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Completing th the 20 Century In the present crisis, government is not the solution to our problems; government is the problem. -President Ronald Regan, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1981 Main Ideas • The Presidencies of Ford, Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton • Rise of Conservatism • Foreign and domestic policies of the 1970s, 80s and 90s • The Cold War ends • Economic, Social, and political trends of the 1980s and 90s • 1990s prosperity (technological revolution) and bitter partisan politics • Globalization (impact and consequences) Gerald Ford in the White House President Ford • Before Nixon chose him to replace Vice President Agnew in 1973, Ford had served in Congress for years as the Republican minority leader of the House • In the first months in office, Ford granted Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crime that he might have committed • The pardon was extremely controversialcritics claimed he had made a “corrupt bargain” with Nixon, while Ford maintained the need to end the “national nightmare” Investigating the CIA Salvador Guillermo Allende Gossens was a Chilean physician and politician, known as the first Marxist to become president of a Latin American country through open elections • During Ford’s presidency, the Democratic Congress continued to investigate abuses in the executive branch-especially the CIA • This intelligence agency was accused of engineering the assassination of foreign leaders (Chile president Salvador Allende) • Ford appointed former Texas Congressman George H. Bush to reform the agency Failure of U.S. Policy in Southwest Asia South Vietnamese refugees arrive on a U.S. Navy vessel during Operation Frequent Wind • President Ford was unable to get additional funds from Congress to help the South Vietnamese who were facing strong attacks from Communist Forces • The Fall of Saigon in April 1975 united the nation of Vietnam under the rule of the Communist government in Hanoi • About 150,000 Vietnamese who supported the United States were evacuated, however, the United States suffered a blow to its prestige overseas and confidence at home • In that same year of 1975, the U.S. supported government in Cambodia fell to Communist forces which led to the conducted genocide of an estimated 1 million people The Economy and Election 1976 Presidential election results map. Blue denotes states won by Carter/Mondale, Red denotes those won by Ford/Dole. • Ford’s chief concern was bringing inflation down and under control-led the WIN buttons campaign (Whip Inflation Now) • Inflation continued along with unemployment (9%) as the economy sank into a recession • After the bicentennial celebration marking the United States’ birthday, Americans were ready for a change • The election of 1976 featured Gerald Ford after a bitter fight against Ronald Regan for the Republican nomination and the emergence of the Democrat Jimmy Carter • The election was close, 287 electoral votes to 241 in favor of Carter (Ford’s pardon of Nixon certainly hurt his chances) Jimmy Carter’s Presidency President Carter • The informal style of Jimmy Carter signaled an effort to end the imperial presidency Foreign Policy: -the hallmark of Carter’s foreign policy was human rights -Carter appointed Andrew Young to serve as U.S. ambassador to the United Nations -Young championed the cause of human rights by denouncing oppression in South Africa and Zimbabwe -In Latin America, President Carter cut off trade with Chile and Argentina over human right violations Carter’s Foreign Policy Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter and Anwar Sadat at Camp David, 1978 Panama Canal: -The Carter administration attempted to correct inequities in the Panama Canal Treaty of 1903 (would gradually turn over canal to Panama) -Opponents of Carter in the 1980 election would use slogans like “give away” to attack his foreign policy Camp David Accords: -in 1978, President Carter arranged a peace settlement between Israel and Egypt (Egypt in 1979 became the first Arab state to recognize Israel) Iran and the Hostage Crisis American Hostage Barry Rosen • In 1979, Islamic fundamentalists in Iran led by the Ayatollah Khomeini overthrew the shah’s government • With the Ayatollah in control, oil supplies worldwide dropped causing long gas lines and shortages in the U.S, • In November of 1979, Iranian militants seized control of the American embassy in Teheran and held 50 staff members prisoners • In April of 1980, Carter approved a rescue mission that failed when the helicopters crashed in the Iranian desert (the hostages remained in Iran until Regan took office) Cold War (1970s) Mujahideen fighters in Kunar Province of Afghanistan in 1987 • President Carter attempted to continue the Nixon-Ford policy of détente with China and the Soviet Union • In 1979, the U.S. ended its official recognition of the Nationalist Chinese government of Taiwan and completed an official exchange of ambassadors with China • Détente with China led to the U.S. and Soviet Union signing SALT II treaty, which limited the size of each superpower’s nuclear delivery system (Senate never ratified treaty) • In December of 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan and the U.S. responded by placing an embargo on grain exports and high technology, and boycotting the 1980 Olympics in Moscow Domestic Policy: Inflation • At home during Carter’s administration, the biggest issue was inflation (reached a rate of 13%) • As businesses and consumers struggled to afford the higher interest rates, Federal Reserve Board Paul Volcker pushed interest rates to 20% hoping to quickly end inflation • These rates hurt the automobile and construction industries which laid off thousands of workers • Inflation hit the middle class with high tax rates and social programs cost the government billions of dollars (federal deficit was $60 billion in 1980) • Americans were coming to the realization that their standard of living was on the decline Loss of Popularity President Carter addressed the nation and called for shared sacrifice in his “national malaise” speech • Intelligence, effort, and integrity were not enough to get Jimmy Carter through the Iranian hostage crisis and worsening economic crisis • In 1979, in what the press dubbed Carter’s “national malaise” speech, Carter blamed the problems of the U.S. on a “moral and spiritual crisis” of the American people • By the election year of 1980, Carter’s approval rating hit 23% and he was vulnerable to Democrat and Republican attacks American Society in Transition • Social changes in the 1970s were of potentially even greater significance than politics • By the end of the decade: (1) The fastest growing region of the nation was the South and the West (2) Growing conservative and older (3) The fastest growing age group was senior citizens over 65 • By the 1990s: (1) Minority groups made up 25% of the population (2) The Census Bureau predicted that, by 2050, as much as half of the population will be either Hispanic American, African American, and Asian American Growth of Immigration A U.S. green card, a document confirming permanent resident status for eligible immigrants, including refugees, political asylum seekers, familysponsored migrants, employment-based workers and diversity immigrants (DV). • Before the 1960s, most immigrants to the U.S. came from Europe and Canada • By the 1980s, 47% of immigrants came from Latin America, 37% from Asia, and less than 13% from Europe and Canada • The Immigration Act of 1965 ended the quota system that favored Europe and thereby opened the U.S. to immigrants from all parts of the world! Demands For Minority Rights Chavez speaking at a 1974 United Farm Workers rally in Delano, California Hispanic Americans: • In 1966 Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta merged their new unions to form the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee • Chavez believed in non-violence in dealing with California’s large fruit and vegetable companies (Ex. Boycotts/Fast) • In the 1960’s the Chicano Movement took off, “Brown Power” and the “Brown Berets” demanded Spanish speaking classes and Chicano studies programs at universities (Bilingual ED. Demands For Minority Rights continued… National United Peoples Party Flag (Partido Nacional de La Raza Unida) • During the 1960’s eight Hispanic Americans served in the House of Representatives • In the 1940’s and 1950’s the League of United Latin American Citizens fought in the courts for school desegregation and government funding • In the 1970’s La Raza Unida ( Mexican Americans United) ran Mexican Candidates in many local elections • In 1963 the more radical Alianza Federal de Mercedes seized a Texas courthouse Demands For Minority Rights continued… Flag of the American Indian Movement Native Americans: • Native Americans suffered the highest unemployment rates, alcoholism, infant mortality rates and suicides • In 1954 Native Americans had to deal with the government’s Termination Policy • In 1961 reps from 61 tribes drafted the Declaration of Indian Purpose • In 1968 LBJ established the National Council on Indian Opportunity • In 1968 the AIM (American Indian Movement) was formed to demand lands, burial grounds, fishing/ timber rights, and a respect of their culture (George Mitchell and Dennis Banks) Demands For Minority Rights continued… The Trail of Broken Treaties was a cross-country protest in the United States by American Indian and First Nations organizations that took place in the autumn of 1972. It was designed to bring attention to American Indian issues, such as treaty rights, living standards, and inadequate housing • In 1972, AIM leader Russell Meads organized “The Trail of Broken Treaties” march on DC ( Occupied the BIA building) • In 1973, the AIM led 200 Sioux to occupy Wounded Knee, SD where a massacre of Sioux had occurred in 1890 • After negotiations a shootout with the FBI left 2 dead, and many wounded • Congress passed the Indian SelfDetermination Act of 1975 that gave reservations and tribal lands greater control over internal programs, education, gaming, and law enforcement Demands For Minority Rights continued… President Reagan signs the billl that officially apologizes and pays reparations to Japanese Intern in an official ceremony. Left to right: Hawaii Sen. Spark Matsunaga, California Rep. Norman Mineta, Hawaii Rep. Pat Saiki, California Sen. Pete Wilson, Alaska Rep. Don Young, California Rep. Bob Matsui, California Rep. Bill Lowery, and JACL President Harry Kajihara Asian American: • In 1968 the Asian American Political Alliance (AAPA) was founded at Berkley which unified Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Filipino activists • Protested the Vietnam War and racism directed at Asians • 1969 “Shut it Down” strikes at Berkley • “Yellow Power” Conference to learn of Asian American history and destiny • 1968 San Francisco’s Chinatown Grievances (Housing and Medicine) • Japanese American Citizens League (JCAL) brought forth the issue of internment Demands For Minority Rights continued… The May 1959 issue of the Mattachine Review, an American homophile magazine Gay Liberation Movement: • In the 1950’s the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis were campaigning to reduce discrimination towards G/L • 1960’s The Society for Individual Rights was founded in Greenwich Village/SF • June ,1969 the Stonewall Inn Riot in NYC pitted aggressive police against bar patrons “Gay Power” appeared • After Stonewall the Gay Liberation Front (GLF) was formed (Gay Pride Marches) • In 1975 the Gov. ended its ban on employment of G/L The Environmental Movement Exxon Valdez was an oil tanker that gained notoriety after running aground in Prince William Sound spilling hundreds of thousands of barrels of crude oil in Alaska. • The participation of 20 million citizens in the first Earth Day in 1970 reflected the nation’s growing concerns over pollution and the destruction of the natural environment • Massive oil spills around the world in the late 20th century, such as the Exxon Valdez tanker accident near Alaska in 1989, reinforced fears of human error and modern technology • Public opinion turned against building additional nuclear power plants after the accident at the Three Miles Island power plant in Pennsylvania (1979) and the deadly explosion of the Chernobyl plant in the Soviet Union (1986) Protective Legislation • Conservationists demanded laws that would protect against pollution and destruction of the environment • In 1970, Congress passed the Clean Air Act and created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) • In 1972, the Clean Water Act was passed to protect the nations waterways • In 1980, the Superfund was created to clean up toxic dumps, such as the Love Canal in Niagara Falls, New York • The protest movements by diverse groups in America led to a conservative reaction by many Americans-a powerful force in politics in the 1980s and 90s The Conservative Resurgence Buckley with President Ronald Reagan at Reagan's birthday celebration, 1986 • The policies of Nixon and Ford with the political commentary of William F. Buckley Jr. and economist Milton Friedman gave evidence of a shift to the right in the 1970s • A loose coalition of economic and political conservatives, religious fundamentalists, and political action committees (PACs) became a potent force • By 1980, various activists took the lead in establishing a conservative agenda for the nation which included the causes of lowering taxes, improved morals, and reduction of affirmative action Leading Issues Taxpayer’s Revolt: -In 1978, California voters passed Proposition 13 the cut property taxes -Nationally, conservatives promoted economist Arthur Laffer’s belief that tax cuts would promote economic growth -Two Republicans, Jack Kemp and William Roth proposed legislation to reduce federal taxes by 30%-basis of Regan’s tax cuts Moral Crisis: Jerry Lamon Falwell, Sr. -Moral decay was a weekly theme for televangelists like Pat Robertson, Oral Roberts and Jim Bakker -Evangelist Jerry Falwell founded the Moral Majority to finance campaigns to unset liberal members of Congress -These religious fundamentalists wanted a return to prayer in school, the teaching of creationism, and the reversal of the Roe v. Wade decision that legalized abortion Leading Issues continued… Poster for rally urging that affirmative action be upheld in Bakke, October 1977 Reverse Discrimination: • In 1965, President Johnson committed the U.S. government to a policy of affirmative action to ensure women and minorities had access to jobs, education, and promotions • Suffering through years of recession and stagflation in the 1970s, white males blamed their troubles on the “reverse discrimination” imposed by the government • The Supreme Court ruled in their favor in the landmark case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) by deciding that college admissions could not be based on race alone Ronald Reagan and the Election of 1980 Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Reagan/Bush, Blue denotes those won by Carter/Mondale • Ronald Reagan was a well-known TV and movie actor who gained fame among Republicans as an effective political speaker • He was elected governor of California and nearly won the Republican party’s nomination against Ford in 1976 • In the election of 1980, Reagan attacked Carter’s “Big Government policies” and loss of prestige abroad • Reagan also pointed out the “misery index” of 28 (rate of inflation added to the rate of unemployment) and asked Americans- Are you better off now than you were four years ago? • Reagan took 51% of the popular vote and almost 91% of the electoral votes Significance of the Election President Reagan Vice-President Bush • Reagan’s election broke up a key element of the New Deal coalition by taking over 50% of the blue-collar vote • For the first time since 1954, the Republicans gained control of the Senate by defeating 11 liberal Democrats targeted by the Moral Majority • The Republicans also gained 33 seats in the House • Political analysts market the 1980 election as the end of a half century of Democratic dominance of Congress The Reagan Revolution The hostages disembark Freedom One, an Air Force VC-137 Stratoliner aircraft, upon their arrival at the base • On the very day that Reagan was inaugurated, the Iranians released the 52 American hostages • Two months later, the president survived a serious gunshot wound from an assassination attempt • Reagan handled the crisis with such humor and charm that he emerged from his ordeal as an even more popular leader • Reagan pledged that his administration would lower taxes, reduce government spending on welfare, build up the U.S. armed forces, and create a more conservative federal court Supply-Side Economics (Reaganomics) • The Reagan administration advocated supply-side economics, arguing that tax cuts reduced government spending would increase investment by the private sector (more jobs, production, and prosperity) • This approach contrasted with the Keynesian economics long favored by Democrats which relied on the government spending to boost consumer income and demand • The supply-side theory reminded critics of the “trickle-down” economics of the 1920s in which the wealthy prospered and some of their increase profits benefited the middle class and poor Based on trickle-down theory, the idea is that with a lower tax burden and increased investment, business can produce (or supply) more, increasing employment and worker pay. (It did not work!) Federal Tax Reduction/Spending Cuts The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 was a federal law enacted in the United States in 1981. It was an act "to amend the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 to encourage economic growth through reductions in individual income tax rates, the expensing of depreciable property, incentives for small businesses, and incentives for savings, and for other purposes.” • The Congress passed most of the tax cuts that Reagan asked for, including a 25% decrease in personal income taxes over three years • Cuts in the corporate income, capital gains, and gift and inheritance taxes meant that a large share of the tax relief went to upperincome taxpayers • With the help of conservative southern Democrats, the Republicans cut over $40 billion from domestic programs such as food stamps, student loans, and mass transportation • These savings were offset by a dramatic increase in military spending Recession and Recovery • In 1982, the nation suffered the worst recession since the 1930s • Banks failed and unemployment reached 11%, however, the recession along with a fall in oil prices reduced the double-digit inflation rate of the late 1970s to less than 4% • As the policies of Reaganomics took hold, the economy rebounded and entered a recovery in 1983 • The recovery only widened the income gap between rich and poor • Upper-class groups and “yuppies” (young urban professionals) enjoyed higher incomes and material benefits while the standard of living for the middle class remained stagnant or declined Deregulation • Following up on the promise of “getting government off the backs of the people,” the Reagan administration reduced federal regulations on business and industry • Restrictions were eased on savings and loan institutions, mergers and takeovers by large corporations, and environmental protection • Regulations on emissions and auto safety were relaxed to help the struggling American auto industry • Secretary of the Interior James Watt opened federal lands for increased coal and timber production and offshore waters for oil drilling In 1995, Watt was indicted on 25 counts of felony perjury and obstruction of justice by a federal grand jury, accusing him of making false statements to a grand jury investigating influence peddling at the Department of Housing and Urban Development, which he had lobbied in the mid-to-late 1980s Labor Unions On August 3, 1981, during a press conference regarding the PATCO strike, President Reagan stated: "They are in violation of the law and if they do not report for work within 48 hours they have forfeited their jobs and will be terminated." • Despite being a former president of the Screen Actors Guild, Reagan took a tough stand against unions • Reagan fired thousands of striking federal air traffic controllers for violating their contract and decertified their union PATCO • Antiunion policies along with the loss of manufacturing jobs hastened the decline of union membership from over 30% in 1962 to only 12% in the late 1990s Social Issues Considered a federalist and a moderate conservative, O'Connor tended to approach each case narrowly without arguing for sweeping precedents. She most frequently sided with the court's conservative bloc, although in the latter years of her tenure, she was regarded as having the swing opinion in many cases. • President Reagan followed through on his pledge to appoint conservative judges to the Supreme Court by nominating Sandra Day O’Conner (first woman on the Court), Antonin Scalia and Anthony Kennedy • Led by a new chief justice, William Rehnquist, the Supreme Court scaled back affirmative action in hiring and promotions and limited Roe v. Wade by allowing states to impose certain restrictions on abortion (example: minors had to notify parents before abortion) • Other issues such as AIDS very virtually ignored in the early 1980s The Election of 1984 Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Reagan/Bush (49), Blue denotes those won by Mondale/Ferraro (1+D.C.). • The return of prosperity restored confidence in the Reagan administration and the Republican party strongly rallied behind the incumbent • The Democrat party featured Jesse Jackson, an African American politician, who made a strong run for the presidency by seeking the support of minority groups (Rainbow Coalition) • The Democratic majority nominated Walter Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro (first woman to run for vice president) • Reagan easily defeated the liberal Mondale, taking every state except Minnesota Budget and Trade Deficits President Ronald Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush at the 1984 Republican National Convention in Dallas, Texas • By the mid-1980s, Reagan’s tax cuts combined with large increases in military spending were creating federal deficits of over $200 billion a year • Over the course of Reagan’s two terms as president, the national debt tripled from about $900 billion to almost $2.7 trillion • The tax cuts which were designed to stimulate investment instead encouraged consumptionespecially foreign-made luxury and consumer items • As a result, the U.S. trade deficit reached a staggering $150 billion a year • The cumulative trade imbalance of $1 trillion during the 1980s contributed to a dramatic increase in foreign ownership of U.S. real estate and industry • In 1985, for the first time since the WWI era, the U.S. became a debtor nation Impact of Reaganomics • Reagan’s two terms reduced restrictions on a freemarket economy and left more money in the hands of investors and higher income • Reagan’s policies also succeeded in containing the growth of the New Deal-Great Society welfare state • The Reagan years were also known for soaring federal deficits and these years changed the political debate from asking what new government programs might be needed to what government programs to cut and by how much Foreign Policy During the Reagan Years 1984 artist's concept of a generic laser-equipped satellite firing on another • Reagan started his presidency determined to restore the military might and superpower prestige of the U.S. • He called the Soviet Union “the evil empire” • Reagan increased spending for defense and aid to anticommunist forces in Latin America 1. Spent billions to build new weapons (B-1 Bomber) 2. Created SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative) “Star Wars” 3. Increased defense budget from $171 billion in 1981 to over $300 billion in 1985 Central America/Caribbean ARDE Frente Sur Contras in 1987 • In the Americas, Reagan supported “friendly” right wing dictators to keep communism out • The U.S. also worked to overthrow Marxist regimes such as the Sandinistas that had taken over in Nicaragua (1979) • The U.S. passed large amounts of military aid to the “contras” in Nicaragua (Democrats opposed the policy and passed the Boland Amendment prohibiting further aid) • In El Salvador, Reagan’s administration spent $5 billion to support the Salvadoran government against leftist guerrillas • In October 1983, Reagan sent marines into Grenada to prevent a pro-Cuban regime from taking over the government (reestablished a friendly government) Iran-Contra Affair • Reagan’s efforts to aid the Nicaraguan contras involved him in a serious blunder and scandal • Since 1980, Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a bloody war. Reagan’s aides came up with a plan that was kept secret from the American people 1. U.S. would sell U.S. antitank and antiaircraft missiles to Iran’s government for its help in freeing the Americans held hostage by a radical Arab group 2. In 1986, another Reagan staff member wanted to use profits from the sale of arms to fund contras in Nicaragua 3. Reagan denied involvement; Americans viewed him as uniformed and easily manipulated by his advisors Lebanon, Israel, and the PLO • Reagan’s administration suffered a series of setbacks in the Middle East 1. 2. A smoke cloud rises from the rubble of the bombed barracks at Beirut International Airport (BIA). 3. 4. 5. 6. In 1982, Israel invaded southern Lebanon to stop the PLO terrorists from raiding Israel The U.S. was involved by providing peacekeeping forces in Lebanon to end a bloody civil war In April of 1983, an Arab suicide squad bombed the U.S embassy in Beirut (63 people killed) A few months later, another Arab terrorist drove a bombfilled truck into the U.S. Marines barracks (killed 241 servicemen) Reagan pulled U.S. forces out of Lebanon Secretary of States George Schultz pushed for a peace settlement by setting up a homeland for the PLO in the West Bank territories (PLO leader Yassir Arafat agreed in 1988 to recognize Israel) Improved U.S. – Soviet Relations Gorbachev addressing the United Nations General Assembly in December 1988. During the speech he dramatically announced deep unilateral cuts in Soviet military forces in Eastern Europe • The Cold War intensified in the early 1980s as a result of both Reagan’s arms buildup and the Soviet deployment of a large number of missiles against NATO countries • In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to change domestic Soviet politics: Two major reforms (1) glasnost: openness; end of political repression (2) perestroika: restructure of Soviet economy (introduced some free-market practices) Improved U.S. – Soviet Relations continued… Gorbachev in one-on-one discussions with Reagan • In 1987, Gorbachev and Reagan agreed to remove and destroy all intermediate-range missiles (the INF agreement) • In 1988, Gorbachev pulled Soviet troops out from Afghanistan and put diplomatic pressure on Iran and Iraq to end their war • Relations were improving! Assessing Reagan’s Policy • The Reagan administration would claim its military buildup forced the Soviet Union to concede defeat • Others would give credit to George Kennan’s containment policies and Gorbachev’s initiatives • Reagan’s second term came to a close in 1988he was the first president since Eisenhower to complete two terms in the White House President George H. Bush and the End of the Cold War Chief Justice William Rehnquist administering the oath of office to Bush during Inaugural ceremonies at the United States Capitol, January 20, 1989 • The Cold War had threatened the very existence of the planet and of humankind, yet it gave clear purpose and structure to U.S. foreign policy • What would be the U.S. role in the world after the Cold War? • G.H. Bush, a former ambassador to the UN and director of the CIA, became the first president to define the U.S.’s role in this new era The Election of 1988 The 1988 presidential electoral votes by state • The Democrats regained control of the Senate in 1986 and hoped the scandals (Iran-Contra) of Reagan’s administration would lead to a Democrat victory in the election • The Democrats nominated Michael Dukakis, governor of Massachusetts • The Republicans nominated former Reagan’s Vice President George H. Bush • Bush ran on the Democrats being soft on crime and weak on national defense • He also promised Americans “no new taxes” • Republicans won the White House and the Democrats won both the House and Senate in Congress The Collapse of Soviet Communism and the Soviet Union • The first years of the Bush administration were dominated by dramatic changes in the Communist world: Tiananmen Square: -prodemocracy student demonstrations are violently put down by Chinese tanks Eastern Europe: -Gorbachev declared that he would no longer support various Communist governments in Eastern Europe with Soviet troops -Starting with Poland in 1989 with the election of Lech Walesa, communists parties in Hungary, Czech, Bulgaria, and Romania fell -The Berlin Wall fell in 1989 and East and West Germany were reunited in October of 1990 The Collapse of Soviet Communism and the Soviet Union Breakup of the Soviet Union: -In 1990, the Soviet Baltic republics of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania declared their independence -After a failed coup against Gorbachev by Communist hardliners, the remaining republics dissolved the Soviet Union in 1991 leaving Gorbachev a leader with no country -Boris Yeltsin, president of the Russian Republic, joined with nine former Soviet republics to form the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) or Russian Federation End of the Cold War: -START I: reduced nuclear warheads to under 10,000 -START II: reduced nuclear warheads to under 3,000 Instead of celebrating the end of the Cold War, Americans grew concerned about the outbreak of civil wars and violence in the former Soviet Union (Bosnia) Invasion of Panama Bush speaks on the telephone regarding Operation Just Cause with General Brent Scowcroft and Chief of Staff John H. Sununu, 1989 • In December of 1989, US troops were used for a different purpose • Bush ordered the invasion of Panama (“Operation Just Cause”) to remove the autocratic General Manuel Noriega • The alleged purpose of the invasion was to stop Noriega from using his nation as a drug pipeline to the US • American troops remained until elections established a more creditable government Persian Gulf War President Bush visited American troops in Saudi Arabia on Thanksgiving Day, 1990 • President Bush’s hopes for a “new world order” of peace and democracy were challenged in August of 1990 by Iraq’s dictator Saddam Hussein • Iraq invaded its oil rich neighbor Kuwait and threatened Western oil sources in Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf • President Bush built a coalition of UN members to pressure Saddam to withdraw from Kuwait (Desert Shield) • Bush later won congressional approval for a military campaign to roll back Iraq’s act of aggression • In January of 1991 Desert Storm was launched and after 100 hours Iraq was forced to concede defeat (Bush’s approval rating hit nearly 90%) Domestic Problems Clarence Thomas being sworn in by Byron White, as wife Virginia Lamp Thomas looks on • President Bush’s political future looked secure based on his foreign policy success, however his domestic problems dogged his administration Nomination of Clarence Thomas: - The president’s choice to replace the retiring Thurgood Marshall on the Supreme Court with Clarence Thomas proved extremely controversial (Thomas was accused of sexual harassment) Taxes and the Economy: -the Savings and Loans institutions were bailed out by the government at a cost of 250 billion -the federal budget deficits of 250 billion a year added over a trillion to the national debt during the Bush presidency Domestic Problems continued… Read my lips-NO NEW TAXES: - Republican voters were disappointed when Bush agreed to the Democratic Congress’s proposed 133 billion in new taxes (31% top income tax rate, federal excise taxes on beer/wine/cigarettes/gas and luxury cars and boats) - Most damaging was a recession starting in 1990 resulting in increased unemployment and a decreased average family income Political Inertia: -Bush began his presidency calling for “a kinder, gentler America” and declaring himself the “education president” -He signed into law the Americans With Disabilities Act prohibiting discrimination against citizens with physical and mental disabilities in transportation, hiring, and public accommodation -In the midst of recession, Bush advocated for cuts in federal programs-a growing number of Americans were left behind by the Reagan Revolution The Clinton Years, 1993-2001: Prosperity and Partisanship President Bill Clinton • During the last years of the 20th century, the U.S. enjoyed a period of unrivaled economic growth and technological innovation • The end of the Cold War allowed Americans to focus more on economic and domestic issues • Politics became more divided, bitter, and scandal-driven Anti-Incumbent Mood • A stagnant economy, huge budget deficits, and political deadlock fueled a growing disillusionment with government (especially Washington DC) • The movement to impose term limits on elected officials gained popularity on the state level • The Supreme Court ruled in U.S. Term Limits Inc. v. Thorton that states could not limit the tenure of federal lawmakers without a constitutional amendment • Another reflection of Americans’ disillusionment with Washington politics was the ratification of the 27th Amendment (prohibited members of Congress from raising their own salaries) The Election of 1992 Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Bush/Quayle, Blue denotes those won by Clinton/Gore • As expected, G.H. Bush was nominated by the Republicans for a second term • The Democrats selected Bill Clinton because he proved to be articulate and energetic- he was a moderate “New Democrat” who was focused on economic issues • Ross Perot, a Texas billionaire, entered the race for president as an independent • He appealed to millions of Americans with his anti-Washington and anti-deficit rhetoric ( On election day he captured 20% of the popular vote) • Results: Clinton captured the White House with 43% of the popular vote (Democrats again won control of both houses of Congress) The Election of 1992 continued… Carol Elizabeth Moseley Braun is an American politician and lawyer who represented Illinois in the United States Senate from 1993 to 1999. • Clinton and his running mate, Senator Al Gore, did well in the South and recaptured the majority of the elderly and blue-collar workers from the Republicans • In addition, the Democrats again won control of both houses of Congress • Among its 66 minority members and 48 women was Carol Moseley-Braun of Illinois, the first African American woman to be elected to the Senate Clinton’s First Term (1993-1997 Bill Clinton made health care reform one of the highest priorities of his administration. He asked the First Lady to chair the Task Force on National Health Care Reform • The early years of Bill Clinton’s presidency were marked by controversies: 1. Cabinet nominations 2. Scandals in the White House travel office 3. Connection to the failed Whitewater real estate deal in Arkansas Setbacks: During the first two years, the Republicans (through filibustering) killed the president’s economic stimulus package, campaign-finance reform, environmental bills, and health reform (Hillary Care) Clinton’s Early Accomplishments • The Democratic Congress started out 1993 by passing the Family and Medical Leave Act and the “motor-voter” law that enabled citizens to register to vote as they received their driver’s licenses • The Brady Handgun Bill mandated a five-day waiting period to purchase a weapon • In 1994, Congress enacted Clinton’s Anti-Crime Bill which provided 30 billion dollars in funding for more police protection and crime-prevention programs • Congressed also passed a deficit-reduction budget that included 255 billion in spending cuts and 241 billion in tax increases Clinton’s Early Accomplishments continued… The U.S. Chamber of Commerce credits NAFTA with increasing US trade in goods and services with Canada and Mexico from $337 billion in 1993 to $1.2 trillion in 2011, while the AFL-CIO Union blames the agreement for sending 700,000 American manufacturing jobs to Mexico over that time. • Furthermore, in the budget was the president’s requests for increased appropriations for education and job training • Clinton also won passage of NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement which set up a free-trade zone with Canada and Mexico • Despite these accomplishments, Clinton appeared to waffle on issues and seemed too eager to compromise • Critics often called the president “Slick Willie” Republicans Take Over Congress A co-author and architect of the "Contract with America", Gingrich was a major leader in the Republican victory in the 1994 congressional election. In 1995, Time named him "Man of the Year" for "his role in ending the four-decades-long Democratic majority in the House". While he was House speaker, the House enacted welfare reform, passed a capital gains tax cut in 1997, and in 1998 passed the first balanced budget since 1969. • In the midterm elections of 1994, the Republicans took both houses of Congress for the first time since 1954 • Republicans benefited from the perception that the Democratic Congress was inept and dedicated to increasing federal taxes and federal regulations • President Clinton adjusted to his party’s defeat by declaring “The era of big government is over” Zealous Reformers Daily News cover with editorial cartoon by Ed Murawinski depicting Gingrich as an infant throwing a tantrum • Newt Gingrich, a newly elected Speaker of the House, led Republicans in an attack on federal programs and spending outlined in their campaign manifesto, “Contract with America” • The confrontation with President Clinton and the Republicans led to two shutdowns of the federal government in late 1995 • Antigovernment reformers were seen as unpopular, especially after the bombing of a federal building in Oklahoma City by militia movement extremists • The bombing claimed the lives of 169, including many women and children Balanced Budget • In the 1996 election, Congress and the president compromised on: 1. a budget that left Medicare and Social Security benefits intact 2. limited welfare benefits to five years under the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act 3. set some curbs on immigrants 4. increased the minimum wage 5. and balanced the budget • The spending cuts and tax increases along with record economic growth eliminated the deficit in federal spending in 1998 and produced the first surplus since 1969 The Election of 1996 Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Dole/Kemp, Blue denotes those won by Clinton/Gore • The Republicans ran Senator Bob Dole (Kansas) against Clinton • Dole campaigned on a 15% tax cut that never gained traction with the voters • Character attacks and massive campaign spending by both sides did little to bring more people to the polls (turnout dropped below 50%) • The Clinton-Gore ticket won the election (first Democrat since FDR to win consecutive terms) • The Republicans retained both houses of Congress Clinton’s Second Term: Prosperity and Poisonous Politics • During President Clinton’s second term (1997-2001) the U.S. 1. Enjoyed the longest peacetime economic expansion in its history 2. Annual growth rates of 4% 3. Technological innovations in computers, the Internet, and wireless communications fueled increased national prosperity (“e”- or electronic commerce) 4. Low U.S. inflation rates of 2-3% 5. Investor gains in the stock market 6. Unemployment fell from 7.5% in 1992 to 3.9% in 2000 7. Average and lower-income Americans experienced the first gains in real income since 1973 Issues of Surplus • The prosperity of the late 1990s shifted the debate in Washington to what to do with the federal government’s surplus revenues -Republicans wanted tax cuts (estates and capital gains) -Democrats wanted social programs (tax credits for families with children and for higher education expenses) • Republicans pressed for more tax cuts while the Democrats wanted to support Social Security, expand Medicare, and reduce the national debt Investigation and Impeachment Monica Lewinsky is an American woman with whom United States President Bill Clinton admitted to having had an "inappropriate relationship“ while she worked at the White House in 1995 and 1996. The affair and its repercussions, which included the Clinton impeachment, became known as the Lewinsky scandal. • The President, his wife Hillary, and some of their associates were under investigation by Congress (never charged) for a Whitewater real estate deal, the firings of White House staff (“Travelgate”), and the political use of the FBI files (“Filegate”) • However, independent prosecutor Kenneth Starr charged that the President lied about alleged sexual harassment while governor of Arkansas and lied about a relationship with a young woman who had served as a White House intern Impeachment Floor proceedings of the U.S. Senate during the impeachment trial of President Bill Clinton in 1999, Chief Justice William Rehnquist presiding. House managers are seated beside the quarter-circular tables on the left and the president's personal counsel on the right • In December of 1998, the House voted to impeach the president on two counts-perjury and obstruction of justice • Members of both parties condemned Clinton’s actions but public opinion did not support impeachment • Impeachment charges did not hold up in the Senate, yet the Republicans did damage Clinton’s reputation Foreign Policy Madeleine Albright a Czech-born American politician and diplomat. She is the first woman to have become the United States Secretary of State. She was nominated by U.S. President Bill Clinton on December 5, 1996, and was unanimously confirmed by a U.S. Senate vote of 99–0. She was sworn in on January 23, 1997. • The end of the Cold War exposed dozens of long-standing ethnic, religious, and cultural conflicts in a world of 190 nations • Clinton’s first Secretary of State Warren Christopher conducted lowkey foreign policy • In 1997, Madeleine Albright became the first woman to serve as secretary of state • She proved more assertive in the use of American power-however, the question still remained about the role of the U.S. • How would the U.S. use its military power for peacekeeping in foreign nations’ internal conflicts Peacekeeping The Battle of Mogadishu, more commonly referred to as Black Hawk Down was part of Operation Gothic Serpent and was fought on 3 and 4 October 1993, in Mogadishu, Somalia, between forces of the United States and Somali militiamen loyal to the selfproclaimed president-to-be Mohamed Farrah Aidid who had support from armed civilian fighters. • The first deaths of U.S. forces in humanitarian missions during Clinton’s administration came in the civil war in Somalia in 1993 • In 1994, President Clinton sent 20,000 troops to Haiti to restore its elected president JeanBertrand Aristide • The U.S. also helped in negotiating an end of British rule and armed conflict in Northern Ireland in 1998 Europe Putin taking presidential oath beside former president Yeltsin, May 2000 • Under President Boris Yeltsin, Russia struggled with attempted economic reforms and rampant corruption • In 2000 his elected successor Vladimir Putin had to deal with 1. Russia’s broken down space program 2. Accidental sinking of a nuclear submarine 3. Economic issues • U.S. and Russian relations were further strained 1. with Russia’s brutal repression of the civil war in Chechnya 2. the admittance in 1999 of the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland to NATO 3. Russia’s support of Serbia in the Balkan wars of the 1990s Europe continued… • Serbian dictator Solobodan Milosevic carried out a series of armed conflicts to suppress independence movements in the former Yugoslav provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo • Hundreds of thousands of members of ethnic and religious minorities were killed in a process that was labeled “ethnic cleansing” • A combination of diplomacy, bombing, and troops from NATO countries stopped the bloodshed in Bosnia in 1995 and Kosovo in 1999 • The Serbian people removed Milosevic from power in a 2000 national election and an international tribunal tried him for the crime of genocide Asia Da Nang, Vietnam (July 28, 2004) – Vietnamese military officials watch as USS Curtis Wilbur (DDG 54) prepares to moor in the Vietnamese port of Da Nang • Nuclear proliferation became a growing concern in the 1990s when North Korea stepped up its nuclear reactor and missile program and India and Pakistan tested nuclear weapons for the first time in 1998 • In 1995, after 20 years from the fall of Saigon to the Communists, the U.S. established diplomatic relations and encouraged reform in China • The Clinton administration signed trade agreements with China hoping to improve diplomatic relations • However, their were still concerns of human rights, labor unions, and the threats to the independent island nation of Taiwan Middle East • Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein’s continued defiance of UN weapons inspectors led to the suspension of all inspections in 1998 • President Clinton responded with a series of air strikes, yet Hussein stayed in power • The U.S. continued to assist the Israeli-Palestinian peace process which resulted in the return of home rule to the Palestinians in the Gaza strip and parts of the West Bank • In addition, a peace treaty between Israel and Jordan in 1994 was signed with King Hussein • The peace process broke down a year later with the assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin in 1995 • Renewed violence in Israel also provoked a new round of antiAmerican sentiment in the Islamic world Globalization • The surging increase in trade, communications, and the movement of capital around the world during this era were key parts of globalization • Globalization promoted the development of global and regional economic organizations • The WTO or World Trade Organization was established in 1994 to oversee trade agreements, enforce trade rules, and settle disputes • The powerful International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank made loans to and supervised the economic policies of poorer nations with debt problems • The European Union (EU) became a unified market of 15 nations, 12 of which adopted a single currency (euro) in 2002 Globalization • continued… G7 finance ministers at the 2008 meeting The Group of Seven (G-7), the world’s largest industrial powers (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States) controlled two-thirds of the world’s wealth • China and India continued to enjoy rapid development • The growing gap between rich and poor nations of the world caused tensionsespecially over the debts poor nations owed to powerful banks and the richest nations • Workers and unions in the richest nations often resented globalization because they lost their jobs to cheaper labor markets in the developing world Timeline • • • • • • - 1974 - Presidential impeachment hearings - U.S. v. Nixon - President Nixon resigns presidency; Gerald Ford becomes thirty-eighth president - Ford pardons Nixon -Oil shortages due to embargo and OPEC 1975- Oil price controls ended - Government of South Vietnam surrenders to the North Vietnamese 1976 - Bicentennial Year - Supreme Court upholds busing in Boston to achieve integration - Jimmy Carter elected thirty-ninth president of the United States 1977 - Carter opens presidency by granting a pardon to draft evaders and proposing a large government spending program to reduce unemployment - Clean Air Bill 1978 - California tax cut (Proposition 13) approved by voters - Bakke v. University of California - Camp David meetings (Israel-Egypt peace talks) and accord 1979 - U.S.-China diplomatic recognition finalized Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty Three-Mile Island nuclear plant accident Iranian students seize U.S. embassy in Teheran and take employees hostage Timeline • • • • • • 1980 - Inflation continues as consumer prices rise 13.3 percent - Attempt to rescue Iranian hostages fails -Ronald Reagan elected fortieth president 1981 - Inflation continues as consumer prices rise 12.4 percent - Reagan supply-side economic plan reduces taxes, cuts welfare benefits, and increases spending for defense - AIDS identified 1982 - Inflation rate slows as unemployment reaches post-World War II record - Equal Rights Amendment to Constitution (ERA) defeated - U.S. troops ordered to Lebanon due to civil war between Israel and PLO - START talks open - Reagan introduces Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI or "Star Wars") 1983 - U.S. troops invade Grenada - Terrorists bomb U.S. Marine barracks in Beirut, Lebanon, killing 237 - Congress passes bill to reform Social Security System - Unemployment rate goes over 10 percent 1984 - Ronald Reagan and George Bush overwhelmingly reelected, defeating Walter Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro (Democrat, NY), first woman vice presidential Candidate for a major party 1985 - Gramm/Rudman Act (balanced budget) - Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of Soviet Union and introduces reforms (glasnost and peristroika); summit meeting in Geneva between Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan - S & L (savings and loan) failures upset economy Timeline • • • • • 1986 - Challenger space shuttle explodes - Chernobyl nuclear power plant accident in Soviet Union - Iran-Contra affair revealed 1987 - Iran-Contra congressional hearings - Stock Market collapses with over 500-point loss on the Dow Jones in one day - INF Treaty signed - Congress approves S & L bailouts program - Clean Water Act passed over Reagan's veto 1988 - George H. W. Bush (Bush 41-Republican) elected forty-first president - Anti-Drug Act passed (fourth act in six years) - Peace accord signed in Nicaragua and Sandinistas are voted out of office 1989 - Fall of Berlin Wall - United States invades Panama to seize accused drug dealer General Noriega 1990 - Second Earth Day celebration heightens environmental concerns - Iraq invades Kuwait-Bush organizes anti-Iraq coalition in United Nations (Operation Desert Shield) - Non-Communist governments established in all of Eastern Europe - Cold War ends - Americans with Disabilities Act 1991 - Kuwait freed and Iraq invaded by UN coalition led by United States (OperationDesert Storm); fighting ends with armistice and Saddam Hussein still in control - Economic downturn continues and country goes into a major recession - Soviet Union breaks up-replaced by Commonwealth of Independent States - Slovenia and Croatia separate from Yugoslavia Timeline • • • • 1991 continued…Clarence Thomas approved as judge of United States Supreme Court in spite of charges of sexual harassment - Cambodian Peace Accords; El Salvador Peace Pact; Afghanistan Peace Agreement; Namibia Accord-all arranged through United Nations with U.S.-Russian cooperation -Last U.S. hostages freed in Lebanon - Rust v. Sullivan Supreme Court decision upholds Roe v. Wade 1992 - UN Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Conference) - Legislative stalemate as President Bush continues to veto Democratic legislation; recession worsens - Rodney King case followed by riots in Los Angeles - Bill Clinton (Democrat) elected forty-second president of the United States with Al Gore as vice president 1993 - NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) approved - Israel-PLO Oslo Peace Accords signed - Whitewater investigation begins - Yugoslavia Civil War spreads to Bosnia - South Africa ends apartheid and adopts a multiracial constitution - Davidian cult attacked by FBI at Waco, Texas - health care reform fails 1994 - GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) approved - Jordan-Israel sign peace treaty - Brady Bill (arms registration) passed - Republicans gain control of Senate and House of Representatives in mid-term election: Republican Contract with America - Federal Reserve raises interest rates five times to curb inflation and slow economic recovery Timeline • • 1995 - Newt Gingrich elected Speaker of the House of Representatives - Oklahoma City Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building bombed; Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols later found guilty - Welfare Reform Bill "ends welfare as we know it" - Dayton Accords signed; commitment of U.S. troops to peacekeeping in Bosnia - Clinton and congressional disagreements over budget lead to government shutdowns in November and December; public supports Clinton stance; budget finally passed in January 1996 - Beginning of Monica Lewinsky-Bill Clinton affair 1996 - Telecommunications Overhaul Bill - Romer v. Evans (gay rights) - Late Term Abortion Bill vetoed - Antiterrorism Bill - Health Insurance Portability Bill - Illegal Immigration Bill - Line Item Veto Bill - Clinton-Gore (Democrat) reelected with 49.2% of the vote over Bob Dole-Jack Kemp (Republican) and Ross Perot (Reform) Timeline • • 1997 - "Politics of self destruction" dominate political life in Washington - Balanced budget by 2002 plan approved - Arab-Israel talks at impasse; civil war in Zaire; Northern Ireland peace talks - Dow Jones drops 554.26 points, largest one day drop, yet ends year up 22.6 percent as U.S. economy continues to boom 1998 - House of Representatives impeaches President Clinton - First budget surplus in 30 years; Clinton calls for surplus to be used for Social Security; Republicans call for tax cuts - Dow Jones drops 20 percent in August but ends year up 16.1 percent - NATO expansion approved; Hungary, Czech Republic, Poland to join - Line Item Veto Act of 1996 declared unconstitutional - Internal Revenue Service Reform Bill - India and Pakistan explode atomic bombs - United States and Britain bomb Iraq; UN arms inspection teams withdraw Timeline • • 1999 - Senate holds impeachment trial; Clinton cleared on all charges - NATO bombs Yugoslavia (Serbia and Kosovo); peace agreement reached; NATO sends in troops - Murphy v. U.P.S. (limits Americans with Disabilities Act) - Senate rejects Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 2000 - Y2K arrives with few computer problems - U.S.-China Trade Agreement - George W. Bush (Bush 43) (Republican) elected forty-third president of the United States with Dick Cheney as vice president, defeating Al Gore and Joseph Lieberman (Democrat) in closest election in U.S. history; Gore wins popular vote-Bush wins Electoral College vote - Bush v. Gore settles disputed Florida presidential vote - Dow Jones drops 6.2 percent as bull market ends