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Chapter 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Page 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Reproduction
Growth
Sensitivity
Nutrition
Gas exchange
Movement
Excretion
Page 2
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
A
B
C
D
E
F
Biosphere
Population
Organism
Organ
Tissue
Cell
Page 3
THE CELL
A
B
A prokaryotic cell
A eukaryotic cell
chr
nu
Chromosome
Nucleus
C
D
A general animal cell
A general plant cell
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Plasma membrane
Granular cytoplasm (contains organelles such as mitochondria)
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin (DNA)
Cell wall
Chloroplast
Vacuole
E
F
G
H
A single celled animal (protozoan)
A multicellular animal
A single celled algae
A multicellular plant
Chapter 2. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
§1
Nutrition
Page 4
THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
A
Water content
1
2
3
4
A jelly fish
An egg
A human being
A bone
B
Chemical composition of foods
1
2
gluc
lip
prot
nucl
3
4
5
Water
Organic molecules
Carbohydrates (C, H, O)
Lipids (C, H, O)
Proteins (C, H, O, N, S)
Nucleic acids (C, H, O, N, P)
Vitamins
Main mineral elements
Trace elements
Page 5
CARBOHYDRATES
glu
mono-S
di-S
poly-S
amylum
cellulose
Glucose
Monosaccharide
Disaccharide
Polysaccharide
Starch
Cellulose
Page 6
LIPIDS AND PROTEINS
A
Lipids
gl
ac
trg
Glycerol
Fatty acids
Triglyceride
B
Proteins
aa
dp
pp
prot
Amino acid
Dipeptide
Polypeptide
Protein
Page 7
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
A
Mouth and pharynx during swallowing
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Tongue
Teeth
Salivary glands
Trachea closed by the epiglottis
Nasal cavity closed by the soft palate
Soft palate
Epiglottis
Oesophagus
B
Dentition
I
II
Childhood dentition (milk teeth)
Adult dentition
m
a
I1, I2
C
M1, M2, M3
PM1, PM2
Mouth
Year
First and second incisors
Canines
Molars (1, 2 and 3)
Premolars (1 and 2)
C
Digestive system
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Oesophagus
Stomach
Duodenum
Liver
Gall bladder
Pancreas
Small intestine
Appendix
Large intestine
Rectum
Anus
D
Peristalsis
Page 8
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
A
Enzyme action
E
S
ES
P1
P2
1
am
I2
2
sal
amglu+
Feh/Ben
Enzyme
Substrate
Enzyme-substrate complex
Breakdown product 1
Breakdown product 2
Staining starch with iodine
Starch
Iodine solution (Lugol)
Digestion of starch by saliva
Saliva
Staining with iodine shows the absence of starch
Presence of glucose, from the digestion of starch by saliva
Fehling’s or Benedict’s solution, tests for glucose
B
Structure of the small intestine and absorption
1
a
b
c
2
d
3
e
f
Cross section of the small intestine
Muscle layer
Folds in wall of intestine
Lumen
Details of folds
Villi
Structure of a villus
Blood rich in O2 but poor in nutrients
Arteriole
g
h
i
j
gluc
ac
aa
Capillaries
Venule
Blood rich in CO2 and rich in nutrients
lacteal (lymph vessel)
Diffusion of sugars, products of digestion
Diffusion of fatty acids, products of digestion
Diffusion of amino acids, products of digestion
Page 9
ALCOHOL
‰EtOH
Alcoholism.
1‰=1 gram of alcohol per litre of blood
Short term effects:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.3‰ – slight intoxication (feeling of warmth, skin flushed, feeling of
well-being, decreased inhibition)
0.5‰ – mild intoxication (impaired judgement, slower reaction time,
impaired coordination)
0.8‰ – slightly drunk (loss of memory, probability of car accident
multiplied by 4)
1.0‰ – drunk (very slow reactions, loss of control, loss of attention:
probability of car accident multiplied by 7)
2.0 – extremely drunk (reduced response to stimuli, vomiting, sleepiness,
inability to walk or speak properly)
3.0‰ – loss of consciousness
4.0‰ – ethylic coma, impaired respiration, fall in blood pressure
5.0‰ – death likely
Long term effects:
a
b
c
d
e
f
Brain damage
Damage to oesophageal veins
Stomach ulcer
Cirrhosis of the liver
Pancreatitis
Cardiovascular diseases
Dependence:
Physical and mental
§2
Respiration
Page 10
BASICS OF RESPIRATION
A
Cellular respiration
Eu
Useable energy
B
Surface area / volume ratio for a cube
L
S
V
Sc
Vc
Length
Surface area
Volume
Surface area of a cube
Volume of a cube
C
Surface / volume ration for a sphere
r
Ss
Vs
Radius
Surface area of a sphere
Volume of a sphere
D
The effect of increasing surface area
1
2
3
p
t
b
Small organism (no need to increase surface area)
Increase of surface area inside the body
Increase of surface area outside the body
Lungs
Trachea
Gills
Page 11
HUMAN BREATHING SYSTEM
A
General
1
2
3
4
5
Trachea
Rings of cartilage
Bronchus
Bronchiole
Alveoli
6
7
8
9
10
Ribs
External pleural membrane
Pleural fluid
Internal pleural membrane
Diaphragm
B
Mouth and pharynx during breathing
11
12
13
14
15
Oesophagus closed
Trachea open (epiglottis folded back)
Epiglottis
Soft palate folded down
Nasal cavity
C
Gas exchange in the alveoli
16
17
18
Hb
Arteriole
Venule
Capillary
Haemoglobin
D
Details showing the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide in an alveolus
Page 12
EXPERIMENTS ON HUMAN RESPIRATION
A
Expired air contains carbon dioxide
1
2
Inspired air passed through lime water
Expired air passed through lime water, precipitation of calcium carbonate
B
The spirometer
in max
in norm
ex norm
ex max
res
Vnorm
Vvit
Vtot
Maximum inspiration
Normal inspiration
Normal expiration
Maximum expiration
Residual volume
Tidal volume at rest
Vital capacity
Total volume of the lungs
Page 13
THE MECHANICS OF BREATHING
A
The rib cage
B
The action of the ribs
C
Breathing
1
2
3
4
5
6
ex
in
Rib
Sternum
Vertebral column
Intercostal muscles
Lung
Diaphragm
Exhalation
Inhalation
Page 14
SMOKING
A
Tobacco comes from the plant Nicotiana tabacum
CO
CH3CHO
t
ni
etc.
Carbon monoxide
Acetaldehyde
Tar
Nicotine
Nitrogen oxides, hydrocyanic acid, ammonia, cadmium, mercury, lead,
chrome and about 4000 other toxic substances
B
Long term effects:
a
b
c
d
e
Irritation of the throat, pharyngitis, cough
Heart attacks and other heart problems
Lung cancer
Miscarriages, under weight babies
Vasoconstrictions leading to gangrene in the limbs necessitating amputation
Dependence:
Physical
C
Cannabis comes from Indian hemp (Cannabis sativa)
1
2
3
Marijuana, grass, kif (dried leaves or flowers)
Hashish, shit (resin)
A ‘joint’ contains tobacco and THC
D
Long term effects
THC
CO
CH3CHO
t
ni
etc.
Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
Carbon monoxide
Acetaldehyde
Tar
Nicotine
Nitrogen oxides, hydrocyanic acid, ammonia, cadmium, mercury, lead,
chrome and about 4000 other toxic substances
a
b
c
d
Sinusitis
Brain function impaired (memory loss, decreased concentration and
motivation, failure in school)
Irritation of the throat, pharyngitis, cough
Constriction of the bronchioles, lung cancer
Dependence:
Mental for cannabis, physical for the tobacco associated with the cannabis
§3
TRANSPORT
Page 15
THE HEART
A
Diagrammatic section of the heart
a
b
c
1
2
3
4
5
5a
5b
6
6a
6b
7
7a
7b
8
9
External anatomy
Cross section
Diagrammatic representation of heart
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Venae cavae
Inferior vena cava
Superior vena cava
Pulmonary artery
Right pulmonary artery
Left pulmonary artery
Pulmonary vein
Right pulmonary vein
Left pulmonary vein
Aorta
Atrio-ventricular heart valves
10
11
Semi lunar valves
Chordae tendinae
B
Contractions of the heart and electrocardiogram
dia
sys
a
v
ps
Diastole (heart at rest)
Systole (heart contracts)
Atrium
Ventricle
Pulse
Page 16
BLOOD VESSELS
A
Arteries and veins
AR(t)
AR(l)
VE(t)
VE(l)
v
a
b
c
f1
f2
m1
m2
Cross section of an artery
Longitudinal section of an artery
Cross section of a vein
Longitudinal section of a vein
Valves
Outer elastic layer
Muscle layer
Lumen of blood vessel
Blood flows forward (valves open)
Blood cannot flow backwards (valves close)
Muscle relaxes
Muscle contracts (pushing blood)
B
Capillaries
AR
CAP
VE
Arteriole
Capillaries
Venule
Page 17
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1
2
3
4
5
5a
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Venae cavae
Inferior vena cava
5b
6
6a
6b
7
7a
7b
8
9
9a
9b
10
10a
10b
11
11a
11b
12
12a
12b
13
13a
13b
Superior vena cava
Right lung
Right pulmonary artery
Right pulmonary vein
Left lung
Left pulmonary artery
Left pulmonary vein
Aorta
Head
Carotid artery
Jugular vein
Liver
Hepatic artery
Hepatic vein
Intestines
Intestinal artery
Hepatic portal vein
Kidneys
Renal artery
Renal vein
Legs
Femoral artery
Femoral vein
Page 18
THE BLOOD
A
Composition of the blood
Ery
Plt
Leu
Lym
Phag
prot
min
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
Platelets (thrombocytes)
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Lymphocytes
Phagocytes
Proteins
Mineral salts
B
Diffusion of O2 into and out of the capillaries
p
t
Hb
HbO2
Lungs
Tissues
Haemoglobin
Oxyhaemoglobin
Page 19
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND DEFENCE AGAINST
INFECTION
A
Lymphatic system
1
ar
ve
cap
f
c
lym
2
pl
glu
ur
The interrelationship between the blood system, body fluids and the
lymphatic system
Artery
Vein
Capillaries
Tissue fluid
Tissue cells
Lymph vessel
Exchange of chemicals between blood plasma and tissue fluids
Plasma
Glucose
Urea
B
Blood clotting and defence
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Epidermis
Dermis
Capillary
Wound
Blood plasma
Network of fibrin
Bacteria
Phagocyte leaving a capillary
Phagocyte "eating" bacteria
Lymphocyte (producer of antibodies)
Agglutination of bacteria due to action of antibodies
Page 19
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES
A
Arteriosclerosis
1
2
Healthy artery
The inside of an artery becomes damaged and cholesterol deposits form due
to smoking, too much fatty food or hypertension
Blood platelets and white blood cells fix to the artery wall
Deposits can grow and obstruct an artery or can break off and block a blood
vessel elsewhere
Clot
3
4
thr
B
Stroke or heart attack
The blood clot can block capillaries stopping blood flow
cap
1
2
Capillary
A stroke: the clot blocks one or more blood vessels to the brain depriving the
brain of oxygen. Damage to the motor regions of the brain causes paralysis
A heart attack: the clot blocks one or more coronary depriving the heart
muscle of oxygen.
§4
Excretion
Page 21
EXCRETORY ORGANS
1
1a
1b
2
2a
2b
3
3a
3b
4
4a
4b
Lungs
Inhalation (air poor in carbon dioxide)
Exhalation (air rich in carbon dioxide)
Liver
Arrival of blood with red blood cells, food substances, impurities and toxins
Waste removed in bile
Kidneys
Arrival of blood
Excretion of urine (water + salts + urea)
Skin
Arrival of blood and lymph
Sweat (water + salts + urea)
Page 23
KIDNEYS
A
Structure
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Kidney
Cortex
Medulla
Pyramid
Nephron
Pelvis
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
B
Details of a nephron
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Arterial blood
Glomerulus
Bowman's capsule
Convoluted tubules
Loop of Henle
Venous blood
Urine
Collecting duct
Page 24
THE LIVER
A
Structure of the liver
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Liver
Small intestine
Hepatic portal vein
Hepatic artery
Hepatic vein
Gall bladder
Bile duct
Duodenum
Pancreatic duct
B
Carbohydrate metabolism
1
2
3
4
5
glu
gly
lip
lac
Small intestine
Liver
Blood circulation
Cells
Muscles
Glucose
Glycogen
Lipids
Lactic acid
C
Protein metabolism
1
2
3
4
6
aa
Small intestine
Liver
Blood circulation
Cells
Kidneys
Amino acids
prot
gly
ur
fibr
pl.pr.
uri
Proteins
Glycogen
Urea
Fibrinogen
Plasma proteins
Urine
Page 24
THE SKIN
A
Structure of the skin
1
2
3
4
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
Epidermis
Malpighian layer
Dermis
Adipose tissue
Blood capillaries
Sweat gland (excretion)
Pore
Fat
Sebaceous gland
Erector muscle of hair
Hair
Pain receptor
Heat receptor
Cold receptor
Pressure receptor
Hair movement receptor
Nerve
B
Details of the epidermis
1
2
3
n
o
Epidermis
Malpighian layer
Dermis
Pigment cell (melanocyte)
Cornified layer (keratin)
C
Skin and temperature regulation
I
II
Hot: dilatation of blood vessels (vasodilatation), hairs flat against skin
Cold: constriction of blood vessels (vasoconstriction), hairs raised
Chapter 3. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
Page 25
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A
The principle of photosynthesis
Es
glu
poly-S
lip
prot
chl
Solar energy
Glucose
Polysaccharides
Lipids
Proteins
Chlorophyll
B
Structure of a leaf
1
2
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Leaf
Cross section of a leaf
Cuticle
Upper epidermis
Palisade mesophyll (parenchyma cell)
Spongy mesophyll (parenchyma cell)
Guard cell
Stoma
Lower epidermis
3
h
i
Structure of a chloroplast
Starch grain
Granum with chlorophyll
4
j
k
Stomata surrounded by epidermal cells
Stoma closed (guard cells flaccid)
Stoma open (guard cells turgid)
Page 26
EXPERIMENTS ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A
Role of chlorophyll
1
2
a
b
c
d
A variegated leaf illuminated
Test for starch
Kill the leaf in boiling water
Remove the chlorophyll in the leaf by boiling in ethanol (EtOH)
Rinse
Stain for starch with a solution of Lugol’s iodine (I2KI)
B
Role of light
1
2
a
b
c
d
Cover part of a leaf with a light proof card
Test for starch
Kill the leaf in boiling water
Remove the chlorophyll in the leaf by boiling in ethanol (EtOH)
Rinse
Stain for starch with a solution of Lugol’s iodine (I2KI)
C
Role of carbon dioxide
1
2
a
b
c
d
Place a leaf (lower epidermis, containing stomata, facing down) over a test
tube containing KOH. The KOH absorbs the CO2
Test for starch
Kill the leaf in boiling water
Remove the chlorophyll in the leaf by boiling in ethanol (EtOH)
Rinse
Stain for starch with a solution of Lugol’s iodine (I2KI)
D
Production of oxygen
1
2
a
b
Illuminate a sprig of Elodea: collect the gas produced in a test tube
Test for oxygen
A glowing splint...
...is rekindled in the presence of oxygen
Page 27
RESPIRATION AND FERMENTATION
A
Production of CO2 and heat by germinating seeds
a
b
1
2
T
P
Germinating seeds
Wet cotton wool
Air drawn through limewater contains no CO2
Air from the seeds bubbled through limewater shows the presence of CO2
Thermometer shows temperature increase
Suction pump
B
Germinating seeds use up O2
1
2
KOH
Germinating seeds use up a gas (it is oxygen)
Killed seeds do not use up any gas
Potassium hydroxide to absorb any CO2 produced
C
Fermentation (production of CO2 in anaerobic conditions)
o
lev
glu
Layer of oil to block out oxygen
Yeast
Glucose
Page 28
TRANSPORT
A
Transport system in plants
xyl
phl
Xylem
Phloem
1
Leaf
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Midrib
Blade
Cuticle
Parenchyma
Lower epidermis
Stoma
Petiole
Vein
Vascular bundle
2
Stem
j
k
l
Parenchyma
Epidermis
Vascular bundle
3
Root
m
n
o
p
Parenchyma
Epidermis
Root hair
Root cap
B
Details of a vascular bundle
1
The whole vascular bundle
2
Xylem (wood)
a
b
c
Vessel with annular thickening
Vessel with spiral thickening
Vessel with reticulate thickening
3
Cambium
4
Phloem
d
Sieve plate
C
Absorption of water by the root hairs
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Xylem vessel with spiral thickening
Xylem vessel with annular thickening
Endodermis
Casparian strip
Epidermis
Water
Air bubble
Soil particle
Root hair
Chapter 4. ECOLOGY
Page 29
EXAMPLE OF AN ECOSYSTEM (coral reef)
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
Green algae(producers)
Red algae(producers)
Phytoplankton (plant plankton: producers)
Zooplankton (animal plankton: consumers)
Coral polyps (consumers - plankton filterers)
Sponge (consumer - plankton filterer)
Gorgonian or sea-fan(consumer - plankton filterer)
Sea anemone (consumer - plankton filterer)
Sea urchins (consumers - herbivorous grazers)
Sea star (consumer - herbivorous grazer or carnivorous predator)
Sea slug (consumer - herbivorous or carnivorous grazer)
Sea snail (consumer – herbivorous grazer or carnivorous predator)
Crab (carnivorous consumer)
Butterfly fish (carnivorous consumer)
Grouper (carnivorous consumer)
Shark (carnivorous consumer)
Holothurian or sea cucumber (detritivore)
Page 30
ECOLOGICAL FACTORS
A
Abiotic factors
L
T
S
N
R1
R2
Submarine daylight (decreases with depth)
Temperature (decreases with altitude)
Exposition (south facing slope)
Exposition (north facing slope)
Sedimentary rock
Volcanic rock
1-4
Examples of biotopes
1
2
3
4
Sea
Desert
Lake
Swamp
B
Biotic factors
a
b
c
d
e
T1
T2
T3
Ci
Cii
Ciii
S
Producer (salad)
Herbivore, consumer(caterpillar)
Herbivore, consumer(rabbit)
Carnivore, consumer :predator (fox)
Carnivore, consumer :parasite (tick)
Plant-herbivore trophic relationship
Herbivore-carnivore trophic relationship
Carnivore-carnivore trophic relationship (here: parasitism)
Spatial competition
Intraspecific trophic competition
Interspecific trophic competition
Other interspecific relationships (here: hiding place)
Page 31
TROPHIC RELATIONSHIPS
P
R
D
Es
E
gluc
lip
prot
nucl
Photosynthesis (autotrophs)
Respiration (all aerobic organisms)
Decomposition (bacteria, fungi)
Solar energy
Energy
Sugars
Lipids (fats)
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Page 32
FOOD CHAINS AND PYRAMIDS
A
Food chain
B
Food pyramid
P
C1
C2-1
Primary producer of organic matter (here: algae)
Primary consumer, herbivore (here: sea slug)
Secondary consumer, first order, a carnivore feeding on herbivores (here:
butterfly fish)
Secondary consumer, second order, a carnivore feeding on carnivores (here:
grouper)
Secondary consumer, third order, a carnivore feeding oncarnivores (here:
shark)
Efficiency. (biomass of the animal divided by the mass of eaten food - on
average 10%)
C2-2
C2-3
R
Page 33
FOOD WEB
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
Green algae (producers)
Red algae (producers)
Phytoplankton (‘plant’: producers)
Copepod crustaceans - zooplankton (‘animal’: consumers)
Coral polyps (consumers: plankton filter feeders)
Sponges (consumers: plankton filter feeders)
Gorgons (consumers: plankton filter feeders)
Sea anemones (consumers: plankton filter feeders)
Sea urchins (consumers: herbivorous grazers)
Starfish (consumers: herbivorous grazers or predatory carnivores)
Sea slugs (consumers: herbivorous grazers or carnivores)
Sea snails (consumers: herbivorous grazers or predatory carnivores)
Crabs (consumers - carnivores)
Butterfly fish (consumers - carnivores)
Groupers (consumers - carnivores)
Shark (consumers - carnivores)
Holothurians or sea cucumbers (detrivores)
Jellyfish - zooplankton (‘animal’: consumers)
Page 34
CARBON CYCLE
P
Photosynthesis
R
D
E
F
C
Pe
Respiration
Decomposition (mineralisation)
Excretion
Fossilisation
Coal
Oil
Page 35
AIR USE
A
Air is needed for human breathing
The oxygen – carbon dioxide cycle
B
Burning of wood and fossil fuels
Use of oxygen
C
Clean use of air: wind energy
Windmills and sailing boats
Page 36
AIR POLLUTION
A
Burning of fossil fuels
B
Gases from the burning of fossil fuels
CO
CO2
CxHy
SO2
NOx
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Unburned hydrocarbons
Sulphur dioxide
Nitrogen oxides
C
Greenhouse effect
t (°C)
Global warming
D
Ozone pollution
O2
O3
Atmospheric oxygen
Ozone formation
E
Acid rain
H2SO4
HNO3
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Page 37
SOIL AND AGRICULTURE
A
Natural ecosystem
All elements recycled
B
Agriculture
1
2
3
Continuous soil use leads to depletion of minerals
Fertilisers needed to replace minerals
Need for the use of pesticides, herbicides, fungicides…
Page 38
OTHER HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND THE SOIL
A
Building materials
B
Soil erosion due to deforestation
C
Mining
D
Pollution
E
Underground storage of toxic and radioactive waste
Page 39
WATER USE
A
Domestic use
B
Drinking water
C
Agriculture
D
Hydroelectric power
E
Transportation
F
Industry (Cooling and/or raw material
Page 40
WATER POLLUTION
A
Domestic and industrial run off
B
Domestic sewage
C
Agricultural pollution from fertilisers, pesticides…
D
Industrial pollution
E
Surface and ground water carry pollution to the sea
F
Marine pollution
G
Oil spills
H
Dumping of radioactive and toxic waste in the ocean
Page 41
RECYCLING
A
Recycling of plastics
B
Reuse of objects
C
Recycling of paper
D
Recycling of batteries
E
Recycling of out-of-date prescription drugs
F
Recycling of electrical goods
G
Recycling of glass
H
Recycling of metals
Chapter 5. NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEMS
Page 42
THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
1
Brain
2
3
4
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Spinal cord
Central nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
Cranium
Cerebral hemispheres
Cerebellum
Pituitary gland
Medulla oblongata
Vertebral column
Spinal cord
Page 43
NEURONES AND NERVES
A
Neurones
1
2
3
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
Motor neurone
Sensory neurone
Intermediate neurone
Dendrite
Nucleus
Cell body
Axon
Myelin sheath
Node of Ranvier
Schwann cell
Terminal branches
Synaptic knobs
Sensory receptor
B
Terminal dendrites of a neurone connecting to:
1
2
3
Another neurone
A muscle
A gland
C
Nerves
1
2
a
b
c
d
e
A nerve made up of neurones
Cross section of a nerve
Axon
Myelin sheath
Connective tissue around a bundle of axons
Blood vessel
External sheath of connective tissue
Page 44
SPINAL CORD AND REFLEXES
A
Vertebral column and spinal cord
a
b
c
1
2
3
4
Vertebra - end view
Vertebra - side view
The spinal cord passing through the vertebrae
Neural spine
Transverse process
Spinal canal
Centrum
B
Spinal cord and spinal nerves
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Dorsal root (sensory neurones)
Ventral root (motor neurones)
Dorsal root ganglion
Central canal
Grey matter
White matter
Mixed nerve
C
Reflex arc
12
13
14
15
16
17
Sensory receptor
Sensory neurone
Intermediate neurone
Motor neurone
Effector (muscle or gland)
Axons of neurones to and from the brain
Page 45
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
exo
endo
hyp
thyr
thym
pan
adr
ov
tes
Exocrine gland
Endocrine gland (hormone secretion)
Pituitary gland
Thyroid
Thymus
Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
Adrenal glands
Ovaries (women)
Testes (men)
Chapter 6. REPRODUCTION
Page 46
MITOSIS
A
Cell cycle
INTER
G0
G1
S
G2
M
PRO
MET
ANA
TELO
Interphase
Differentiation
Stage G1 of interphase (growth)
Stage S of interphase (DNA replication)
Stage G2 of interphase (preparation for mitosis)
Mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
B
Mitosis of an animal cell
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
2n
Interphase: 1 mother cell
Early prophase
Middle prophase
Metaphase
Early anaphase
Late anaphase
Early telophase
Late telophase
Interphase: 2 identical daughter cells, also identical to the mother cell
Diploid number of chromosomes
Page 47
FUNCTIONS OF MITOSIS
A
The principle: cell multiplication without a change of the diploid
chromosome number
B
Embryonic development and growth
C
Asexual reproduction (here: budding in hydra)
D
Healing of wounds
Page 48
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
A
Anatomy of a chromosome
1
chrt
cm
2
DNA
ge
ns
his
AT, GC
3
A-M
4
a
b
c
Chromosome
Chromatid
Centromere
Each chromatid contains a molecule of DNA
Deoxiribonucleic acid
Gene
Nucleosome
Histone
Base pairs (genetic code)
Each chromosome has several genes
Different genes
Different types of chromosomes
Centromere in the middle
One arm longer than the other
Centromere at one end
Page 49
DNA
A
The DNA molecule
A-nuc
T-nuc
G-nuc
C-nuc
S
P
A
T
G
C
Nucleotide containing Adenine
Nucleotide containing Thymine
Nucleotide containing Guanine
Nucleotide containing Cytosine
Sugar (deoxyribose)
Phosphate
Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine
B
Replication of a chromosome during mitosis
chrs
chrt
INTER
PRO
META
ANA
TELO
INTER (G1/G0)
INTER (S)
Chromosome
Chromatid
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Interphase (G1/G0 phase)
Interphase (S phase)
C
Semi-conservative replication of DNA
DNA
DeoxyriboNucleic Acid
Page 50
THE PRINCIPLE OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
ORG
SOM
MEI
GAM
OV
SP
FEC
ZYG
MIT
dip
hap
Organism (female and male parents)
Somatic cell
Meiosis
Gametes (reproductive cells)
Ovum
Spermatozoon
Fertilisation
Zygote
Mitoses (here: growth)
Diploid chromosome number(2n)
Haploid chromosome number(n)
Page 51
MEIOSIS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Interphase I
Early prophase I
Late prophase I
Metaphase I
Early anaphase I
Late anaphase I
Early telophase I
Late telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Final interphase
Page 52
HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
A
Side view
B
Front view
C
Vulva
1
2
3
Fallopian tube (oviduct)
Pubis
Bladder
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Uterus
Urethra
Clitoris
Labia minora
Labia majora
Funnel of fallopian tube
Ovary
Myometrium
Endometrium
Uterine wall
Cervix
Rectum
Vagina
Anus
Opening of urethra
Hymen
Page 53
HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
A
Side view
B
Front view
C
Penis (transverse section)
D
Circumcision
1
2
3
4
5
6
6a
6b
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Vas deferens (sperm duct)
Bladder
Seminal vesicle
Pelvis
Prostate gland
Erectile tissues of penis
Corpus cavernosum
Corpus spongiosum
Urethra
Glans penis
Foreskin (prepuce)
Penis
Epididymis
Testis
Scrotum
Rectum
Cowper’s gland
Anus
Page 54
GAMETES: OÖGENESIS AND SPERMATOGENESIS
I
II
A
B
C
D
22AA
XX
XY
2n
n
†
Oögenesis
Spermatogenesis
Cell multiplication (mitoses)
Cell growth
Meiosis
Maturation
22 pairs of autosomes
Sex chromosomes (female karyotype)
Sex chromosomes (male karyotype)
Diploid chromosome number (46 in Man)
Haploid chromosome number (23in Man)
Polar bodies
Page 55
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
A
Cycles of pituitary, ovary and uterus
B
Hormone cycles
I
II
HTH
HYP
FSH
LH
OVA
UT
ov
fol
ovu
cl
end
men
oes
pro
gr
em
a
b
c
Without fertilisation
With fertilisation
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Follicle stimulating hormone
Luteinising hormone
Ovary
Uterus
Ovum
Follicle
Ovulation
Corpus luteum
Endometrium
Menstruation
Oestrogen
Progesterone
Pregnancy
Embryo
Hormonal secretion
Stimulation
Inhibition
Page 56
MALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE
A
Cross section of part of a testis
B
Cross section of a seminiferous tubule
C
Hormone cycle in the male
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
HYP
TES
FSH
LH
Sertoli
Leydig
ABP
test
sp.gen.
sex2
a
b
c
Wall of testicular lobule
Seminiferous tubule
Interstitial cell (Leydig cells)
Wall of seminiferous tubule
Sertoli cell
Spermatogonium
Spermatocyte
Spermatocytes grow and enter meiosis
Spermatid
Spermatozoon
Pituitary gland
Testis
Follicle stimulating hormone
Luteinising hormone
Sertoli cells feed developing sperm
Interstitial cells that secrete testosterone
Androgen binding protein
Testosterone
Spermatogenesis
Secondary sexual characteristics
Hormone secretion
Stimulation
Inhibition
Page 57
DEVELOPMENT AT PUBERTY
I
II
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Primary sexual characters (childhood)
Secondary sexual characters (adulthood)
Development of genitals
Development of pubic hair and hair under armpits
Development of breasts(mammary glands)
Hair growth in the male (arms, legs, breast, beard)
Male voice breaks, females keep high-pitched voice
Development of hips and subcutaneous adipose tissue in the female
Typical male development of skeleton and muscles
Libido (sexual appetite)
Page 58
COITUS (SEXUAL INTERCOURSE)
A
Erection
B
Bartholin glands lubricate vagina
C
Coitus
D
Ejaculation
e
s
o
Semen
Path taken by spermatozoa
Ovary
E
Meeting of gametes
Page 59
FERTILISATION
A
Spermatozoon
I
II
III
ac
nu
mit
Head
Middle piece
Tail (flagellum)
Acrosome
Nucleus
Mitochondria
B
Encounter of gametes
1
2
3
The spermatozoids reach the oöcyte which is in metaphase II
Entrance of sperm nucleus: formation of zygote - formation of an
impermeable layer around the ovum (fertilisation membrane)
Fusion of male and female nuclei, beginning of the first mitosis
C
Fertilisation and implantation
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Ovary
Follicle
Ovulation
Meiosis
Fallopian tube(oviduct)
Fertilisation
2-cell stage
4-cell stage
Morula
10
11
12
Endometrium
Blastocyst
Implantation
Page 60
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
A
Prenatal structures of the young foetus
B
Fully grown foetus
1
2
3
4
5
6
Endometrium
Amniotic sac
Amniotic fluid
Foetus
Umbilical cord
Placenta
C
L
T
M
pe
em
foe
Growth of embryo and foetus
Length
Time
Month
Pre-embryo
Embryo
Foetus
Page 61
BIRTH CONTROL
A
The condom
1
2
3
4
5
Hermetically packaged condom
Condom taken from its package
Condom is rolled over stiff penis
Condom in place
Condom retains sperm
B
The pill
oes
pro
HYP
OVA
UT
fol
end
Oestrogen
Progesterone
Pituitary
Ovary
Uterus
Follicle
Endometrium
+
-
Stimulation
Inhibition
C
The IUCD (Intra Uterine Contraceptive Device)
1, 2
3
Cu
ny
Two different types of IUCD
IUCD in place
Copper
Nylon
Page 62
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
A
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) : retrovirus, causing AIDS, infecting
lymphocytes, gradually destroying the immune system. Incubation time:
seropositivity detectable after 2 months, leading to AIDS several years after
infection.
B
Chlamydia trachomatis : intracellular bacterium, causing Chlamydia
infection. Incubation time: 7 days.
C
Neisseria gonorrhoeae : gonococcus, causing gonorrhea.
Incubation time: 4 days.
D
Treponema pallidum : spirochete, causing syphilis.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
I
14
II
15
16
17
III
Mouth infections (fungi, bacteria)
Diverse infections(respiratory tract, fatal pneumonia)
Skin diseases (Kaposi sarcoma)
Infection of urinary tracts(itching, burning)
Abdominal pains
Vaginal secretion
Inflammation of sperm ducts
Inflammation of oviduct (eventually causing sterility)
Inflammation of prostate gland
Inflammation of testes
Inflammation of ovaries
Inflammation of uterus
Pus flowing from penis
Primary stage. Incubation time: 3 weeks
Chancre (ulcer)
Secondary stage. Incubation time: 9 weeks
Aching throat
Hair falls out in tufts
Skin rash or lesions
Tertiary stage. Incubation time: several months to over 20 years
18
19
20
Lesions of central nervous system (sight problems, deafness,paralysis,
madness)
Heart lesions (may be fatal)
Painful bone lesions
Chapter 7. GENETICS
Page 63
MONOHYBRID CROSSES
A
Crosses with dominant and recessive characters
B
Cross with incomplete dominance (codominance)
P
F1
F2
Ph
G
Gam
A
a
B
Parent generation
First generation of offspring
Second generation of offspring
Phenotype
Genotype
Gametes
Dominant allele
Recessive allele
Dominant allele
Page 64
DIHYBRID CROSS
P
F1
F2
Ph
G
Gam
A
B
a
b
Parent generation
First generation of offspring
Second generation of offspring
Phenotype
Genotype
Gametes
Dominant allele
Dominant allele
Recessive allele
Recessive allele
Page 65
TEST CROSS
Ph
G
Phenotype
Genotype
Gam
A
B
a
b
Gametes
Dominant allele
Dominant allele
Recessive allele
Recessive allele
5-3.3
SEX-LINKED (X-LINKED) CHARACTERISTICS
A
Colour blindness.
B
Examples of crosses with fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster)
Ph
G
Gam
XR
Xr
Y
Phenotype
Genotype
Gametes
X-chromosome carrying the dominant allele R (red eyes)
X-chromosome carrying the recessive allele r (white eyes)
Y-chromosome without the gene for eye colour
Page 67
FAMILY TREES
A
Autosomal dominant character
N
n
Dominant allele
Recessive allele
B
Autosomal recessive character
Q
q
Dominant allele
Recessive allele
C
Sex-linked (X-linked) character (haemophilia)
XN
Xn
Y
X-chromosome carrying the dominant allele N (normal blood clotting)
X-chromosome carrying the recessive allele n (no blood clotting)
Y-chromosome having no gene for blood clotting
Page 68
BLOOD GROUPS 1
A
ABO system
Ph
G
Gam
IA
IB
i
[O]
[A]
[B]
[AB]
anti-A
anti-B
Phenotype
Genotype
Gametes
Dominant allele causing the antigen [A] on the red blood cells
Dominant allele causing the antigen [B] on the red blood cells
Recessive allele causing the absence of antigens [A] and [B] on the red
blood cells
Blood group O
Blood group A
Blood group B
Blood group AB
Antibody against antigen [A] in plasma
Antibody against antigen [B] in plasma
B
Rhesus system
Rh+
RhRh
rh
anti-Rh
1
2
Rhesus positive (red blood cells carrying antigen Rh)
Rhesus negative (red blood cells without antigen Rh)
Dominant allele for antigen [Rh} on the red blood cells
Recessive allele causing the absence of antigen [Rh} on the red blood cells
Formation of antibodies against antigen Rh in case of contamination with
[Rh+] in a [Rh-] person (transfusion, childbirth)
First baby
Second baby
Page 69
BLOOD GROUPS 2
A
Agglutination
A
anti-A
aggl
[O]
[A]
[B]
[AB]
anti-A
anti-B
Red blood cells of group A
Blood serum with A antibodies (anti-A)
Agglutination
Blood group O
Blood group A
Blood group B
Blood group AB
A antibodies
B antibodies
B
Blood transfusions
[O]
[A]
[B]
[AB]
A
B
Blood group O (universal donor)
Blood group A
Blood group B
Blood group AB (universal receiver)
Antigen A
Antigen B
Page 70
HEREDITARY DISEASES
A
Deletion (loss of a chromosome fragment)
del5
Deletion in short arm of 5th chromosome - causing “cri du chat” syndrome
B
Aneuploidy (abnormal chromosome number)
XXY
X
Male with extra X-chromosome (Klinefelter syndrome)
Female lacking an X-chromosome (Turner syndrome)
C
Trisomy 21 (Down’s syndrome)
tris21
21
Trisomy 21
Chromosome no.21 (3 copies instead of 2)