Download Group Project- Assignment 7

The Ming Dynasty
There are seven wonders in the world today. One of the wonders is in China. ‘The Great
Wall of China’ is one of the biggest projects undertaken by any civilization. The Ming emperors
began a 80 year refurbishing of the wall, rebuilding it out of local granite, limestone and fired
bricks of clay. Ming dynasty lasted from1368 to 1644, and shows how important it was to China.
Zhu Yuanzhang established Ming dynasty in 1368, he was a peasant who joined the army
in 1352. He served as a great warrior in many battles. He was the chosen general by a rebelling
warlord named Guo Ziyi. After the death of the warlord, he took over and planned to rule all
over China. He founded the dynasty in 1368 after his army was able to eliminate the separatist
military force.
After finding the new dynasty Zhu Yuanzhang became one of the most autocratic
emperor in the history of China. Ming dynasty was a period of cultural restoration and
expansion. Zhu Yuanzhang made number of policies to reduce the amount of stress put on the
peasants. He focused more on the implementation of laws and punishments among the court
officials to avoid corruption. Zhu also had his sons supervise the local administration so that he
could hold the strength and the imperial power over the administration. After Zhu died his
grandson Zhu Yunwen took over the throne, which lasted only for four years. The fourth son of
Zhu Yuanzhang, Zhu Di took over the empire, and that reign was considered to be the most
prosperous period of the Ming dynasty. During his rule over China, an encyclopedia called
Yongle Dadian was the biggest and the earliest encyclopedia in the world. He also sent his fleets
over the Indian Ocean and visited many countries in Asia. Thus expanding his kingdom in other
parts of Asia.
The turning point from the prosperity to decline happened in the reign of Emperor
Shenzong. During the early rule and wise assistance of a skillful chancellor, Zhang Juzheng, the
Emperor made improvements in the national economy, agriculture, water supply and military
affairs. After the death of the Zhang Juzheng, other emperors started neglecting the state affairs.
In the late reign, the Ming army was defeated in the Battle of Sarhu. After that the Ming court
fell into a passive state set by the Nuzhen ethnic minority.
The dynasty of Ming started to collapse under the reign of the Emperor Weizong.
Corruption started taking place in the court officials and administration and domination of the
eunuchs. Discrimination and exploitation from the ruling class and natural disaster followed by
the years caused people to live in hardship. In 1628 number of military forces rebelled and
attack the northern area of Shaaxi Province. In 1644 the Emperor Weizong hanged himself in
Jingshan Hill of Beijing, which signified the end of the Ming dynasty.
Throughout the period of the Ming dynasty the feudal society began to decline and
capitalism started to originate. In agriculture the food output and the production of the food
surpassed than the Song and Yuan dynasties. Handicraft industries in the southern areas
developed rapidly. The development of the handicraft industry promoted market and economy.
Under the rule of Emperor Shizong and Shenzong the commodities sold in the market had
diversified. Silk, alcohol, protein, tobacco, crops, vegetable and fruit were available for the
people. Many major cities currently developed in the China today are due to the development
during that period. Cities like Beijing, Nanjing, Yangzhou, Suzhou, Guangzhou, Xian and
Chengdu were successively formed and developed.
During the Ming dynasty the culture also developed rapidly especially in literature. Three
of the four master greatest classical masterpieces of Chinese literature where written during the
Ming dynasty. During the early and middle ages of Ming dynasty there were many books written
in the medical field. All of the medical documents/books written in those are precious, in today’s
technological development in the medical field. Additionally, the military technology has also
been advanced, a kind of gun called ‘huochong gun’ was developed under the Ming’s dynasties
reign. A person named Wan Hoo even tried to fly the sky by sitting on a chair propelled by
gunpowder sticks. Unfortunately, he failed and became the first sacrifice in search of conquest of
the sky.
Government
The government structure of China during the Ming dynasty was different from that of
previous Chinese dynasties. The main aspect that set the Might dynasty apart from its
predecessors was that it only featured one branch of government – the Secretariat. The
Secretariat controlled six ministries each with its own Minister. The day to day responsibilities of
the ministries were handled by Directors, who reported to the ministers. From there the ministers
would report directly to the emperor.
For over 2000 years the government of the Ming dynasty generally stayed the same. The
job of the Secretariat was to control the six ministries and the government appointed Grand
Secretaries that would assist the Emperor with paper work associated with those six ministries.
Each ministry had a different responsibility within the Chinese government. The six ministries
that operated within the Ming Dynasty’s government were the Ministry of Personnel, the
Ministry of Revenue, the Ministry of Rites, the Ministry of War, the Ministry of Justice, and the
Ministry of Public Works.
The Ministry of Personnel was responsible for all matters that related to the employees
that worked for the government. This included appointment, assessment of their work,
promotions, and any other issues or concerns that would arise regarding employees. Today you
could equate it to a large company’s HR department.
The Ministry of Revenue was responsible anything money related within the empire. This
mostly included the collection of taxes, state revenues, and the management of the empire’s
currency.
The Ministry of Rites was in charge of all religious matters within the empire. This would
range for ceremonies to burials to priesthood.
The Ministry of Justice was responsible for the justice system of the government. This
ministry was essentially the judicial branch of government within the Ming Dynasty, and dealt
with the laws of the empire and was responsible for enforcing those laws. They also were in
charge of the penal process. Although the Ministry of Justice had a large amount of power within
the dynasty, they had no authority over the Censorate.
The Ministry of Works’ purpose was to be in charge of all of the government
construction projects and road maintenance within the kingdom. This ministry was also
responsible for standardizing weights and measurements within the country, similar to the US
customary units and the metric system.
As was mentioned in when talking about the Ministry of Justice, the Censorate was a
body of the government that had specials privileges that the ministries did not have. Their job
was to watch over the bureaucratic agencies of the empire and report back and corruption to the
emperor. The first Ming emperor, Hung Wu restored the Censorate of the T’ang government
during his reign from 1368-1398. It was then re-established and institutionalized in 1430. The
Censorate consisted of powerful bureaucrats who had direct access to the emperor. They were
originally called Censors but eventually went by the titles of Censors-in-Chief. They had the
power to impeach officials for derelict of duty, and would send inspectors to follow provincial
administrators.
Run by the Ministry of Personnel, China’s vast bureaucracy was populated by having
citizens take a Civil Service Examination. The scores that the citizens received on the
examination would determine where they would be placed within the hierarchy. The exam’s
questions were taken from the Confucian Five Classics and Chu His’s Four Books. The vast
majority of citizens who took the exam were unable so score high enough to join the hierarchy,
making it one of the most prestigious positions for a common civilian to have.
The Civil Administration of the Ming Dynasty was organized in a hierarchical structure
and administered the 13 provinces of China. When the Ming Dynasty was fully developed, the
empire had 1144 local counties. These counties were subordinate to 159 prefectures. The
prefectures were accountable themselves to the provincial administration office in their province.
There were 13 of these administration offices in total, and they had to share control of their
provinces with the other agencies that were located there. These agencies included the provincial
surveillance office and the regional military commission. Together, the civil administration
offices, the surveillance offices, and the regional military commission were known as “the three
provincial offices.” The provincial offices used to report about their provinces to the six
ministries. This was usually done through intermediaries called grand coordinators or supreme
commanders.
Headed by the Direct of Palace Attendants, the vast imperial household was filled with
thousands of eunuchs. The household was further divided into different directories and services.
These directories and services included groups that had to administer the staff, groups that were
responsible for the food, groups that were responsible for the royal documents, groups that were
responsible for the stables, groups that were responsible for the seals, groups that were
responsible for the gardens, and groups that were responsible for the state owned manufacturies.
Essentially, there was a directory or service for every need of the imperial household. One
service within the imperial household was the Western Depot. This group was famous for its
intrigues and consisted of eunuchs who acted as a secret service for the emperor, similar to house
the United States’ Secret Service protects the President. Another group of interest that was a part
of the imperial household was the relatives of the emperor. Princes and descendants of the
emperor were often given high military positions and large amounts of land, but were not given
official title like the rest of the hierarchy.
During the Ming dynasty, China had a governmental system that was nothing like the
ones you see in the world today. In large part, the entire empire was run by the emperor, who had
people below him do all of the small and menial tasks that he did not want to be bothered with.
The emperor ran the empire out of the Secretariat, and controlled other divisions of the empire
known as Ministries. Each Ministry had its own special responsibilities, and would report to the
emperor on what was going on with those responsibilities. They would do this particularly if
there was some sort of problem that they needed the emperor’s advice or guidance on. One group
that was separate from the Ministries was the Censorate, which had special authority and was not
completely bound by the laws that the Ministries were bound to. Members of the ministries and
other political and governmental positions could only be appointed to these positions if they were
of a specific bloodline or if they passed a special examination based on the empire’s core values.
The size and efficiency of the Ming Dynasty’s government and empire was something that the
ancient world had never seen before, and never saw again. It was the most powerful superpower
in Asia at the time.
Food of the Ming Dynasty
Zhu Yuanzhang, the founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty, established his capital in
Nanjing (Chinese for southern capital). He ate mostly food cooked with the flavors of South
China during his ruling years. His fourth son, Zhu Di, declared himself the emperor in 1403 and
gave his reign the title of Yongle.
In September 1420, the 18th year of his reign, Zhu Di moved the capital to Beijing
(Chinese for northern capital), so the palace cooks moved with him. Most of the raw materials
they used in Beijing were grown locally, so the imperial food in Beijing had both southern and
northern flavors.
Because tributes were sent to the palace from all parts of the country, delicacies of all
kinds were available in the Forbidden City. Beijing had been the capital of the preceding Yuan
Dynasty. The food in the Yuan palace had been influenced by the Mongolian flavorings. The
food in the Ming palace, however, was mainly that of the southern Han people, so it totally
changed the Mongolian style of food served in the palace.
The Mongolian food served in the Yuan palace was mainly meat from animals and fowl,
especially mutton, but little seafood was served. The Yuan imperial food considered of meats
and vegetables with mixed flavors from the Muslims, Hans, and other ethnic groups. This was
because Beijing, having been the capital city of the Yuan Dynasty, was an important
communication center and was inhabited mainly by Han people. Therefore, the food of the
Mongolian rulers had been influenced by the Hans and other ethnic groups.
The imperial food of the Ming and Qing Dynasties had one common attribute: Diet was
used to protect health. Kublai (1215 - 1294), the first emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, paid great
attention to protecting his health through diet.
The imperial food of the Ming and Qing Dynasties had one common attribute: Diet was
used to protect health. Kublai (1215 - 1294), the first emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, paid great
attention to protecting his health through diet.
During the Reign of Tianli in the Yuan Dynasty (1328 - 1330), Hu Sihui, the imperial
physician at the imperial hospital in charge of the emperor’s food, wrote a book
entitledPrinciples of Correct Diet, which he gave to the emperor. The book dealt with questions
about nutrition and hygiene. It also told how to make soup, thick soup, syrup, paste, oils, tea,
sesame cakes, stuffed buns, steamed buns, porridge, and noodles, and described their nutritious
effects. The book had a great influence on the food and drinks served in the Yuan palace. It
encouraged health protection and parental education, listed taboo foods during pregnancy, and
banned alcoholic drinks. It described foods for use in all seasons, prevented the wrong use of
flavors, and stressed dietotherapy and regimen.
Shortly after Zhu Yuanzhang (1328 – 1398) ascended to the throne, he summoned Jia
Ming, a 100 – year – old man from Haining to ask him the secret of his long life. Jia Ming gave
The Instructions on Foods and Drinks to the emperor.
Hu Sihui’s Proper and Essential Ways of Drinking and Eating also received great
attention from the Ming emperors. Zhu Qiyu, Emperor Daizong of the Ming Dynasty, even
wrote a preface for the book before it was reprinted.
As in previous dynasties, food and drinks in the Ming Palace were supplied in season.
Fresh fruits, vegetables and meats were supplied in their times. In the Ming Palace, more
vegetables and fruits were eaten than meat and fish. Among the meat and fish eaten were
chicken, pheasant, goose, duck, carp, golden carp, Mandarin fish, bream, rabbit, and deer.
The menu in the Ming Palace changed daily and dishes were not repeated. Light
refreshments also changed daily. This variation in the daily diets continued until the end of the
Qing Dynasty.
In the middle of the Ming Dynasty there were great varieties of food and drinks, their
quality was improved, and new cooking methods were used. During festivals, sacrificial rites,
and celebrations, the court ministers and officials were given food. On the Dragon Boat Festival,
court officials were presented outside the Meridian Gate with a pyramid – shaped dumpling of
glutinous rice wrapped in bamboo or reed leaves. When there was a ceremony, those called by
the emperor were given a cake wrapped in red silk. When Imperial College students paid tribute
to Confucius, they received food from the emperor, but the variety of the food given to them was
not great.
In autumn, residents of the Ming Palace liked to eat fat ground squirrels, which were an
annual tribute from Shanxi. The eating of ground squirrels was a Mongolian custom handed
down from the Yuan Dynasty. But as a whole, the customs of the Han ethnic group most
influenced the food and drinks served in the palace.
The Chronicle of Ceremonies and Rites, by Sun Chengze, listed the appropriate food and
drinks by lunar month:
One: Chives, romaine lettuce, chicken, and duck
Two: Celery, liver mosses, artemisia vulgaris, and goose
Three: Tea, bamboo shoots, and carp
Four: Cherry, apricot, green plum, cucumber, and pheasant
Five: Peach, plum, Chinese pear – leaved crabapple, eggplant, barley, wheat flour, and
chicken
Six: Lotus seedpod, sweet melon, watermelon, and wax gourd (winter melon)
Seven: Date, grape, fresh water chestnut, amaranth, and pear
Eight: Lotus roots, young taro plant, wild rice stem, tender ginger, semi – glutimous rice,
millet, broomcorn, and Mandarin fish
Nine: Orange, chestnut, small red beans, granulated sugar, and bream
Ten: Mandarin orange, tangerine, Chinese yam, rabbit and honey
Eleven: Sugar cane, buckwheat flour, red bean, deer, and rabbit
Twelve: Spinach, leaf mustard, golden carp, and whitefish
In the Ming Palace, most foods had southern flavors, with the foods of the Han ethnic
group being dominant. The Ming Palace was characterized by opulent banquets, sumptuous
feasts, and voracious eaters. According to Liu Ruoyu:
The food and drinks for the royal family were bought by their own grants, and poor
officials were hired to do the cooking. Those who were highly skilled could earn several taels
(one tael is approximately 30 grams) of silver every month, but received no add bonuses.
Clean baskets had to be used to cleanse the rice before cooking.
Sesame seed oil, sweet sauce made of fermented flour, fermented soybeans, soybean
sauce, vinegar, and other sundries were bought from outside at any price.
All foods taken by the Royal Family and court officials were roasted or fried.
Economy
In Chinese, China knows itself as Zhong Guoor the "Center Kingdom." It considered itself not
just the biggest and most seasoned force on the planet, additionally as the wellspring of all
development. Composed Chinese, the Confucian set of accepted rules, and authority in light of
good goodness were all indications of China's social and in addition material prevalence. For a
considerable length of time China had a since a long time ago settled tribute association with
encompassing regions. Leaders of neighboring states, in the wake of recognizing their "modest
accommodation" and performing ritualized activities, for example, the ketou (or "kowtow,"
bowing so that the head touches the floor), trade of emissaries, and exchange regulations, picked
up acknowledgment and were given authenticity by the Chinese court which may even send help
to them ought to the need emerge.
Subsequent to crushing the Mongol Empire in 1368 and building up the Ming tradition, the
Chinese sovereign endeavored to restore the tribute association with neighboring states. In 1402,
amid a staggering common war, Zhu Di grabbed the throne from his nephew. Since he had
grabbed the throne by power, Emperor Zhu Di was particularly on edge to exhibit and
demonstrate his authenticity.
In 1403 Emperor Zhu Di requested development of a royal armada that was to incorporate
exchanging ships, warships, the alleged "fortune ships," and bolster vessels and requested the
armada, under the order of Admiral Zheng He, to set out on a noteworthy voyage that same year.
The sovereign and Admiral Zheng He had been companions subsequent to the naval commander
was in his teenagers, and they believed each other.
The voyage had different targets. It would allow the Chinese to investigate new regions and grow
business and discretionary relations. The glory of the armada would perform the predominant
magnificence and force of the Ming domain to people groups of inaccessible grounds, creating
conditions of South and Southeast Asia to be consolidated into the tribute framework. The
armada anticipated that would get exhibit of accommodation from leaders of regions it went to,
and numerous outside nations without a doubt would recognize China's prevalence all together
over expansion their exchange. On the off chance that individuals did not perceive Chinese
significance, the chief of naval operations may need to utilize power, however the Chinese
expected that the experiences would be serene since it was just fitting that whatever number
individuals as could be allowed ought to go under the influence of the Chinese head, otherwise
called the "Child of Heaven."
Opening exchange courses and building up exchange through the trading of tribute and
endowments was a noteworthy objective of the voyage. Since Zheng He was a Muslim, he would
have the capacity to build up great relations with Muslim exchanging groups and also with
Chinese dealers in the ports the boats went to. Therapeutic examination seems to have been
another inspiration for the voyages. A few annihilating pestilences had cleared through the
Middle Kingdom, and numerous specialists and drug specialists went on the voyage, taught to
search for herbs and different meds. At last, Zheng He was to search for any indications of the
removed Emperor, whom a few individuals accepted was still alive and endeavoring to develop a
force base some place in Southeast Asia.
The armadas were great, and numerous diplomats and rulers from territories the armada went to
went to the Ming court with tribute, recognizing Chinese prevalence. Be that as it may, a few
elements added to making numerous in the court, especially the Confucian researchers around
the Emperor, restrict the voyages. Once the tribute relationship had been restored, and the
investigations finished, some doubted the need to send rehashed voyages. Keeping up and
keeping an eye on the armada was costly. After the Grand Canal had been repaired, assets were
exhausted to make it simple for grain to venture out from the south to northern China on the
waterway, wiping out the requirement for war sends that would shield grain shipments from
privateer attacks. Is it true that it was truly worth proceeding with these voyages?
Daily Life
The Ming Dynasty was a crucial time for societal and cultural evolution. “The Ming armies
that conquered the southwest were followed by civilian settlers and merchants” (Yates). Most
civilians were peasants, but there was a select amount of nobles and kings. The was a significant
difference of wealth between the peasants and the nobles and kings. Often, the peasants would
live in huts or tiny houses that were made out of mud or bamboo and had no floor, other than the
ground. The nobles and kings had the ability to build luxurious palaces and summer homes that
were also made out of mud and wood but much more lavish. They were decorated with intricate
pieces, such as: candles held by bronze candlesticks. But, since most people were peasants, the
Ming civilians usually did nothing else for work other than farm, unless they were a merchant.
Farming was in fact one of the poorest occupations during this time. Merchants did
insignificantly better, so the farmers had a much more difficult time simply living. The Ming
peasants worked from day to night, and according to the article “China” most farmers did not
even own the land that they worked on. Most properties were usually owned by a noble or a
king. On top of working on some elite person’s land, the farmers were expected to give gifts to
the noble in charge. Peasant-farmers who had owned anything extra or nice, were not allowed to
keep their belongings and were forced to give it up to the noble or king in order to reside in the
place they called home. With this, classes were technically permanently marginalized and
significantly reduced anyone from becoming “proud as the nobles”(Yates). Peasants also
celebrated something called the Spring Festival. Usually this was an event that young people
would socialize and typically paired into couples; some of them were even married during this
celebration. The celebration was held every year in order to assure a good harvest and a good
year and according to the peasants it is the equivalent to the national Chinese New Year.
Despite the class differences, according to literature of the Ming period the lifestyle was
known for its leisurely manner and was referred to as “'shanshui' [mountains and rivers]”
(Chih-ho). Which means, “hill-dwelling, sightseeing, boating, and 'tianshi' (quietude and
comfort), each of which possesses its own derivative items,” (Chih-ho). This specific period
marks the history of China’s gradual development of its social life. According to, "Leisurely
Shanshui Lifestyle Of The Ming Dynasty”, the lifestyle of this period incorporated a large
variety of activities. For example, writers of the Ming period were fond of finding and
collecting rare items, establishing a meaningful life for themselves, and most importantly,
recording in journals their daily life with what they experienced, especially through sight and
sound.
For the women of the Ming period, daily life was occupied by caring for their homes and
their children. “The structure and difference between genders was greatly emphasized”(Yates).
The women were expected to respect and obey their husbands at all times, regardless of any
circumstance. Women were rarely married to the men of their choice. If a woman disobeyed her
family, often a family would then be in disgrace. Males had a substantial amount of more power
over the household than the females. Especially the eldest male of the household was in charge
and dominated all the affairs of every family member. In fact, he dictated each individual family
member’s daily way of living life. Women were less often than not visible in the Ming public.
Overall, the values of women were extremely dominated by those in charge that believed
traditional Confucian morality. Activities such as: spinning and weaving were the women’s
most important contributions to the household, during this time. However, these activities
became professionalized industries that were dominated by males producing for the market.
Binding women’s feet and female infanticide were also traditions of the Ming society. When
education did become more widely available for women, a small but influential percentage of
elite women became “ literate, managed complex household economies, which involved not only
textile production and servants, but considerable interaction with the outside world”(Yates).
Only elite women had the privilege to read, write, edit, and publish literature. These women
actually exchanged letters discussing literary criticism; they created social groups that were
devoted to mutual assistance, and even took part in painting and engaged in their own poetic
circles. In order to take part in these activities the elite women traveled often. In doing so, their
networks would extend well outside of their immediate family and the limits of their inner family
circles. Some women even were able to work as educators. Both skilled and unskilled work
women contributed greatly to family enterprises in order to meet the requests of the tax
collectors; especially in the urban areas. However, in order to maintain class margins and in
order to retain the ability of women to become equal to men, Chinese families carefully regulated
reproduction. With population increasing during this time and demands for trade increasing
population regulation contributed to the image that a “large, rapidly growing, poor population
on the brink of starvation must be replaced with one of a large, fairly well-fed, slowly growing
society, constantly pushing agricultural techniques and commercial exchange to exhaust the
resources of the land”(Chih-ho). Even within the harsh constraints set by both nature and the
Ming Dynasty, Chinese families still adjusted their gender and economic roles in order to
improve their circumstances.
During the Ming period, the government institutionalized Neo-Confucian philosophy as
the main ideology. A reoccurred interest in Buddhism grew increasingly stronger and
encouraged new philosophical ideas to challenge the intellect of academics and religion. “One of
the new trends claimed that action and knowledge were inseparable”(Colorful Lanterns at
Shangyuan). Students of these schools were strongly educated to strive for gaining insights about
the intrinsic principle that ordered nature with culture, and society with the universe, and to then
practice that knowledge in their everyday lives. During the Ming period intellectual
independence in philosophical thinking was becoming more accepted and more often than not,
actually promoted within private academies. These academies were located in the mountainous
areas, remote from government control and became popular places for study. The location
encouraged the shanshui' lifestyle of the Ming Dynasty. Academies were centers where
students gathered to participate in philosophical discussions, take part in safe venues where
scholars could express political dissent among their like-minded peers.
However, the shanshui’ academic lifestyle took a quick change with technological
advances in printing. “There became a steady demand for books from the candidates who needed
to prepare for the examinations which became the most desired career for a man with
aspirations”(Colorful Lanterns at Shangyuan). Literary publications increased exponentially.
And, literacy rose fast. Therefore, as books became more readily available, reading became less
exclusively associated with studying, and career or administrative oriented. It soon became a
source of entertainment. Novels and short stories were written in conversational language and
included illustrations, basically the fiction genre became a high demand. “To this day the
humorous fantasy novel Journey to the West (published ca. 1570) and the portrait of a merchant
from Shandong titled Golden Lotus (published 1619) are famous even among readers in the
West”(Colorful Lanterns at Shangyuan). There are many Ming publications that reflect an
extensive interest for practical knowledge and a wide variety of applications expanded beyond
the traditional practices of philosophy and philology. These publications include: technological
topics such as: hydraulics, irrigation, pest control, geography, geology, as well as medical and
pharmaceutical articles focused on the topics of acupuncture and moxibustion, hygiene,
gynaecology, and dietetics that were shared among the learned.
Artwork
Chinese have always had very distinct artwork compared to the rest of the world. Chinese
art style has been very dynamic as in it is different from one dynasty to another. In the Yuan
Dynasty (1271-1368) Chinese art declined greatly because of the Mongol invaders. Once the
Mongol invaders were driven out of China, the Ming Dynasty was established. The Ming
Dynasty (1368-1644) introduced a period of cultural restoration and expansion which led to a
widespread renewal of traditional types of art, such as Chinese pottery, which exceeded even the
standards set by Song Dynasty art (960-1279). Ming decorative art was built upon the richly
varied legacy of the Mongol Yuan dynasty, which embraced both traditional Chinese art and
foreign styles. Rules were put in place to ensure that a uniform standard of craftsmanship was
followed to maintain quality and to keep exports going. The new Ming Dynasty was led by the
militaristic Hongwu Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang. The Emperor introduced a system of cultural
control by imposing certain styles in the arts. For example, Ming painters who work for the
imperial court were ordered to return to realistic modes of representational art similar to what
was promoted by the previous Southern Song Dynasty painting academy.
During the Ming Dynasty period there were many different schools of art that developed.
Academic painting of the Song dynasty was often taken as a model. In the area of Hangzhou,
Zhejiang province, a group of professional landscape painters working in a free manner emerged
to become the Zhe School of painting. This group was heavily influenced by the court artist Dai
Jin after he was dismissed and returned to Hangzhou. Bird-and-flower paintings were very
prominent during this period. There were two accepted ways of painting the Bird-and-flower
paintings. One way was the vigorous ink wash manner of Lin Liang, which is also associated
with Xu Xi's use of "boneless" ink wash without outlines. The ink wash method was pitted
against the descriptive-realism method of Lü Ji which is associated with the meticulous outline
and color technique linked with Huang Quan. These two schools of art were the main schools of
art until soon they became overshadowed by scholar-amateur painters from the Wu region
around Suzhou, a city now famed for its reconstructed gardens. The formation of the Wu School
painting tradition is credited to Shen Zhou, who refined the expressionistic brush-oriented
manner of the Yuan dynasty masters. Transmitted from master to pupil, first to Wen Zhengming
then to Chen Chun, this style developed alongside the growing influence of literati garden
culture in Ming society. The garden, had become an expression of personal virtues and political
aspirations just like painting, calligraphy, and poetry. Traditionally, Ming painting is categorized
into just different schools of art but this categorization is inadequate to explain the complexity of
the era. Paintings by artists such as Tang Yin’s “Seeing off a Guest on a Mountain Path”
exemplifies that any piece of art cannot be simply classified as belonging to one school of art.
Another piece of evidence is the many individual and regional styles that developed. There were
so many different schools in fact that people have comment that “there were as many schools of
painting as there were painters in the Ming Dynasty”. During the times that all these new
painting styles were emerging, we see the emergence of the scholar-artist Dong Qichang, who
served as an official around the Wanli reign. Dong implemented the reading of painted
brushstrokes as calligraphic expression, and promoted the enlightened creation or "grand
synthesis" of artistic style through the study of past masters. In order legitimate his own artistic
achievements, Dong incorrectly theorized that past painters only belonged to one of two stylistic
lineages: the expressive, understated brush styles of literati painters in the Southern School, and
the descriptive, decorative tradition of professional artisans in the Northern School. More than a
variation of the commonly held rivalry between the Zhe and Wu Schools, Dong positioned
himself at the end of the Southern School as the true inheritor of a tradition of literati painters
that included Dong Yuan, Fan Kuan, Mi Fu, the Four Great Masters of the Yuan, and the Wu
schools of art in the Ming Dynasty.
The Ming Dynasty was known for its painting but it is even more prominent for its
ceramic art. The Ming Dynasty period was an extraordinary period of innovation in ceramic art.
New techniques showed improvement in design and shapes, showing a preference for color and
painted design and also a certain openness to foreign forms of art. The Yongle Emperor was
exceedingly curious about other countries and enjoyed unusual shapes many of which were
inspired by Islamic metalwork. Today, Xuande porcelain is considered among the finest of all
Ming art. During the Xuande period, a technical refinement was introduced in preparation of the
cobalt used for decoration of the blue underglaze. This in fact led to the creation of the world
famous cobalt blue and white porcelain, its sea-green celadon glazed stoneware, and its white
porcelain sculpture by artists such as He Chaozong. All of these ceramic arts were exported
around the world mostly to South East Asia, the Middle East, Japan and even Europe. The above
image shows the Ming technique of adding manganese to cobalt blue to produce a sharper line.
Prior to this technique, cobalt was brilliant in color but it had a tendency to bleed in firing but by
adding manganese, the color was duller but the line was crisper. Some of the designs included on
the ceramic art include the gold-colored carp and aquatic vegetation. The main Ming
manufacturing centers for porcelain were the imperial kilns in southern China, notably at
Jingdezhen in Jiangxi province which was a perfect site due to the abundance of minerals, such
as petuntse which is china stone and kaolin which is china clay as well as more than enough
wood to fuel the kilns. Shufu items have a thick, slightly opaque, glaze, white in colour, with a
faint blue-green tint.
In addition to the drastic improvements in ceramic art and painting the Ming Dynasty in
its later years made a dramatic shift towards a market economy. The Ming Dynasty started
exporting porcelain around the world on a groundbreaking scale. Other than supplying porcelain
for domestic use, the kilns at Jingdezhen became a large scale porcelain manufacturer for
exporting to Europe. By this time, there were two major types of materials to make ceramic
items and those were kaolin and pottery stone. Kaolin and pottery stone both have pros and cons.
When Kaolin stone was added to the items, the product became sturdier than before and the color
was also more white in appearance which was a property much sought after. Pottery stone
required lower temperatures like 2,280 °F rather than kaolin which required 2,460 °F to fire.
Music
“The Ming dynasty arose following a series of natural disasters that had hit China during
the early and middle 1300s, adding to the misery of a people under the harsh rule of the Mongol
Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). In 1368 rebel armies—led by Zhu
Yuanzhang (1328–1398)—overthrew the Yuan, and Zhu established a dynasty he named Da
Ming (“Great Brightness”). The only emperor in China’s long history to have been born to a
peasant family, Zhu had been orphaned early in life. From these humble beginnings rose a
dynasty that was to be ruled by seventeen emperors over a period of 276 years (more than half a
century longer than the United States has been an independent nation).
From Nanjing, the first Ming capital (see map above), Zhu Yuanzhang reigned as the
Hongwu emperor for thirty years (1368–1398). His priorities — consolidating his power,
building an imperial capital, and setting up a system of government — were shared by his fourth
son, Zhu Di, who, following a power struggle of nearly four years, usurped the throne from his
nephew and ruled as the Yongle emperor from 1403 to 1424. During the Yongle reign, the seat
of the Ming dynasty was moved to Beijing (see map). This was a time of exploration, with
imperial expeditions sent as far away as the east coast of Africa.
Court arts of these early reigns reflect the emperors’ desires to display the power and
glory of their dynasty. Subsequent Ming emperors were not as strong, and by the end of the
dynasty much of the power and glory of the imperial family had faded.” (Asian Art Museum
2016)
Art and Music
“Ling Lun (Chinese: 伶倫 or 泠倫) is the legendary founder of music in ancient China.
In Chinese mythology, as described in the Lüshi Chunqiu (in Chinese: 吕氏春秋), he was said
to have created bamboo flutes which made the sounds of many birds, including the mythical
phoenix. "In this way, he invented the five notes of the ancient Chinese five-tone scale (gong,
shang, jiao, ahi', and yu) which is equivalent to 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 in numbered musical notation
(do, re, mi, so, and la in western solfeggio) and the eight sounds made by eight musical
instruments. The "Yellow Emperor" (Huangdi) is said to have ordered the casting of bells in tune
with those flutes.”
”The Ming-Qing period was highly productive musically, resulting in developments that
are important not only in this period but as high-lights in the whole continuum of Chinese music.
Kun and Peking operas, the art of qin, and regional instrumental music are some of the
substantial areas that warrant more detailed coverage and thus are included as special topics in
the second part of this book. Other prominent developments of the period include the areas of
theory and musical literature, which will be introduced below. The Ming-Qing period represents
a highly cultivated time and a growing literate society. Among the class of literati officials, the
arts of prose-poetry writing, qin zither playing, calligraphy, and chess playing became the
highest goals. Regrettably, by the 19th century, creativity was replaced by cliché, imitation and
conservatism; the arts of this time are generally criticized as becoming lifeless and stagnant.
However, a great scholarly contribution of this period was the printing of large collections,
anthologies and encyclopedic works, many of which have been preserved until our time. An
example of a comprehensive publication for the qin zither is the Yongle qinshu jicheng (" A
Collection of Qin Essays") printed in twenty volumes. Its contents embody the history, music,
theory, tuing methods and poetry on the qin. One of the most significant qin manuscript-notation
collections in existence is the Shenqi mipu ("Mysterious and Secret Notations") published in
1425 by Zhu Quan (the sixteenth son of the first Ming emperor). Subsequently, there were over a
hundred more qin manuscript-notational handbooks printed in the Ming-Qing period. Another
substantial notational collection is the 1746 publication of 81 volumes, the Jiugong dacheng
nanbeici gongpu ("Nations of Northern and Southern Songs in Nine musical Keys") that was
compiled by Zhou Xiangyu under imperial auspices.” (Ciarlillo, Marjorie Ann, and Jeffrey
Jacob 1987.)
Piano music of the Ming dynasty. w
Ming dynasty, was known to be instrumental in the development of piano music.
Periods of the piano development.
The origins of Chinese piano music (before 1919)
The initial development of Chinese piano music (1919-1949)
Development in New China and during the Culture Revolution (1949-1976)
New developments after “Reform and Opening”1 (after 1976)
“During the late Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty (around A.D.1600), greater
communication and cultural exchange between East and West paved the way for the introduction
of Western keyboard instruments (such as the harpsichord) in China. However, the piano was not
introduced in China until the 19th century, and the first Chinese piano pieces appeared only in
the early twentieth century. Since that time, many pieces have been composed especially for it.
In this chapter, a brief history of Chinese piano music will be provided, primarily discussing its
development, as well as various influences from Western musical genres.”
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