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Church History
The Medieval Church
530-1478 AD
The early medieval world
500-800 AD
A very different world from ours
Largely illiterate
Short life-spans
High infant mortality
Politically unstable
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Overview of the middle ages
the dark ages 400-700
“Dark Ages”
• Loss of Pax Romana creates more
localized customs, language and
impacts every area of life.
• Trade broke down as travel became
unsafe and economics changed rapidly.
• Social structures and educational
institutions also broke down, learning
and literacy slowed. Leadership
lapsed.
• Slavery collapsed and agriculture fell
into decline without field labor.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Overview of the middle ages
Byzantium 537-632
Byzantium under Justinian
• Justinian recaptured borders
• Re codified Roman Law
• Built “Hagia Sophia” (right) the
church of ‘holy wisdom’
• Culture and Learning of Byzantium
attracted cultures from nearby eastern
countries, built relationships and a
rich heritage
• Muslim and Turk invaders begin to
be a significant threat in 626-635
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Overview of the middle ages
Muslim caliphs 632-750
•The Rise of Islam re-took
much of the Byzantine empire
between 632-750
• Byzantium continued to
struggle with attacks from
without and Iconoclasm within.
• Byzantium was substantially
weakened by the late 7th
century and Constantinople had
lost much of its earlier
influence.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Overview of the middle ages
the Latin west 700-850
The Latin West
• Conditions improve as Agriculture
rebounds in 700’s
• Powerful local nobleman and families
rebuilt roads and trade during the
Byzantine period. This was known as
“Feudalism”
• Conquered peoples and newly
developed kingdoms were
Christianized
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Overview of the middle ages
the Frankish empire
• Conversion of Clovis to Christianity
in 493 gave entire region a single
religious practice, created unity.
• Germanic land grant practices
ensured that in spite of different
rulers, the realm was seen as a single
entity. This created a feel not unlike
the earlier Roman empire.
• Later, this unity would allow an
assimilation under Charlemagne
(751) to be relatively smooth.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Overview of the middle ages
the carlovingian empire
• Charles Martel 686-741
• 732 Wins massive victory against
un-defeated Muslim army at the
Battle of Tours
• Pippin the short, his son,
succeeded him as King of the
Franks
• Pippins later deal with Pope
Stephen (754) solidified his
position as patricius Romanorum ;
“Protector of the Romans
• Pippin is best known as the
Father of Charlemagne
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Early philosophical
influences
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Boethius 520
“Consolation of Philosophy
• One of the most influential works ever written
• Philosophical approach to the nature of the world
• Conversation between himself & the Queen of Science
• Mind is called the ‘one true good’
• Theory of Wheel of Fortuna
• ‘Happiness comes from within’
• Also wrote tracts against Arianism
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Boethius 520
Sors immanis
et inanis,
rota tu volubilis,
status malus,
vana salus
semper dissolubilis,
obumbrata
et velata
michi quoque niteris;
nunc per ludum
dorsum nudum
fero tui sceleris.
..........
Fortune rota volvitur;
descendo minoratus;
alter in altum tollitur;
nimis exaltatus
rex sedet in vertice
caveat ruinam!
nam sub axe legimus
Hecubam reginam.
Fate - monstrous
and empty,
you whirling wheel,
you are malevolent,
well-being is vain
and always fades to nothing,
shadowed
and veiled
you plague me too;
now through the game
I bring my bare back
to your villainy.
.........
The wheel of Fortune turns;
I go down, demeaned;
another is raised up;
far too high up
sits the king at the summit let him fear ruin!
for under the axis is written
Queen Hecuba.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Boethius 520
“Consolation of Philosophy”
• When men give in to “wickedness” They “sink to
the level of being an animal.”
• Boethius sought to answer religious questions
without reference to Christianity,
• Relies solely on natural philosophy and the
Classical Greek tradition.
• Believed in harmony between faith and reason.
• The truths found in Christianity are no different
from the truths found in philosophy
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Rule of Benedict 530
Balanced zeal with the need for
stability
Based on Prayer, Works, Manual Labor
Created order for generations of
monastic communities
Outlined detailed order of worship
Provided specific guidance for novice
spiritual students
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Rise of monasticism
•The success of the church under Constantine led to many abuses
• Monasticism is one reaction to that abuse
• Purpose was salvation for the members of monastic orders
• Enabled Missionary expansion
• Monks often translated Bible into local languages
• Long tradition of keeping, copying and restoring ancient texts and documents
• Credited with many revivals throughout the middle ages
• Instrumental in farming and other agricultural techniques
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Rise of monasticism
• Early monastic thinkers included significant Platonic thought .
• The idea that this temporal world was only a shadow and not a reality tended to
promote a ‘spirituality’ that undervalued the material world, the body and led to
a general to de-valuation of daily existence.
• This left a fertile ground for the later neo Gnostic sects to take root.
• Tended to be works rather that faith oriented.
• Acetic and neo Platonic influences were highly prized.
• Platonic dualism created such doctrines as celibacy, and the removal from
society for which the monks are most famous.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
The legacy monasticism
A community of pious practice
Ancient textual version of the scriptures
Ancient hymns, prayer and other sacred documents
A significant body of learning and systematic theology
In many senses, a church that survived
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
BREAK
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Brief timeline 500-800
500 - Western Monasteries begin to Copy Text
- Earliest References to the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin
- Codex Bezae, an important Greek MSS of the NT
506- Eucharist celebrated 3x a year, Christmas, Easter, Pentecost
520- Boethius writes his “Consolation of Philosophy” from prison
526- Birth of Christ fixed as December 25
527- Doctrine of Appolinarianism; Christ had a Human mind & Soul
529- The Rule of Benedict
537- Death of King Arthur of the Britons
550- Lent begins on Wednesdays, Bodily assumption of the BVM
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Brief timeline 500-800
553- Second Council of Constantinople affirms that Hell is eternal
567- The twelve days of Christmas
570- Birth of Mohammed
590- Gregory introduces Ash Wednesday and formalizes Lent
600- Church of the Holy Sepulcher displays the chalice of Christ a.k.a the Holy Grail
610- Doctrine of double predestination begins
627- First mention of the Immaculate Conception of the BVM and Mary being free
from the stain of original sin
700- Mass becomes ‘personal’ and for sale, may be commissioned by the rich for
events, funerals etc. First mention of black being worn at Christian funerals
725- Iconoclastic controversy begins, will later wreak havoc on Eastern Orthodoxy
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Brief timeline 500-800
731- Easter is formally traced back to Teutonic Fertility Goddess
First Church organ appears
750- Apologetics against Islam begin in earnest
787- Beginning of Holy Relics
800- Coronation of Charlemagne;
- Allegorical interpretation of the mass begins
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE RISE OF THE PAPACY
The Rise of Islam in 635-732 reduces Byzantine territories,
influence and power.
Fall of Carthage in 698
Islam weakened Byzantium and exaggerated issues between
East and West
Rome pursued relationship with the Frankish Kings in the
North to expand territory, collect tribute and strengthen
alliances far from Islamic reach.
Led directly to the Boniface Mission to Germany and ultimately
to Conation of Charles the Great (Charlemagne)
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE RISE OF THE PAPACY
Leo obtains edict from Velentinian III giving him authority over all of the
Western Bishoprics, and in matters of civil law
751 Pope Zacharias assists Pepin the Short in becoming King of the Frankish
empire
754 Pope Stephen II crowns Pepin King of the Roman Empire (a first for the
papacy)
756 the “Donation of Pepin” creates the Papal states in Italy, increasing the
need for his successors to protect land and tax base in that area. This further
strengthens the papal power in those states.
As Islam moves West, Rome now has Northern allies to assist (See Map)
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
The coronation
of Charlemagne 800 AD
The Eastern Empire (Byzantium) is under siege
Pepin (Charlemagne's father) has made a significant contribution of Land
to the Papacy, securing a partnership between the Western empire and the
Roman church for years to come. (These papal states eventually become
Vatican city)
His fathers strength and the Frankish kingdoms success give him power
to rule and tax to build a standing army. This power makes him a logical
helper for the embattled Byzantine empire which is crumbling.
The great political and ecclesiastical issues discussed earlier make this a
significant challenge.
The power the papacy now had, the ability to crown a King, is a
harbinger of things to come.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE RISE OF THE PAPACY
Church becomes the arbiter of the grace of God.
As leaders increase in power, the church begins to teach
apostolic succession.
In 800 the mass begins to take on very allegorical significance;
each motion of the priest and the Eucharist is a sacred drama,
in which every movement is also given an allegorical meaning.
The Seven Sacraments become an instituted part of the church.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE RISE OF THE PAPACY
Man is in Sin and needs Saving; this is accomplished
via the seven sacraments
Sacrament stood for a spiritual reality and enabled
the salvation of those that participated in them
Only the priest can administer sacraments
Sacrament is ‘outward sign of an inward grace’
Receipt of Gods grace required reception of the
sacraments
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE RISE OF THE PAPACY
Kingdom moves North and Papal and Secular power become increasingly
entangled
The beginnings of “Christendom” begin to emerge:
All of life, philosophy, politics and social areas fall under the
jurisdiction of the church
Civil laws and civic rulers come under the explicit protection of the
church
Christendom is an idealized ‘Christian society’ where every aspect
of life and society are under the rule and control of the church.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Rise of the papacy
CHURCH GAINS POWER TO ADMINSTER THE GRACE OF GOD OVER
COMMON BELIEVERS
CHURCH GAINS MASSIVE POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CONTROL OVER
MANY ASPECTS OF LIFE
THE LEADERSIHP GREW INTO THE APOSTOLIC SUCCESSOR MODEL
THAT THE RC CHURCH HOLDS TO THIS DAY
FAITH AND BELIEF BECOME DE-PERSONALIZED
THE INDIVIDUALS ABILITY TO HAVE ACCESS TO GOD IS LIMITED TO THE
INTERCESSATION OF THE CHURCH
GRACE AND TRUTH CAN BE BOUGHT AND SOLD, AND MANIPULATED TO
MAINTAIN SOCIAL AND POLITICAL CONTROL
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
EVERYDAY CHRISTIANITY in the
middle ages
Average Christian was removed from the
papacy/Monasticism
Focused on most popular items in liturgical practice:
Veneration of the saints, especially Virgin Mary
Relics and Shrines
Pilgrimages
Heroic efforts to re-capture the holy land
from infidels
Pagan influence and practice remained mostly ion
tact but took on a ‘Christian flavor’
Dissolution of Roman Empire, most now illiterate,
no ‘text’ other than the mass
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
EVERYDAY CHRISTIANITY in the
middle ages
Conversions were obtained by the churches liberal use of existing pagan festivals
Pagan gods and goddesses were replaced by Christian saints and martyrs
The Virgin Mary is re-cast as the “Universal Mother”
Mary prayed to directly, and prayers are offered in her name
1202 the rosary is first said in the church
Increasing emphasis on the humanity rather than the divinity of Jesus (he
becomes more the son of Mary and less the Son of God)
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Brief timeline 800-1054
800- Coronation of Charlemagne
831- “on the body and blood of our Lord”; first document teaching that the blood of the
Eucharist is the same as that of the BVM, and that it is the means of incorporation in to
the visible church
850- Confirmation viewed as the point at which a Christian receives divine assistance
from the HS in resisting sin
975- Stained glass begins to appear in cathedrals
1000- Literacy in Europe rises again
- copying of manuscripts becomes part of daily monastic life
1030- earliest version of the hail Mary
1038- Christmas first recorded
1054- The Great Schism
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
BREAK
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
The Beginning of unrest
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE GREAT SCHISM
the political developments
Norman conquest was threatening southern Italy and bringing with it doctrinal
controversy (unleavened bread).
Eastern Empire sends request to Cerularius to turn over control of those Italian
churches toe the West as a concession to the Normans.
He refuses, countering that these churches must conform to Greek (Orthodox)
ideals rites and rituals.
Italian churches refuses and Cerularius shuts them down.
Pope Leo IX sends a man named Humbert (a hot-headed anti Simonist) to handle
the situation. While he is on his way Leo dies
While Humbert is on his way, the East send letters of apology, trying to reconcile
Humbert confronts Cerularius, and excommunicates him , Cerularius follows suit
and excommunicates Humbert.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE GREAT SCHISM 1054
the ecclesiastical developments
In addition to political and military challenges the Eastern Empire
has internal issues:
Pope claimed authority over the Greek speaking patriarchs of the
orthodox church. They maintained loyalty to Constantinople
The addition of the ‘filioque’ clause into the Nicene creed centuries
earlier is again an issue as they request help from the Western church
The issue of Icon use in worship and the use of leaven in the bread
in the Eucharist is deeply divisive as well. (Iconoclastic controversy)
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE GREAT SCHISM 1054
Eastern and western churches split into ‘orthodox’ and ‘roman catholic’
The insertion of the filioque clause into the Nicene Creed
Disputes over papal control of regional patriarchs', authority of Pope
Islam caused weakening of patiarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria
Shift of political strength from Constantinople to rome
Use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist
Celibacy issues in the priesthood
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
iconography
the eastern church position
Icons are good, show gospel Message
Have within them the power of the cross
More they are viewed, more believer is inspired
Icons should be revered but not worshipped
“The honor paid to them passes on to Jesus”
“He who worships them worships God”
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE GREAT SCHISM
iconoclasm
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE GREAT SCHISM
iconoclasm
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
SCHOLASTICISM
1033-1470
St Anselm
Peter Abelard
Bernard of Clairvaux
Francis of Assisi
Bonaventure
Thomas Aquinas
JohnWyclif
Jan Hus
Thomas a Kempis
The medieval church
SCHOLASTICISM
1033-1470
Scholastic philosophy usually combined logic, metaphysics and semantics
into one discipline, and is generally recognized to have developed our
understanding of logic significantly when compared to the older sources.
High Scholasticism from 1250-1350 crossed into Philosophy, metaphysics,
the philosophy of science and epistemology.
The movement appeals to logic and reason apart from revelation and the
innate authority of scripture.
Represents a new movement to apply Aristotelian and other philosophical
principles into the formation of church dogma and doctrine.
The medieval church
SCHOLASTICISM
PETER LOMBARD,THE SENTENCES:
Classic systematic theology text, used for 7 centuries and still
heavily quoted.
Influenced all major medieval thinkers.
The text deals with the sacraments and other fundamental
principles of faith and practice.
The medieval church
SCHOLASTICISM
Bernard of Clairvaux
Staunch opponent of scholasticism and of Abelard in particular
Highly regarded and the papacy sought his council regularly
Instrumental in the launching and execution of the Second
Crusade
Very eloquent and outspoken. Traveled to Germany to defend
Jews against anti-Semites
Most lasting contribution is the Veneration of Mary. Clairvaux
was a major proponent of what would later be called the
popular piety of the 12th century.
In opposition to the scholastics he proposed a more ‘immediate’
faith which comes to us via the Virgins intercession with the
Savior on our behalf.
The medieval church
SCHOLASTICISM
PETER ABELARD, SIC ET NON: “Yes” and “No”
Trained in logic and rhetoric in the classic Greek styles.
Asserts that wisdom is attained by questioning.
Tradition and authority are not sufficient to answer the questions
about the character of God.
“By doubting we are led to questions, by questioning
we are led to truth”
Father of “conceptualism” a theory later developed by Immanuel
Kant (1724-1804)
Famous affair with Heloise, a pupil later discredited him
The medieval church
SCHOLASTICISM
THOMAS AQUINAS, SUMMA THEOLOGICA:
Natural Theology and attempt to find evidences for god in
nature itself. Introduces the idea that god is self-evident, and can be
discovered based on reason and ordinary experience.
This work was later used at the Council of Trent, (1545-1563)
alongside the bible to answer religious questions.
Famous for the “Five ways” or five arguments for the existence
of God. (Teleology) William Paley and later Charles Darwin used
these arguments in the “watchmaker analogy” and to construct an
alternate view in “on the origin of the species”.
The medieval church
POPE URBAN ii 1095
N. Europe was stabilizing
Unemployed soldiers needed work
Seljuk Turks presence impeded Christian pilgrimages to
Jerusalem
Emperor Alexius I asked for help against Muslims
Pope urban II called for a “War of the Cross”
the assembly replied "Dieu le veult!" -- "God wills it!“
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
And the crusades
began…
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
BREAK
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE CRUSADES 1095-1291
Urban Preaches
The medieval church
THE CRUSADES 1095-1291
Began as a fight against Islam and the Seljuk Turks invading
Byzantium and a retaking of Jerusalem
Wild stories of Islamic mistreatment of Christians inflamed the
issue
Council of Clermont: Pope Urban II saw this as an opportunity to
re-unite the empire and gain influence for himself and build loyalty
with the ‘state’
Special religious status given to those who fought
Knights and warriors became increasing corrupt, many abuses
followed
Objectified and pillaged minority groups, Jews and others
7 crusades in all, most were abysmal failures and served only to
destroy cities, culture and lives.
The medieval church
A new enemy arises
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Medieval heresies
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
The cathars 1012-1229
Human contains spark of divine light
Human spirit is corrupted by the material world
world created by a lesser deity (the god of the OT)
Cathars identified this ‘lesser version’ with Satan
Christian God was a corrupt abomination from material world
Goal was escape from the corrupted world
Matter and man were stained with evil
Believed in a limited reincarnation
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
The cathars 1012-1229
• Socially divided into two groups : The Perfecti and the Credentes
• The Perfect and the Believers
• Essentially ascetic and monastic in order and practice
• Belief in Jesus as a manifestation of a spirit (docetism)
• The fundamental conflict with the Roman church was over the issue of the
resurrection
• The Cathars were a fundamental target of the inquisition and considered a heretical
sect.
• They do in fact have elements of classic Gnosticism, Manichaeism and Docetism.
•
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
The Waldensians 1140-1218
• Waldo converted in 1175, gave property and belongings to wife, joined a convent.
• Claim that anyone can preach the gospel and gospel alone is necessary for salvation
• Practiced radical asceticism
• Significant following among lesser educated people
• Denied doctrines of purgatory, selling of indulgences, and prayers for the dead.
• Refused to shed blood and condemned warfare and the death penalty.
• Excommunicated in 1215 and declared heretical
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
The hussites 1369-1428
The Hussites
• Czech Founder Jan Hus (1369-1415)
• Spoke out against indulgences
• Challenged worldly power of Papacy
• Significantly influenced by Wyclif
• Excommunicated; 1411
• Tired for heresy; 1415
• Burned at the Stake; 1415
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Enter the inquisitor
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE INQUISITION 1184-
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
THE INQUISITION
•
A specific attack on heretical sects in the church.
•
Began in 1184 against the Cathars in southern France.
•
Continued against the Waldensians in 1170.
•
“Trials” generally favored the church, witnesses testified in secret.
•
Torture was allowed to gain confessions after 1252.
•
Goal was a public confession and repentance and salvation of the soul.
Execution was considered a failure.
•
Punishments included long pilgrimages to holy sites, banishment, confiscation
of personal property and burning at the stake for the unrepentant or repeat
offenders.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
John wyclif 1324-1384
All men are equal before God
Called the Papacy the Antichrist
Repudiates much of medieval doctrine and practice as unbiblical;
pardons, the treasury of merit, indulgences, adoration of the saints and other
‘sacred cows’ of the church.
Preaches personal relationship with God and believe that lay people
should read and teach the scriptures
He also dispenses with Augustine, Jerome and other canons
Attack on transubstantiation gets him ex-communicated, branded a
heretic after his death. Body exhumed and burned in 1460!
Translates the Latin bible into the common (middle) English language
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
The decline of the papacy
•1296; Philip and Edward
both decide to tax the church
to increase financial strength
for their military campaigns in
• Pope Boniface says “no”
• Boniface VIII threatens to
excommunicate them if they
proceed.
Philip the Fair
1268-1314
• Edward threatens to strip
papacy of legal protections.
• Philip threatens an embargo
on all silver and gold.
• Boniface backed down.
• The church was losing its
grip on affairs of ‘state’
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Edward Longshanks
1239-1307
The decline of the papacy
Further struggles ensue between Philip and Boniface
Philip counters that the church has no authority in ‘temporal affairs’
“ My masters sword is made of steel, the popes is made of words”
Boniface continues to make threats of excommunication and Philip dispatches
troops to Italy, and finding the pope on vacation imprisons him for several days.
The aging Pope dies a few weeks later
Generally, the European monarchs are no longer in fear of the papacy.
The decline of feudalism and the beginnings of a nationalistic sense are developing.
The church will increasingly lose its place at the table in the affairs of the infant
nations
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
The decline of the papacy
When Clement takes the throne, he chooses to remain in Avignon rather than
Rome.
Six additional Popes follow suit and this begins the Great Papal Schism
Additional confusion about who was the true successor to St Peter ensued
The council of Constance eventually resolved the issue by deposing one Pope in
favor of a new Vicar of Chris, Martin V in 1417
Martins first act was to nullify all the councils act save the one that enacted him as
Pope.
1492 Roderic Borgia become Pope Alexander VI. He was infamous for corruption,
nepotism and scandal. Machiavelli later praised his leadership.
The horror of his death and the refusal of his body at St Peters basilica and refused
to say the Mass for him saying “it is blasphemous to say a mass for the damned!”
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
It all ended badly
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
Milton on Waldensian Persecution
AVENGE, O Lord, thy slaughtered Saints,
whose bones Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold;
Even them who kept thy truth so pure of old,
When all our fathers worshiped stocks and stones,
Forget not: in thy book record their groans
Who were thy sheep, and in their ancient fold Slain by the bloody Piemontese,
that rolled Mother with infant down the rocks.
Their moans The vales redoubled to the hills,
and they To heaven.
Their martyred blood and ashes sow o’er all the Italian fields
where still doth sway The triple Tyrant;
that from these may grow A hundredfold,
who, having learnt thy way,
Early may fly the Babylonian woe.
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH
John Milton 1655
Chaucer on the papacy
This friar boasts that he knows hell,
And God knows that it is little wonder;
Friars and fiends are seldom far apart.
For, by God, you have ofttimes heard tell
How a ravished friar went to hell
In spirit, once by a vision;
And as an angel led him up and down,
To show him the pains that were there,
In the whole place he saw not one friar;
He saw enough of other folk in woe.
To the angel spoke the friar thus:
"Now sir," said he, "Are friars in such good grace
That none of them come to this place?"
"Yes," answered the angel, "many a million!"
And the angel led him down to Satan.
He said, "And Satan has a tail,
Broader than a large ship's sail.
Hold up your tail, Satan!" he ordered.
"Show your arse, and let the friar see
Where the nest of friars is in this place!"
And before half a furlong of space,
Just as bees swarm from a hive,
Out of the devil's arse there drove
Twenty thousand friars on a route,
And they swarmed all over hell,
And came again as fast as they had gone,
And every one crept back into his arse.
He clapped his tail again and lay very still.[1]
THE MEDIEVAL CHURCH