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Cognitive Psychology Chapter 7 Cognitive Psychology: Overview Cognitive psychology is the study of perception, learning, memory, and thought The study of how people attend to, acquire, transform, store, and retrieve knowledge Cognitive Psychology: Overview The word cognition comes from the Latin “cognoscere” meaning “to know” Cognitive psychologists are interested in the ability to reason Behaviourism made little reference to cognitive processes In the late 1950s, the brain began to be compared to a computer Concept Formation Concepts are mental categories people use to classify events and objects according to common properties Concept formation is how people organize and classify events, usually to solve problems Concept Formation Much of a child’s learning involves classification or separating dissimilar events, finding commonalities, and then grouping similar items together Unclear concepts are sometimes called “fuzzy concepts” People define “fuzzy concepts” by using prototypes Problem Solving Problem solving is confronting and resolving situations that require insight or determination of some unknown elements Figure 7.2 Stages in Problem Solving Problem Solving An algorithm is a means for solving a problem by using a set of rules over and over again until a solution is found Algorithms will always lead to a correct answer if followed properly Problem Solving The time and effort to perform algorithms sometimes makes them impractical Rules-of-the-thumb allow less rigid problem solving than algorithms Heuristics are flexible guidelines for solving problems Heuristics may lead to a quick solution Problem Solving In subgoal analysis, a problem is broken down into several smaller steps In means-end analysis, the current situation is compared to the desired end (goal) Problem Solving A backward search involves working backward from the goal to current situation Functional fixedness is an inability to see that an object can have a function other than its stated or usual one A mental set is limited ways of thinking about possibilities Creative Problem Solving Creativity is a feature of thought that generates or recognizes ideas that are original, novel, and appropriate An original response does not copy or imitate another response A novel response is new or has no precedent An appropriate response is reasonable in terms of the situation Creative Problem Solving Divergent thinking lessens the likelihood of mental sets and functional fixedness The opposite of divergent thinking is convergent thinking or the narrowing of choices and alternatives Creative Problem Solving Creative problem solving can be stimulated through brainstorming Brainstorming involves listing all possible solutions without making any initial judgments of them Reasoning and Decision Making Reasoning is the purposeful process by which a person generates logical and coherent ideas, evaluates situations, and reaches conclusions Logic is the system of reasoning used to reach valid conclusions or make inferences Decision making means assessing and choosing among alternatives Uncertainty: Estimating Probabilities Decisions can be based on formal logic, hypothesis, testing, or an educated guess An educated guess is one based on knowledge gained from past experience Because of their mood or lack of attention, people may act irrationally, ignore key data, and make bad decisions Barriers to Decision Making The gambler’s fallacy is the belief that an event is more likely to occur if it has not recently occurred In the belief in small numbers, a decision is based on a small number of observations The availability heuristic is to judge the probability of an event based on how easy it is to think of examples of it Barriers to Decision Making Overconfident people become so committed to their ideas that they are often more confident than correct In the confirmation bias, people cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence The Computer as Information Processor The most widely investigated aspect of artificial intelligence is problem solving But computers lack ingenuity and imagination, and cannot interpret information by referring to its context Neural Networks Various brain bits of information are stored in different parts of the A convergence zone is needed to mediate and organize the information located in various areas of the brain Neural Networks This may occur through parallel distributed processing (PDP) PDP involves many operations taking place at the same time in various parts of the brain Researchers have devised “artificial neural networks” to study PDP Neural Networks Electronic neural networks have pattern-recognition abilities and can be taught to recognize single letters Recognizing letters shows that the network has learned a prototype Neural networks learn by noting changes in the weight or values associated with various connections Defining Language A language is a set of symbols, usually words, that convey meaning Language is often expressed with gestures Language takes place in a social context Language and culture are intertwined Language and Gender Stereotypes The English language has evolved in such a way that words define many powerful roles as male Men are also often described using active, positive words Women have traditionally been described with words implying passivity Gender Stereotypes Lakoff asserts people see the world through a male frame of reference that is assumed to be the preferred value system Frable concluded that if people believe in gender-specific abilities, they apply that belief to their decision making Gender Stereotypes Gender differences in language are usually context-dependent Although gender stereotypes continue to exist, some women and men accept the value of androgyny Thought, Culture, and Language Culture has a great influence on language and thought People who believe in role and gender-specific abilities are likely to apply those beliefs to their language and decision making Bilingualism promotes cognitive flexibility Linguistics Linguistics is the study of language, including speech, sounds, meaning, and grammar Psycholinguistics is the study of how language is acquired, perceived, understood, and produced Linguistics Phonology is the study of the patterns and distribution of speech sounds in a language, and the rules for their pronunciation Phonemes are the smallest sounds that compose words in a language Linguistics Morphemes are the basic units of meaning in a language Semantics is the analysis of the meaning of language Syntax is the way words and groups of words combine to phrases, clauses, and sentences form Linguistics Grammar is the linguistic description of how a language functions Grammar deals with the rules used for generating comprehensible and appropriate sentences The Biological and Evolutionary Basis of Language Chomsky suggested that language is innate He proposed humans have an inborn “universal grammar” Universal grammar is an innate mechanism that produces meaningful sentences Language Acquisition There is a debate as to the role of genetics (nature) and experience (nurture) in language development According to learning theory, people speak and understand a language because specific language behaviours are reinforced Biological Theories Chomsky and Miller assert that humans have an innate capacity to develop language This view states that humans are born with a mental language acquisition device (LAD) The LAD allows children to pay attention to language and ultimately use it Learning Readiness Lenneberg claimed that humans are born with a grammatical capacity and a readiness to produce language Lenneberg felt children develop grammar and learn the rules of language up to age 13 Language Studies with Chimpanzees Results of studies of chimpanzees can be used to argue both for and against the idea that language develops naturally Washoe was taught to make a large number of signs from American sign language Sarah was taught words and sentences with magnetized plastic shapes Studies with Chimpanzees Lana learned to press computer keys with symbols representing words but was unable to manipulate grammatical relations Nim Chimpski was taught manual signing but her signed messages did not increase in length as children’s do What about Dolphins? Dolphins communicate with each other through squeaks and groans Dolphins do repeat signals from other dolphins Social Interaction Theories Early learning theorists took an unbending view of the role of reinforcement in language Biological theories stressed the role of genetics in language development Social interaction theories say neither the learning nor biological view is correct by itself
