oldest
Povada is believed to have been composed by
Adnyanadasa (अज्ञानदास) describing in 1659 the
killing of Afzal Khan by Shivaji.
The Lavani form came after the Povada. It was more
dramatic. It is sung and enacted. The Lavani dealt
with topics as wide as love, sex and marriage to
social values and women's rights.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
55
The period between 1875 and 1920 is believed to
be the period of revolution for the Marathi
language.
The British had established their hold over the
entire country during this time. The Marathi that is
spoken today took its form during this period.
It is interesting to note that throughout its history
the Marathi language has had to compete and
contest for space with another language to survive.
At first it was Sanskrit then Urdu, followed by
English and Portuguese, especially in the coastal
regions of the state.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
56
In Mumbai it had to challenge with Gujarati and
finally after India became Independent, Marathi had
to contest for space with Hindi. Towards its south
the language has had to contest with Kannada.
One of the benefits of these numerous conflicts has
been that the Marathi language has picked up words
from several languages and given its own words to
other languages.
Typically, the rebirth of the Marathi language has
always been from the grassroots by a movement led
by the common people in Maharashtra.
7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University
of Mumbai.
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7/6/2017
DR. Sunder Rajdeep, Lecturer, Dept. of
Communication & Journalism, University of
Mumbai.
58