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THEMES IN THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY
THEMES IN THE STUDY OF BIOLOGY
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Figure 1.1-0
(1) Order
(5) Regulation
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(2) Reproduction
(6) Response to the
environment
(3) Growth and
development
(4) Energy
processing
(7) Evolutionary adaptation
1.1 All forms of life share common properties
• Biology is the scientific study of life.
• Properties of life include
1. Order—the highly ordered structure that typifies
life,
2. Reproduction—the ability of organisms to
reproduce their own kind,
3. Growth and development—consistent growth
and development controlled by inherited DNA,
4. Energy processing—the use of chemical energy
to power an organism’s activities and chemical
reactions,
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1.1 All forms of life share common properties
5. Regulation—an ability to control an organism’s
internal environment within limits that sustain life,
6. Response to the environment—an ability to
respond to environmental stimuli, and
7. Evolutionary adaptation—adaptations evolve
over many generations, as individuals with traits
best suited to their environments have greater
reproductive success and pass their traits to
offspring.
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Figure 1.2-1
Biosphere
Florida
Ecosystem
Florida
Everglades
Community
All organisms in this
wetland ecosystem
Population
All alligators living
in the wetlands
Organism
an American alligator
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Figure 1.2-2
Organism
an American alligator
Nerve
Spinal
cord
Brain
Organ system
Nervous system
Organ
Brain
Tissue
Nervous tissue
Cell
Nerve cell
Atom
Nucleus
Organelle
Nucleus
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Molecule
DNA
1.2 In life’s hierarchy of organization, new
properties emerge at each level
• Biological organization unfolds as follows:
• Biosphere—all of the environments on Earth that
support life,
• Ecosystem—all the organisms living in a particular
area and the physical components with which the
organisms interact,
• Community—the entire array of organisms living in
a particular ecosystem,
• Population—all the individuals of a species living in
a specific area,
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1.2 In life’s hierarchy of organization, new
properties emerge at each level
• Organism—an individual living thing,
• Organ system—several organs that cooperate in a
specific function,
• Organ—a structure that is composed of tissues,
• Tissue—a group of similar cells that perform a
specific function,
• Cell—the fundamental unit of life,
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1.2 In life’s hierarchy of organization, new
properties emerge at each level
• Organelle—a membrane-enclosed structure that
performs a specific function within a cell, and
• Molecule—a cluster of small chemical units called
atoms held together by chemical bonds.
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1.2 In life’s hierarchy of organization, new
properties emerge at each level
• Emergent properties are new properties that
arise in each step upward in the hierarchy of life
from the arrangement and interactions among
component parts.
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1.3 Cells are the structural and functional
units of life
• Cells are the level at which the properties of life
emerge.
• A cell can
•
•
•
•
•
regulate its internal environment,
take in and use energy,
respond to its environment,
develop and maintain its complex organization, and
give rise to new cells.
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1.3 Cells are the structural and functional
units of life
• All cells
• are enclosed by a membrane that regulates the
passage of materials between the cell and its
surroundings and
• use DNA as their genetic information.
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1.3 Cells are the structural and functional
units of life
• There are two basic forms of cells.
1. Prokaryotic cells
• were the first to evolve,
• are simpler, and
• are usually smaller than eukaryotic cells.
2. Eukaryotic cells
• are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists and
• are subdivided by membranes into various functional
compartments, or organelles, including a nucleus
that houses the DNA.
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Figure 1.3
Prokaryotic cell
Eukaryotic cell
DNA
(no nucleus)
Membrane
Organelles
Nucleus
(membraneenclosed)
DNA (throughout
nucleus)
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1.3 Cells are the structural and functional
units of life
• Cells illustrate another theme in biology: the
correlation of structure and function.
• Structure is related to function at all levels of
biological organization.
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1.4 Organisms interact with their
environment, exchanging matter and energy
• Living organisms interact with their environments,
which include
• other organisms and
• physical factors.
• In most ecosystems,
• plants are the producers that provide the food,
• consumers eat plants and other animals, and
• decomposers act as recyclers, changing complex
matter into simpler chemicals that plants can
absorb and use.
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1.4 Organisms interact with their
environment, exchanging matter and energy
• The dynamics of ecosystems include two major
processes:
1. the recycling of chemical nutrients from the
atmosphere and soil through producers,
consumers, and decomposers back to the air and
soil and
2. the one-way flow of energy through an
ecosystem, entering as sunlight and exiting as
heat.
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Figure 1.4-0
ENERGY FLOW
Sun
Inflow of
light energy
Outflow of
heat
Consumers
(animals)
Producers
(plants)
Leaves take up
CO2 from air; roots
absorb H2O and
minerals from soil
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Chemical energy
in food
Decomposers such
as worms, fungi,
and bacteria return
chemicals to soil
EVOLUTION, THE CORE THEME
OF BIOLOGY
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1.5 The unity of life is based on DNA and a
common genetic code
• All cells have DNA, the chemical substance of
genes.
• Genes
• are the unit of inheritance that transmit information
from parents to offspring,
• are grouped into very long DNA molecules called
chromosomes, and
• control the activities of a cell.
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1.5 The unity of life is based on DNA and a
common genetic code
• A species’ genes are coded in the sequences of
the four kinds of building blocks making up DNA’s
double helix.
• All forms of life use essentially the same code to
translate the information stored in DNA into
proteins.
• The diversity of life arises from differences in DNA
sequences.
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Figure 1.5-0
Cell
Nucleus
DNA
C
C
G
G
G
C
G
C
T
A
A
T
C
G
A
T
T
A
C
G
T
C
C
A
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G
C
G
A
G
A
T
T
T
A
1.5 The unity of life is based on DNA and a
common genetic code
• The entire “library” of genetic instructions that an
organism inherits is called its genome.
• In recent years, scientists have determined the
entire sequence of nucleotides in the human
genome.
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1.6 The diversity of life can be arranged into
three domains
• We can think of biology’s enormous scope as
having two dimensions.
1. The “vertical” dimension is the size scale that
stretches from molecules to the biosphere.
2. The “horizontal” dimension spans across the
great diversity of organisms existing now and
over the long history of life on Earth.
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1.6 The diversity of life can be arranged into
three domains
• Diversity is the hallmark of life.
• Biologists have identified about 1.8 million species.
• Estimates of the actual number of species range
from 10 million to over 100 million.
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that
• names species and
• classifies species into a hierarchy of broader
groups: genus, family, order, class, phylum, and
kingdom.
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1.6 The diversity of life can be arranged into
three domains
• The diversity of life can be arranged into three
higher levels called domains.
1. Bacteria are the most diverse and widespread
prokaryotes.
2. Archaea are prokaryotes that often live in Earth’s
extreme environments.
3. Eukarya have eukaryotic cells and include
• single-celled protists and
• multicellular fungi, animals, and plants.
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Figure 1.6-0
Domain Bacteria
Domain Eukarya
Bacteria
Domain Archaea
Protists
(multiple kingdoms)
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Animalia
Archaea
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1.7 Evolution explains the unity and diversity
of life
• Evolution can be defined as the process of
change that has transformed life on Earth from its
earliest beginnings to the diversity of organisms
living today.
• The fossil record documents
• that life has been evolving on Earth for billions of
years and
• the pattern of ancestry.
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Figure 1.7a
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1.7 Evolution explains the unity and diversity
of life
• In 1859, Charles Darwin published the book On
the Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection, which articulated two main points.
1. Species living today descended from ancestral
species in what Darwin called “descent with
modification.”
2. Natural selection is a mechanism for evolution.
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Figure 1.7b
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Figure 1.7c-0
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1.7 Evolution explains the unity and diversity
of life
• Natural selection was inferred by connecting two
observations.
1. Individual variation: Individuals in a population
vary in their traits, many of which are passed
on from parents to offspring.
2. Overproduction of offspring: A population can
produce far more offspring than the environment
can support.
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1.7 Evolution explains the unity and diversity
of life
• From these observations, Darwin drew two
inferences.
1. Unequal reproductive success: Individuals with
heritable traits best suited to the
environment
are more likely to survive and reproduce
than less well-suited individuals.
2. Accumulation of favorable traits over time: As a
result of this unequal reproductive success
over many generations, an increasing proportion
of
individuals in a population will have the
advantageous traits.
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Figure 1.7d-3
1 Population with varied
inherited traits.
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2 Elimination of
individuals with certain
traits and reproduction
of survivors.
3 Increasing frequency
of traits that enhance
survival and
reproductive success.
1.7 Evolution explains the unity and diversity
of life
• Darwin realized that numerous small changes in
populations as a result of natural selection could
eventually lead to major alterations of species.
• The fossil record provides evidence of such
diversification of species from ancestral species.
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Figure 1.7e-0
Deinotherium
Mammut
Platybelodon
Stegodon
Mammuthus
Elephas
maximus
(Asia)
Loxodonta
africana
(Africa)
Loxodonta cyclotis
(Africa)
34
24
Millions of
years ago
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5.5 2 104 0
Years
ago
THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE
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1.8 In studying nature, scientists make
observations and form and test hypotheses
• Science is a way of knowing that stems from our
curiosity about ourselves and the world around us.
• Science is based upon inquiry, the search for
information and explanations of natural
phenomena.
• Scientists typically
• make observations,
• form hypotheses, proposed explanations for a set
of observations, and
• test them.
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1.8 In studying nature, scientists make
observations and form and test hypotheses
• Two types of data are frequently collected in
scientific investigations.
1. Qualitative data is descriptive.
2. Quantitative data includes numerical
measurements.
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1.8 In studying nature, scientists make
observations and form and test hypotheses
• Scientists use two types of reasoning.
1. Inductive reasoning makes generalizations based
on collecting and analyzing a large number of
specific observations.
2. Deductive reasoning flows from general premises
to predicted and specific results.
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1.8 In studying nature, scientists make
observations and form and test hypotheses
• We solve everyday problems by using hypotheses.
• A common example would be the reasoning we use
to answer the question, “Why doesn’t a flashlight
work?”
• Two reasonable hypotheses are that
1. the batteries are dead or
2. the bulb is burned out.
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Figure 1.8-1
Observation:
Flashlight doesn’t work.
Question:
Why doesn’t the
flashlight work?
Hypothesis #1:
Batteries are dead.
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Hypothesis #2:
Bulb is burned out.
Figure 1.8-2
Observation:
Flashlight doesn’t work.
Question:
Why doesn’t the
flashlight work?
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Hypothesis #1:
Batteries are dead.
Hypothesis #2:
Bulb is burned out.
Prediction:
Replacing batteries
will fix problem.
Prediction:
Replacing bulb
will fix problem.
Test of prediction:
Replace batteries.
Test of prediction:
Replace bulb.
Figure 1.8-3
Observation:
Flashlight doesn’t work.
Question:
Why doesn’t the
flashlight work?
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Hypothesis #1:
Batteries are dead.
Hypothesis #2:
Bulb is burned out.
Prediction:
Replacing batteries
will fix problem.
Prediction:
Replacing bulb
will fix problem.
Test of prediction:
Replace batteries.
Test of prediction:
Replace bulb.
Results:
Flashlight doesn’t work.
Hypothesis is contradicted.
Results:
Flashlight works.
Hypothesis is supported.
1.8 In studying nature, scientists make
observations and form and test hypotheses
• A scientific theory is
• much broader in scope than a hypothesis and
• supported by a large and usually growing body of
evidence.
• Science is a social activity in which scientists
• work in teams,
• share information through peer-reviewed
publications, meetings, and personal
communication, and
• build on and confirm each other’s work.
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1.9 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Hypotheses can
be tested using controlled field studies
• Scientists conducted a controlled experiment to
test the hypothesis that color patterns have
evolved as adaptations that protect animals from
predation.
• The experiment compared an experimental group
consisting of noncamouflaged mice models and a
control group consisting of camouflaged models
that matched the mice native to each area.
• The groups differed by only one factor, the
coloration of the mouse models.
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Figure 1.9-0
Beach population
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Inland population
1.9 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Hypotheses can
be tested using controlled field studies
• As presented in Table 1.9,
• the noncamouflaged models had a much higher
percentage of attacks in the beach and inland
habitats and
• these data fit the key prediction of the camouflage
hypothesis.
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Table 1.9
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BIOLOGY AND EVERYDAY LIFE
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1.10 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Evolution is
connected to our everyday lives
• Evolution is a core theme of biology.
• Humans selectively breed plants and animals in
the process of artificial selection to produce
• move productive crops,
• better livestock, and
• a great variety of pets that bear little resemblance
to their wild ancestors.
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1.10 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Evolution is
connected to our everyday lives
• Humans also unintentionally cause
• the evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria,
• the evolution of pesticide-resistant pests, and
• the loss of species through habitat loss and global
climate change.
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Figure 1.10
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1.11 CONNECTION: Biology, technology, and
society are connected in important ways
• Many issues facing society
• are related to biology and
• often involve our expanding technology.
• The basic goals of science and technology differ.
• The goal of science is to understand natural
phenomena.
• The goal of technology is to apply scientific
knowledge for some specific purpose.
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1.11 CONNECTION: Biology, technology, and
society are connected in important ways
• Although their goals differ, science and technology
are interdependent.
• Research benefits from new technologies.
• Technological advances stem from scientific
research.
• Technologies of DNA manipulation are the results
of scientific discovery of the structure of DNA.
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You should now be able to
1. Describe seven properties common to all life.
2. Describe the levels of biological organization from
molecules to the biosphere, noting the
interrelationships between levels.
3. Define the concept of emergent properties and
describe an example of it.
4. Explain why cells are a special level in biological
organization. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.
5. Compare the dynamics of nutrients and energy in an
ecosystem.
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You should now be able to
6. Explain how DNA encodes a cell’s information.
7. Compare the three domains of life.
8. Describe the process and products of natural
selection.
9. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative
data.
10. Compare the definitions and use of inductive and
deductive reasoning in scientific investigations.
11. Distinguish between a scientific theory and a
hypothesis.
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You should now be able to
12. Describe the structure of a controlled experiment and
give an example.
13. Explain how evolution impacts the lives of all
humans.
14. Compare the goals of science and technology.
Explain why an understanding of science is essential
to our lives.
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