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Cairo: Pilbeam’s Mechanical Ventilation: Physiological and Clinical
Applications: 5th Edition
Chapter 19: Basic Concepts of Noninvasive Positive-Pressure Ventilation
Workbook Answer Key
Key Terms Crossword Puzzle
Chapter Review Questions
1. NIV is the delivery of mechanical ventilation to the lungs using techniques that do not require
an endotracheal airway.
2. The three basic methods of applying noninvasive ventilation are (a) negative pressure
ventilation, (b) abdominal displacement ventilation, (c) positive pressure ventilation.
3. Negative pressure ventilators operate by intermittently applying negative pressure to the
entire body region below the neck or to the upper region of the chest. This negative pressure
is transmitted across the chest wall, into the pleural space, and finally into the alveolar
Copyright © 2012, 2006, 1998, 1992, 1986 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
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space. The result is an increase in transpulmonary pressure, which causes air to enter the
lungs. Exhalation is passive and depends on the elastic recoil of the lungs and chest wall.
4. (a) Iron lung, (b) chest cuirass
5. Avoidance of intubation
6. The avoidance of intubation and invasive ventilation is the primary goal of NIV in the acute
care setting.
7. (any of the following: ) Decreases need for intubation; decreases incidence of nosocomial
pneumonia; decreases length of ICU stay; decreases length of hospital stay; decreases
mortality; preserves airway defenses; improves patient comfort; and decreases need for
sedation.
8. (any of the following:) Alleviates symptoms of chronic hypoventilation; improves duration
and quality of sleep; improves functional capacity; and prolongs survival.
9. NIV in ARF improves gas exchange by resting the respiratory muscles and increasing
alveolar ventilation.
10. Using NIV via face mask for ARF from COPD significantly reduces the need for intubation,
decreases the duration of mechanical ventilation, decreases the length of stay in the ICU,
decreases complications, and reduces the mortality rate.
11. The benefits included improved gas exchange, decreased PaCO2, and rapid improvement in
vital signs within the first 2 hours of NIV treatment. Patients with acute bronchospasm seem
to respond better to delivery of adrenergic agents by NIV than by small-volume nebulizer.
The benefits of NIV include a decrease in intubations and complications and a reduced
mortality rate.
12. Mask CPAP (10 to 12 cm H2O); if the patient remains hypercapnic and dyspneic with
CPAP, a trial of NIV by mask using PSV plus PEEP has proved effective for the treatment
of cardiogenic pulmonary edema.
13. chronic hypoventilation, nocturnal desaturation, respiratory muscle fatigue, and poor sleep
quality.
14. (a) Fatigue, (b) morning headache, (c) daytime hypersomnolence, (d) cognitive dysfunction,
and (e) dyspnea.
15 4 to 6 hours
16. Nocturnal or intermittent daytime NIV shows improvement in daytime gas exchange and
respiratory muscle strength and also alleviates symptoms of hypoventilation in patients with
neuromuscular disorders.
17 Patients with chronic stable COPD may benefit from NIV if they have severe daytime CO2
retention (CO2 ≥52 mm Hg) and nocturnal hypoventilation despite the administration of
nocturnal oxygen therapy.
18. NIV could help support a patient with advanced CF while the patient awaits lung
transplantation.
19. OSA that does not respond to CPAP is an indication for NIV.
20. Decreasing the number of days a patient spends receiving invasive mechanical ventilation
decreases the risk of infection and other complications, lowers the mortality rate, and
reduces health care costs.
21. After extubation, NIV can reduce WOB and maintain adequate gas exchange for patients
who exhibit fatigue.
22. NIV may provide relief from severe dyspnea and preserve patient comfort. It may also
reverse the acute process in disorders such as COPD or pulmonary edema and enable the
patient to live longer.
23. (a) Acute exacerbation of COPD, (b) acute asthma, (c) hypoxemic respiratory failure, (d)
community-acquired pneumonia, (e) cardiogenic pulmonary edema, (f)
immunocompromised patients, (g) postoperative patients, (h) postextubation (weaning), and
(i) do not intubate.
Copyright © 2012, 2006, 1998, 1992, 1986 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
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24. Tachypnea (respiratory rate >24 breaths/min), use of accessory muscles, and paradoxical
breathing.
25. Physiological criteria for NIV include a PaCO2 >45 mm Hg, a pH <7.35, or a PaO2/FIO2
<200.
26. (1) Respiratory arrest or the need for immediate intubation; (2) hemodynamic instability; (3)
inability to protect the airway (impaired cough or swallowing); (4) excessive secretions; (5)
agitation and confusion; (6) facial deformities or conditions that prevent a good mask fit; (7)
uncooperative or unmotivated patient; and (8) brain injury with unstable respiratory drive.
27. The potential reversibility of the disease process is the final consideration for NIV.
28. Excessive fatigue, morning headache, daytime hypersomnolence, cognitive dysfunction ,
and dyspnea.
29. NIV is recommended for these patients when the PaCO2 is ≥45 mm Hg or when sustained
nocturnal desaturation occurs, showing an SpO2 <88% for longer than 5 consecutive
minutes, an MIP <60 cm H2O, and an FVC <50% of predicted.
30. PaCO2 >55 mm Hg; PaCO2 50 to 54 mm Hg with an SpO2 <88% for 5 consecutive minutes;
PaCO2 50 to 54 mm Hg with recurrent hospitalizations for hypercapnic respiratory failure
(more than two hospitalizations within 12 months).
31. polysomnographic evidence of OSA not responsive to CPAP.
32. PTVs have a single-circuit gas delivery system that uses an intentional leak port for patient
exhalation instead of a true exhalation valve.
33. These ventilators are flow and time triggered, pressure limited, and flow and time cycled.
34. IPAP and EPAP
35. IPAP, 2 to 30 cm H2O and EPAP, 2 to 20 cm H2O.
36. CPAP, PSV (assist mode; IPAP/EPAP), spontaneous/timed (S/T)
37. The patient’s delivered tidal volume depends on the gradient between the IPAP level and the
EPAP level, the inspiratory time, patient inspiratory effort, and the patient’s lung
characteristics.
38. The source for nonintentional leaks is around the patient interface (e.g., mask).
39. Flow triggering is made easier by the PTV’s ability to compensate for leaks.
40. (a) Inspiratory and (b) expiratory sensitivity controls.
41. Controls that improve patient comfort include (a) rise time and (b) ramp and delay time
controls. Rise time adjusts the amount of time required to reach the IPAP setting. Ramp
allows positive pressure to increase gradually over a set interval (delay time). The ramp rate
generally can be set in increments of 1, 2, or 3 cm H2O, and the delay time can be set in 5minute increments between 5 and 30 minutes. The ramp and delay time controls are more
likely to be used for NIV in the home or chronic care setting.
42. (a) The oxygen flow rate; (b) the type of leak port in the system; (c) the site where oxygen is
bled into the circuit; and (d) the IPAP and EPAP.
43. Use a oxygen blender.
44. An inadequate continuous flow prevents exhaled gases from being flushed from the system,
causing the patient to rebreathe exhale CO2.
45. It is dependent on the EPAP setting and the patient’s I:E ratio.
46. An EPAP level of 4 cm H2O or higher keeps the continuous gas flow high enough to
prevent CO2 rebreathing.
47. The newer portable ventilators incorporate different modes, alarms, and graphic capabilities
similar to those of acute care ventilators and are designed to be used for either invasive or
noninvasive ventilation. This facilitates a seamless transition from the extended care facility
to the home.
48. Advantages of using an acute care ventilator for NIV are availability of additional
ventilatory support options and alarms, a precise FIO2, and more monitoring features than
are available on portable pressure-targeted ventilators. A disadvantage is the inability of
some machines to compensate for leaks. Leaks at the patient interface interfere with
Copyright © 2012, 2006, 1998, 1992, 1986 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
Workbook Answer Key
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
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64.
65.
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67.
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triggering and cycling function and may result in patient-ventilator asynchrony and
increased WOB.
The patient would be most comfortable in the PC-CMV mode during NIV, because cycling
to exhalation would be a function of time rather than flow. This may provide better
synchronization with the ventilator and less patient respiratory effort.
Heated humidity reduces drying of the nasal mucosa that may lead to nasal congestion and
increased nasal resistance. Mucosal drying also leads to patient discomfort and
noncompliance.
A heated passover-type humidifier should be used. Heated bubble humidifiers and heatmoisture exchangers increase airway resistance in the ventilator circuit and may also
interfere with patient triggering.
The nasal mask is the most widely used interface for administration of CPAP and NIV.
The nasal mask is easier to fit and secure to the patient’s face. Also, it is better tolerated by
patients who are claustrophobic. The nasal mask allows the patient to cough and clear
secretions and to speak and possibly eat; in addition, there is less mechanical dead space,
which reduces the potential for rebreathing of CO2.
air leaks and skin irritations
When large leaks occur through the mouth, the oronasal or full face mask may be used.
Concerns with the use of face masks with NIV include (1) the risk of aspiration of vomit;
(2) asphyxia if the ventilator malfunctions; (3) increased dead space, leading to CO2
retention; (4) inability of the patient to eat, communicate, cough, or expectorate secretions;
and (5) claustrophobia.
Approximately 250 mL
Mouthpieces and lip seals do not allow leaks from the mouth; they also minimize CO2
rebreathing.
The patient should be sitting upright.
Low pressure settings; usually an EPAP of 4 to 5 cm H2O and an IPAP of 8 to 10 cm H2O.
Attach the interface and circuit to the ventilator. Turn on the ventilator and adjust it initially
to low pressure settings. Hold or allow the patient to hold the mask gently to the face until
the patient becomes comfortable with it. Encourage the patient in proper breathing
technique. Monitor oxygen (O2) saturation; adjust the fractional inspired oxygen (FIO2) to
maintain O2 saturation above 90%. Secure the mask to the patient. Do not make the straps
too tight. Titrate the IPAP and EPAP to achieve patient comfort, adequate exhaled tidal
volume, and synchrony with the ventilator. Do not allow peak pressures to exceed 20 cm
H2O. Check for leaks and adjust the straps if necessary. Monitor the respiratory rate, heart
rate, level of dyspnea, O2 saturation, minute ventilation, and exhaled tidal volume. Obtain
blood gas values within 1 hour.
Clinical indicators that demonstrate improved patient comfort include a decrease in the
respiratory rate, a reduction in inspiratory muscle activity, and synchronization with the
ventilator.
When the patient is not comfortable with NIV, corrective measures include refitting or
changing the mask to reduce air leaks, encouraging and coaching the patient in the proper
breathing pattern, or adjusting the ventilator settings.
5 to 7 mL/kg or greater
Volume is manipulated by increasing the difference between the IPAP and EPAP. This is
usually accomplished by increasing the IPAP.
Once patients can tolerate the NPPV/NIV system for 4 to 6 hours per 24 hours, signs and
symptoms are likely to improve.
The pH and PaCO2 continue to worsen or show no improvement and are accompanied by
respiratory distress, declining level of consciousness, hemodynamic instability, or
diminishing oxygenation.
Copyright © 2012, 2006, 1998, 1992, 1986 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.
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68. Type of aerosol generator (SVN or MDI), position of the leak port, synchronization of MDI
actuation with inspiration, IPAP and EPAP levels, and presence or absence of a humidifier
in the circuit.
69. Air leaks in the mask or circuit cause continuous flow in the circuit to increase, which may
increase aerosol loss. The volume of the mask itself increases the potential for a larger
portion of the aerosol dose to deposit on the patient’s face or in the eyes. For this reason, it
is recommended that aerosols not be delivered when a total face mask or helmet is used to
administer NIV.
70. Mask discomfort, air pressures, and gas flows.
71. Eye irritation is usually a result of air leaks from around the mask. The mask should be
refitted or resized and changed.
72. The straps may be too tight because the mask is too large. The mask should be refitted or
resized and changed to a different style (e.g., nasal pillows, nasal seal, nasal gel mask).
Forehead spacers and/or wound care dressing should be applied to alleviate pressure on the
nasal bridge.
73. Nose clips may alleviate this problem.
74. It is a common occurrence that may be diminished with the administration of simethicone
agents.
75. (a) Aspiration pneumonia, (b) mucus plugging, (c) hypoxemia, (d) hypotension, and (e)
respiratory arrest.
76. Increasing periods of time off the NIV or reducing IPAP gradually to a minimum level,
allowing the patient to assume more of the WOB.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. When IPAP and EPAP are equal, or set at the same setting, the ventilator does not deliver a
timed or spontaneously triggered breath. The pressure remains constant in the circuit at the
set pressure, supplying CPAP.
2. Drying of the nasal mucosa can be prevented with use of a heated humidifier; improper
interfaces that allow leakage can be avoided by ensuring that the mask is not too large; and
skin irritation from tight straps may be prevented by minimizing headgear tension as much
as possible and using forehead spacers.
3. Portable PTVs use a leak port for patient exhalation instead of a true exhalation valve. The
leak port allows a continuous flow of gas through it to help maintain pressure levels and
flush exhaled gases from the circuit. If this port and the oxygen bleed-in are located in the
same area, the oxygen bled into the circuit is lost through the leak port. Therefore, to
achieve the highest oxygen concentrations, the leak port and oxygen bleed-in must be as far
apart as possible (e.g., leak port in the circuit and oxygen bled into the patient mask).
Case Studies
Case Study 1
1. Yes, the patient is demonstrating signs of moderate to severe dyspnea, as evidenced by a
respiratory rate >24 (28 breaths/min) and accessory muscle use with a PaCO2 >45 (49 mm
Hg), pH <7.35 (7.31) and PaO2/FIO2 <200 (53 ÷ approximately 0.7 = 76).
2. NIV beginning with IPAP/EPAP 10/5 cm H2O to start via nasal mask if tolerated by patient.
Bleed in oxygen to titrate SpO2 to 90% to 92%. Titrate the IPAP until VT is at least 5 to 7
mL/kg.
3. This patient is demonstrating criteria for the termination of NIV. The patient should be
intubated and placed on invasive mechanical ventilation.
Case Study 2
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1. (1) Acute hypercapnic respiratory failure superimposed on chronic respiratory failure—
indicated by the arterial blood gas results; (2) bronchospasm—evidenced by the wheezing;
(3) hypoxemia—evidenced by the arterial blood gas results and the presence of cyanosis; (4)
retained secretions—evidenced by the productive sputum; and (5) upper respiratory tract
infection—evidenced by the elevated WBC and green, purulent sputum.
2. Aerosolized albuterol 2.5 mg and ipratropium bromide 0.5 mg, air entrainment mask with
24% oxygen (or 28%), repeat arterial blood gas evaluations. (intravenous antibiotics and a
sputum culture and sensitivity)
3. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation.
NBRC-Style Questions
1. A
2. B
3. B
4. C
5. D
6. A
7. D
8. A
9. C
10. C
Copyright © 2012, 2006, 1998, 1992, 1986 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.