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Gender Why study gender differences Because people believe they exist Possible evolutionary significance Male dominance and importance of alternative views Cautions Differences are rarely large or socially important May change over time due to socialization May be different at different ages May exist more in shapes of distribution and at extremes Generally do not justify discrimination The genetics of gender Xs and Ys General rule is that 1 Y makes a male X and Y genes do not generally match up X contains relatively little genetic information But Y contains a great deal Consequences of a single X Any mutations on the X will be expressed Consequently a large number of sex-related diseases which affect largely men Muscular dystrophy Hemophilia Color blindness Why men die young No protection from a second X More mutations in male germ line Violence Testosterone affects immune system Determination of gender The Sry region of the X Turns on other genes Other genes promote development of testes and other male equipment Testes produce testosterone Which affects brain structures And other genes for muscle development and the like Female is default X chromosome has relatively little to do with sex determination Are gender differences genetic Relatively few are in an absolute sense Genes may push males and females in different directions But May be overridden by environmental factor, learning, and culture And interact with environmental pushes and pulls Maccoby suggests that boys and especially girls play differently in mixed gender and same sex groups Single sex colleges Major gender differences Verbal abilities Mathematical abilities Spatial abilities Social skills Language use M use more assertive language Fs more socially enabling language F use language more in competition Verbal abilities No major differences on complex tests such as SAT – and decreasing over time F are better at basic skills Correct pronunciation Ease and speed of articulating complex words Discriminating speech sounds Use fewer speech pauses Related to circulating estrogens F tend to be more bi-lateral in language processing Math skills F better at basic computation M better at word and more complex problems Differences in SAT greater as SAT scores get higher Means are about the same But 19 of 20 scores of 800 are by males M also more highly represented at low end of math ability Spatial tasks M better at judging movement and velocity M better at mental rotation M better at memory for location of objects in visual displays M better at map drawing and on learning routes in unfamiliar territory However no differences for many other tasks Processing of social stimuli From very early age boys focus more on objects and girls on people F better at communicating and decoding nonverbal cues Men tend to be better at reading angry expressions of other men Facial processing related to circulating hormone levels and to brain regions Theory of Mind Girls tend to develop theories earlier and are more sophisticated Implicated in autism and boys much more likely to be affected Social behavior Males more aggressive and competitive Among children Boys more competitive and sex-stereotyped in play Girls more cooperative Boys play in larger groups Occupational interests Males more likely to prefer jobs on basis of prestige and income Males more drawn to jobs working with things and females to those working with people Traditionally boys reported a wider range of possible jobs Difference is now greatly reduced And may be reversing Gender stereotyping Who is stereotyped more Unclear But generally more prescriptions for male behavior Gender discrimination Strong previously Less so now The gender gap in earnings Equivalent jobs Capital investments “Penalties for child rearing” Paying the price of adapting to male norms Theories of gender differences Evolution and genetics Social learning and social cognition Social role Peer group influence Evolution and genetics Gender roles built around reproductive roles Mother nature doesn’t fool around Size differences Violence and prosocial behaviors Differences in cognitive abilities Created by different roles – hunting vs. gathering Problems with evolutionary accounts May claim too much Assumptions about life in evolutionary times Animal data provide conflicting guidance Little attention to mechanism and nature of causality Social learning and social cognition -- Bandura Children learn gender roles Imitation of same sexed parent Reward and operant conditioning The media reinforce cultural roles Problems with social learning/cognition Not clear that children imitate same sexed parents differentially Or that parents treat male and female children differently Almost no evidence that exposure to media has lasting effects Children exhibit sex stereotypic preferences long before they know what gender is Social role theory – Eagly People are placed into social roles by gender These roles encourage certain behaviors Stereotypes then arise linking these behaviors to gender and not to roles Sex linked roles become prescriptive Rewards for performing “correct” behavior Self-selection into “appropriate” roles Learning of appropriate skills and attitudes Implications for change of stereotypes and behaviors Criticisms of social role theory Doesn’t explain all aspects of gender differences Cognitive differences Hard to explain how roles arose in the first place A nod in the direction of evolutionary factors Also how perpetrated if people are unhappy with them Maccoby’s peer theory Boys and girls socialize one another into gender roles Gender segregation early Based initially on play activities boys are more likely to have rough and tumble play Probably genetic And types of toys Little evidence of parental or teacher involvement in gender roles Children's groups Types of groups Boys have larger groups organized around games Girls have smaller groups organized around intimacy and sharing Command structures Boys more bossy and imperious Girls more likely to try to warm relationships Gender segregation By early pre-school active hostility Boys don’t want to play with girls Girls would like to play with boys but are put off Other gender is alien “cooties” Enormous pressure to conform to sex role of own sex Play too active Influence tactics alien Is gender a social construction Popular theory Clearly wrong at one level The Blank Slate Margaret Mead Radical feminism Money’s twins –John-Joan-David Other cases But clearly culture builds on biology Go with the flow What is valuable Reinforces gender lessons Homosexuality Who is Homosexual – Numbers No clear definition Many figures bandied about Commonly asserted that 10% of men are gay Kinsey data and biased Some claim less than 1% No real basis Who is Homosexual – definition Exclusive homosexual behavior? What about bisexuals? And people who are homosexual only under certain circumstances? One or more homosexual experiences? Homosexual arousal and feelings? National survey on sex Attraction to other men – 6% Sex with a man in the past year – 2% Sex with another man since age 18 – 5% Sex with another man since puberty – 9% Identify self as homosexual – 3% Measures do not provide a perfect scale Conservative definition – define self, have at least one homosexual encounter, and attracted to other men – 2.5% Characteristics of gay men More feminine in interests, especially occupation Most feminine from a very early age More artistic and interested in arts But hypermasculine gay men as ideal More depressed and anxious even in countries with no strong prejudice More casual sex Before AIDS gay men report 500-1000 sexual partners For heterosexuals less than 10 Causes of homosexuality Almost certainly biological Not a choice Not easily “cured” with psychotherapy Most gay men report knowing from an early age that they were gay Experiences Not related to any except father rejection Reverse causality Not more common in sons raised by gay fathers or lesbians Not more common in father absent homes Not related to gay seduction at an early age The myth of gay seduction Do gay men seduce boys Obviously a few do just as some heterosexual men seduce girls Not common Catholic priests? Genetic? Concordance rates Gay gene? for MZ twins is over 50% For DZ twins about 25% One investigator found one on X chromosome Not replicated Increased rates of homosexuality among male relatives of mother Biological? INAH-3 medial preoptic area of hypothalamus Much larger in males than in females Also larger in heterosexual than in homosexual men Has a great number of androgen sensitive neurons And also from amygdala areas concerned with aggression and assertive behavior Stimulation from optic and perhaps smell centers of brain Fetal development 2D:4D ratio Similar in females, smaller in males More similar in females Probably caused by androgens during development Males with many older brothers more likely Testosterone reaction in mother? Gay rights and homophobia Causes ought not affect attitudes Religious attitudes? Gay marriage