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MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
*RE-READ EACH CHAPTER REVIEW/BOLD TERMS CAREFULLY IN
PREPARATION FOR YOUR FINAL EXAM
Chapter 2: Ancient Greece and Rome, 1900 B.C. – A.D. 500
Chapter Overview
Early Greek civilization consisted of many small, independent city-states, but it gradually spread
throughout the Mediterranean world. During the Age of Pericles, Athenian culture and democracy
flourished. However, the Peloponnesian War left Greece severely weakened. Under Alexander the Great,
Macedonia spread Greek culture throughout Southwest Asia. Rome became the seat of power of a great
empire that included the entire Mediterranean and much of Europe. As conquerors, Romans showed
flexibility toward most non-Roman religions, but Christianity at first was an exception. Eventually,
Christianity was declared the empire's official religion. Power shifted to Constantinople, the empire's new
eastern capital, as Rome declined.
Section 1 Ancient Greece
Mycenae, the first Greek state, was one of a number of early Greek civilizations. After its collapse, Greece
entered a period known as the Dark Age. At the end of this period, Homer wrote his famous epic poems.
As Greece recovered, the independent city-state, or polis, became the focus of Greek life. Sparta became
an oligarchy and was a military state in which the lives of all its inhabitants were rigidly organized around
military preparedness. Although power was at first in the hands of the aristocracy, Athens after a war with
the Persians developed into a democracy. After Sparta and Athens were weakened by the Peloponnesian
War, Macedonia rose to power. Alexander the Great created a unified empire and invaded Persia. Greece
was known for its art and architecture and the development of drama. Philosophers devoted themselves to
rational thought as a means of understanding the nature of the universe. During the Hellenistic Era,
Greek culture expanded into Southwest Asia and beyond.
Section 2 Rome and the Rise of Christianity
Rome began as a small village. In the late sixth century, the Romans overthrew the Etruscans, established
a republic, and over the next four hundred years became masters of the Mediterranean. A time of civil
wars was followed by the rise of emperors. During the Pax Romana, peace and prosperity returned.
Patricians in the Roman Senate dominated the early republic, but plebeians gradually gained political
influence. Rome developed universal standards of justice that have influenced many societies. Slavery was
commonplace, although slaves occasionally revolted. The Romans imitated Greek culture in some
respects, but they also excelled in architecture and literature. Christianity began as a religious movement
within Judaism that caught on quickly following Jesus' death. At first the Romans viewed Christianity as a
threat to the state, but under Theodosius the Great it became the empire's official religion. By that time,
conflict and internal problems almost brought the empire to an end. Diocletian and Constantine restored
at least temporary stability, in part by dividing the empire into four units, each with its own ruler. The
empire remained divided into eastern and western parts. The Greek city of Byzantium became the capital
of the eastern part, while invading Germanic tribes brought an end to the Western Roman Empire.
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MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 2: Ancient Greece and Rome, 1900 B.C. – A.D. 500 KEY TERMS
SECTION 1 : ANCIENT GREECE
epic poem a long poem that tells the deeds of a great hero (page 53)
polis the early Greek city-state, consisting of a city or town and its surrounding territory (page 53)
acropolis in early Greek city-states, a fortified gathering place at the top of a hill, which was
sometimes the site of temples and public buildings (page 53)
democracy “the rule of the many,” government by the people, either directly or through their
elected representatives (page 53)
oligarchy “the rule of the few,” a form of government in which a small group of people exercises
control (page 53)
direct democracy a system of government in which the people participate directly in government
decision making through mass meetings (page 56)
SECTION 2: ROME AND THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY
republic a form of government in which the leader is not a monarch and certain citizens have
the right to vote (page 67)
patricians wealthy landowners who became Rome’s ruling class (one of two groups of Roman
citizens) (page 68)
plebeians members of the second and larger group of Roman citizens, who were less wealthy
landowners, craftspeople, merchants, and small farmers (page 68)
imperator commander in chief of the Roman army, a title given to Augustus by the Senate
(page 69)
Christianity a monotheistic religion that emerged in the first century A.D. (page 73)
clergy church leaders (page 74)
laity regular church members (page 74)
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MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 5: Renaissance and Reformation, 1350 – 1600
Chapter Overview
The Italian Renaissance introduced Europe to a secular worldview and a boom in artistic and intellectual
development. Intellectual change led to Christian humanism and, finally, the Reformation—a break with
the Catholic Church and the birth of Lutheranism.
Section 1 The Renaissance
The Renaissance began with the emergence of a secular worldview in the wealthy city-states of Italy. The
city-states were the dominant force in Italy's economic, social, and political life. It was in this context that
the writer Machiavelli developed his famous thesis on political power. Milan, Venice, and Florence were
particularly prosperous trading centers. Italy's riches prompted France to invade. Spain came to Italy's
defense, leading to war and Spanish domination. Italy was a largely urban society. However, most people
in Europe were peasants, and nobles held considerable power. In the towns and cities, there were clear
divisions between the classes, ranging from the wealthy and influential patricians to the miserably poor.
The family was an important source of security in Italy's dangerous cities.
Section 2 The Intellectual and Artistic Renaissance
Humanism was a key intellectual movement of the Renaissance, focusing on the study of the ancient
Greek and Roman classics. While early humanists emphasized solitary learning, fifteenth century
humanists stressed intellectualism in the service of the state. Humanism encouraged the use of classical
Latin. However, European writers such as Dante and Chaucer wrote in their own vernacular. Humanist
schools taught a broad range of liberal studies. Renaissance artists sought to imitate nature, but also to
make human beings the focus of their works. Painting, sculpture, and architecture were among the
revolutionary achievements of Renaissance art. Some Renaissance artists, including Michelangelo and
Leonardo da Vinci, produced masterpieces in all three disciplines. Artistic developments in Italy were a
major influence on art in northern Europe.
Section 3 The Protestant Reformation
Changes in intellectual thought set the stage for the Protestant Reformation. Christian humanists such as
Erasmus were critical of Church corruption and said the Church had become involved in politics rather
than matters of the spirit. The widespread selling of indulgences prompted a monk and professor named
Martin Luther to issue his famous Ninety-Five Theses criticizing Church abuses. Luther also rejected
some Catholic doctrines. Luther's movement sparked a religious revolution. Many German states became
key allies for Luther as he broke with the Catholic Church and established a new religion. The emperor of
the Holy Roman Empire was ultimately forced by the Peace of Augsburg to let German states choose
between Catholicism and the new Lutheran church.
Section 4 The Spread of Protestantism and the Catholic Response
Division in Protestantism appeared in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli and then
John Calvin. Calvinists’ belief in predestination spurred missionaries to spread their faith. In England, the
Reformation was based on the political need of Henry VIII to remarry and produce a male heir. Although
Queen Mary later tried to reverse the break with the Catholic Church, by the end of her reign
Protestantism was firmly entrenched. Anabaptists believed in the complete separation of church and state
and were regarded as a danger to society. Although a new view of the family emerged, women were still
considered subservient to their husbands. In the meantime, the Catholic Reformation revitalized the
Catholic Church through the Jesuits, the reform of the papacy, and the Council of Trent.
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MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 5: Renaissance and Reformation, 1350 - 1600 KEY TERMS
SECTION 1 : The Renaissance
urban society a society in which many of the people lived in cities (page 157)
secular worldly, rather than religious (page 157)
mercenary a soldier who sells his services to the highest bidder (page 159)
dowry in Renaissance Italy, a sum of money given by a wife’s family to her husband upon
marriage (page 163)
SECTION 2 : The Intellectual and Artistic Renaissance
humanism an intellectual movement of the Renaissance that was based on the study of the
ancient Greek and Roman classics (page 164)
fresco a painting done on fresh, wet plaster with water-based paints (page 166)
SECTION 3 : The Protestant Reformation
Christian humanism a movement in northern Europe during the Renaissance (also called
Northern Renaissance humanism) that stressed a belief in the ability of human beings to reason
and improve themselves (page 172)
salvation acceptance into heaven (page 172)
indulgence a release from all or part of the punishment for sin (page 173)
SECTION 4 : The Spread of Protestantism and the Catholic Response
predestination the belief that God has determined in advance (predestined) who will be saved
and who will be damned (page 178)
annul declare a marriage invalid (page 179)
Name: ______________________
MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 6: The Age of Exploration, 1500 – 1800
Chapter Overview
The explorations of the fifteenth century led to expanded European power and a sharp increase in trade.
Colonization, a dramatic growth in the slave trade, and the spread of Christianity were among the
consequences of European expansion.
Section 1 Exploration and Expansion
In the fifteenth century, Europeans set out on a series of overseas voyages that would lead to the
establishment of European trading posts and colonies in both the Americas and the East. Religious zeal, a
quest for personal and national glory, and a desire for new wealth were the chief motives behind the
European voyages. New technologies and the growing power of the European monarchies made the
voyages possible. The Spanish colonization of the Americas was extremely rapid and devastated native
American civilizations. Colonization of the globe led Portugal, Spain, the Dutch Republic, England, and
France to new economic heights. International trade increased, and a new economic theory—
mercantilism—was born.
Section 2 Africa in an Age of Transition
Slavery, which had been practiced in Africa since ancient times, saw a dramatic rise in the sixteenth
century. Many of the slaves were sent to Brazil and the Caribbean to work on sugarcane plantations. The
route became known as the Middle Passage. As many as ten million Africans traveled on the Middle
Passage, many of them dying en route or falling prey to disease in the Americas. As the demand for slaves
grew, slave traders in Africa moved further inland to find their victims. In addition to the tragic effects on
individual victims, the slave trade brutalized and devastated some African states, such as Benin. European
influence also caused some regional power shifts within Africa. In general, though, traditional African
political systems continued to exist. Christian missionaries from Europe made some inroads in Africa, but
they did not slow the spread of Islam.
Section 3 Southeast Asia in the Era of the Spice Trade
In 1500, mainland Southeast Asia was a relatively stable region. Occasional conflicts occurred between
emerging kingdoms. On the Malay Peninsula, the influence of Muslim traders led to the rise of the
sultanate at Melaka. The rapid growth of the spice trade led Portugal to occupy the Moluccas, also known
as the Spice Islands. The Dutch then pushed out the Portuguese and extended their control over the entire
area. The Europeans had less impact on mainland Southeast Asia, which was not a major source of spices.
The more unified mainland states were able to drive out most of the traders and missionaries. However,
throughout Southeast Asia, foreign models of government were adapted to local circumstances. In the
non-mainland states and the Philippines, Islam and Christianity attracted converts, while Buddhism was
advancing on the mainland.
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MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 6: The Age of Exploration, 1500 – 1800 KEY TERMS
SECTION 1 : Exploration and Expansion
conquistadors Spanish conquerors of the Americas (page 194)
colony a settlement of people living in a new territory, linked with the parent country by trade
and direct government control (page 195)
mercantilism a set of principles that dominated economic thought in the seventeenth century,
which emphasized the accumulation of bullion through government involvement in the promotion
of industries and trade (page 195)
balance of trade the difference in value between what a nation imports and what it exports over time
(page 195)
SECTION 2: Africa in an age of transition
plantations large agricultural estates that often depended on slavery to provide the labor they
needed (page 198)
triangular trade a pattern of trade that connected Europe, Africa and Asia, and the American
continents (page 198)
Middle Passage the journey of slaves from Africa to the Americas (the middle portion of the triangular
trade route) (page 198)
SECTION 3: Southeast Asia in the era of the Spice Trade
mainland states states that are part of a continent, as distinguished from peninsulas or
offshore islands (page 203)
bureaucracy a body of nonelective government officials (page 204)
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MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 7: Crisis and Absolutism in Europe, 1550 – 1715
Chapter Overview
Out of the wars of the sixteenth century, absolutist rulers emerged in many parts of Europe, while
England laid the groundwork for a constitutional monarchy. Art, literature, and political thought were
heavily influenced by changes in the wake of the Reformation.
Section 1 Europe in Crisis: The Wars of Religion
Wars between Catholics and Protestants plagued sixteenth-century Europe. Economic, social, and
political forces all played a role. For nearly 40 years, the French Wars of Religion pitted Catholics against
Protestant Huguenots. The violence finally ended in 1598 when Henry IV extended full political privileges
to Huguenots while making Catholicism the official religion. Catholic Spain appeared to be at the height of
its power. However, Philip II was bankrupting Spain with costly wars. Meanwhile, the United Provinces of
the Netherlands, a heavily Protestant region of the Spanish Empire, emerged as a great power in its own
right. The English monarch, Elizabeth, sought to placate both Protestants and Catholics at home while
balancing the power of France and Spain. Hoping to restore Catholicism to power, Philip tried to invade
England and met with disastrous results.
Section 2 Social Crises, War, and Revolution
From 1560 to 1650, Europe was filled with economic and social crises. Witch-hunts were common.
Religious disputes in Germany left over from the Peace of Augsburg led to the Thirty Years' War. The war
evolved into a much larger European struggle. The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war in 1648,
split up the Holy Roman Empire and left German states free to choose their religion. France became the
dominant nation in Europe. A year later, Charles I of England was executed by Oliver Cromwell, a military
genius who led a revolt against the crown. The English Revolution was the latest battle in a struggle
pitting Parliament against the monarchy. England's Protestant minority had also played a role. The
monarchy was later restored, but the conflict simmered. In 1688, King James II fled to France and the
Dutch king, William of Orange, took power with almost no bloodshed. In exchange for the crown, William
and his wife, Mary, accepted a Bill of Rights, laying the groundwork for a constitutional monarchy.
Section 3 Response to Crisis: Absolutism
In the wake of the crises of the seventeenth century, a number of powerful new rulers emerged in Europe.
The French king, Louis XIV, is regarded as the best example of a seventeenth century absolutist ruler.
Louis used all means at his disposal to keep power firmly in his own hands. In the absence of a centralized
German state, Prussia and Austria emerged as great European powers. Prussia built the fourth-largest
army in Europe. The Hapsburgs, formerly rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, built a loosely governed
Austrian Empire that included today's Austria, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. The Russian state
emerged in the fifteenth century. The Romanov dynasty established in 1613 produced a series of Russian
absolutists. To make Russia a great power, the Romanov czar Peter the Great undertook military reforms,
introduced western practices, and went to war with Sweden.
Section 4 The World of European Culture
The Reformation's revival of religious values renewed artistic interest in matters of the spirit. The
Mannerism movement abandoned many principles of the High Renaissance in an effort to convey the
conflicting emotions brought on by religious turmoil. The baroque style tried to merge the ideals of
Renaissance art with spiritual concerns. Many magnificent and highly detailed baroque churches and
palaces were built. Writing and drama reached new heights in England and Spain. Two writers from this
period, England's Shakespeare and Spain's Lope de Vega, are considered among the greatest writers ever.
Political thought also evolved during this period. Thomas Hobbes argued in favor of absolutism. Hobbes's
fellow Englishman, John Locke, countered that governments were formed by a contract to protect
people's natural rights. Locke's ideas became important to both Americans and French in the eighteenth
century.
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MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 7: Crisis and Absolutism in Europe, 1550 – 1715 KEY TERMS
SECTION 1: Europe in Crisis-The Wars of Religion
militant combative (page 211)
armada a fleet of warships (page 214)
SECTION 2: Social Crises, war, and revolution
inflation rising prices (page 216)
witchcraft magic performed by witches (page 217)
divine right of kings the belief that kings receive their power from God and are responsible
only to God (page 219)
commonwealth a republic (used especially for the government of England from 1649 to 1660)
(page 220)
SECTION 3: Response to crisis: Absolutism
absolutism a system of government in which a ruler holds total power (page 223)
czar the Russian word for caesar, which became the title of the Russian rulers beginning with
Ivan IV (page 227)
boyars the Russian nobility (page 228)
SECTION 4: The world of European culture
Mannerism a movement in art that emerged in Italy in the 1520s and 1530s, which emphasized
emotions, suffering, and religious ecstasy (page 230)
baroque a movement in art that began in Italy in the late sixteenth century, which tried to
bring together the classical ideals of Renaissance art and the spiritual feelings of the sixteenthcentury
religious revival (page 231)
natural rights rights with which humans are born, including rights to life, liberty, and property
(page 233)
Name: ______________________
MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 8: The Muslim Empires, 1450 – 1800
Chapter Overview
Beginning in the fourteenth century, the Ottomans built a large empire in Western Asia, North Africa, and
parts of Europe. In the sixteenth century, the Safavids came to power in Persia and Central Asia, while the
Moguls unified India.
Section 1 The Ottoman Empire
With the decline of the Seljuks in the early fourteenth century, the Otttoman Turks embarked on a rapid
expansion across modern-day Turkey and the Balkans. Over a span of 300 years, the Ottomans conquered
large areas of Western Asia, North Africa, and Europe. Ottoman officials, assisted by trained bureaucrats,
handled the administration of conquered lands. Senior officials received land grants and were responsible
for collecting taxes and supplying armies from those lands. Starting in the sixteenth century, sultans
claimed the title of caliph, while religious advisers, the ulema, oversaw the application of Islamic law. The
Ottomans were generally tolerant of non-Muslims, some of whom converted to Islam. The Ottomans'
greatest artistic contribution was the building of magnificent mosques. After the death of Süleyman the
Magnificent, corruption and palace intrigue spread, and wars depleted the Ottoman treasury. Western
cultural influences also increased.
Section 2 The Rule of the Safavids
In the early sixteenth century, a new dynasty, the Safavids, came to power in Persia and Central Asia. The
Safavids used their Shiite Muslim faith to unify Turkish peoples and Persians. Like the Ottoman sultan,
the Safavid shah claimed to be the spiritual leader of Islam. The two empires clashed repeatedly over
territory. The Safavids created a professional bureaucracy of Turkish and Persian officials and reined in
the aristocracy. They also interacted with the people in their empire. The empire reached its high point
under Shah Abbas. Trade and manufacturing thrived, although Safavid Persia suffered from limited
contact with European markets. The arts and sciences also thrived. Afghan invasions in the early
eighteenth century marked the end of Safavid rule, and Persia sank into a long period of anarchy.
Section 3 The Grandeur of the Moguls
The Moguls came from north of the Indus River valley and conquered India when it was still divided into
a number of Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The sixteenth-century Mogul leader Akbar largely completed
the task of unifying India and oversaw a period of stability and prosperity. Born a Muslim, Akbar was a
humane ruler who established a policy of religious tolerance. Under his successors, the empire expanded,
but its treasury was depleted. The ending of religious tolerance led to widespread Hindu unrest. In 1739,
Persians invaded and sacked Delhi. British influence throughout India hastened the decline of the Moguls.
The growing military and economic power of the East India Company sapped Mogul power and prosperity
while enriching British officials and merchants. Mogul rule led to the blending of Muslim and Hindu
cultural practices. Mogul patronage of the arts brought together Persian and Indian influences, especially
in painting and architecture.
Name: ______________________
MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 8: The Muslim Empires, 1450 – 1800 KEY TERMS
SECTION 1: The Ottoman Empire
janissary a soldier in the Ottoman sultans’ elite guard (page 240)
pasha a local official in the Ottoman empire, who collected taxes, maintained law and order,
and was directly responsible to the sultan’s court (page 241)
gunpowder empire an empire whose success was based largely on its mastery of the technology
of firearms (page 242)
sultan the head of the Ottoman empire (page 242)
harem (“sacred place”) the private domain of a sultan (page 243)
grand vizier a chief minister who led the meetings of the imperial council in the Ottoman
Empire (page 243)
ulema a group of religious advisers in the Ottoman Empire who administered the legal system
and the schools for educating Muslims (page 243)
SECTION 2: The Rule of the Safavids
shah the title used by Safavid rulers (page 251)
orthodoxy conforming to traditional religious beliefs (page 251)
anarchy lawlessness and disorder (page 252)
SECTION 3: The grandeur of the Moguls
zamindar a local official in the Mogul Empire (page 256)
suttee the Hindu custom of cremating a widow on her husband’s funeral pyre (page 257)
Name: ______________________
MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 9: The East Asian World, 1400 – 1800
Chapter Overview
The resourceful Ming emperors restored China to greatness. They were succeeded by the Qing dynasty,
which ruled until 1911. Japanese unification began in the sixteenth century. Trade and manufacturing
expanded in China and Japan, although both countries kept Europeans at arms length. Although Korea
attempted to remain isolated, it fell under Chinese rule.
Section 1 China at Its Height
The Mongol dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368 and replaced by the Ming dynasty. Ming emperors
extended Chinese rule into Mongolia and central Asia and briefly reconquered Vietnam. They ran an
effective centralized bureaucracy and made improvements that restored Chinese greatness. During the
mid-fifteenth century, Chinese ships larger than those of Columbus briefly explored as far as East Africa.
The arrival of a Portuguese fleet during the early sixteenth century led to an exchange of ideas and
introduced Christian missionaries to China. The declining Ming dynasty was replaced by invading
Manchus, who formed the Qing dynasty. The Qing lasted until 1911 and produced perhaps China's
greatest emperor, Kangxi, who ruled for 61 years. Europeans returned during the eighteenth century,
seeking to trade, but by the late eighteenth century, the Qing were restricting trade, and even European
contact, with the Chinese.
Section 2 Chinese Society and Culture
Improvements in Chinese life led to an increase in population and a growing shortage of land. This led to
rural unrest. Manufacturing and trade were increasing steadily, but they were tightly controlled by the
government. Commercial capitalism—private business based on profit—did not emerge as it did in
Europe. Daily life in China had changed little and remained focused around the family. Women could play
strong family roles but were considered inferior to men. They received no formal education and could not
seek a divorce or inherit property. The novel appeared as a new literary form in China during the Ming
dynasty. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, there was an outpouring of artistic brilliance that included
stunning architecture, world-famous porcelain, and other decorative arts.
Section 3 Tokugawa Japan and Korea
Japanese unification began in the mid-sixteenth century with three powerful political figures who reined
in Japan's nobility. A series of shoguns, the Tokugawa, ushered in the "Great Peace" and ruled until 1868.
Under Tokugawa rule, trade and manufacturing flourished as never before. Edo (later Tokyo) became a
city of over a million people. The arts flourished. European traders and missionaries arrived, and many
Japanese converted to Christianity. However, the missionaries' practice of destroying shrines led to their
expulsion. All but a few European merchants were expelled as well. As the urban economy grew, many
peasants were forced to become tenant farmers. Class distinctions became more rigid, and women as well
as Japan's outcasts, the eta, faced greater restrictions. Korea, a country that tried to remain closed to the
outside world, was twice invaded—once in a devastating Japanese invasion, and once by a Manchu army
that made Korea subject to China.
Name: ______________________
MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 9: The East Asian World, 1400 – 1800 KEY TERMS
SECTION 1: China at it’s height
queue a pigtail worn by Chinese men during the Qing dynasty (page 270)
banner a Manchu military unit during the Qing dynasty (page 271)
SECTION 2: Chinese society and culture
commercial capitalism private business based on profit (page 274)
clan a group of related families (page 275)
porcelain a ceramic made of fine clay baked at very high temperatures (page 276)
SECTION 3: Tokugawa Japan and Korea
daimyo heads of noble families in Japan (page 278)
han a separate territory or domain in Japan, each ruled by a daimyo (page 279)
hostage system a system that the shogunate used to control the daimyo, by forcing the families
of the daimyo to stay in Edo, where the court of the shogun was located (page 280)
eta outcasts in Japan during the Tokugawa Era (page 281)
Name: ______________________
MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 10: Revolution and Enlightenment, 1550 – 1800
Chapter Overview
The Scientific Revolution gave rise to a intellectual movement—the Enlightenment. Enlightenment
thought provided the philosophical foundations for the American Revolution. Britain lost its colonies in
North America to the newly formed United States, while Spain and Portugal held onto their profitable
Latin American colonies.
Section 1 The Scientific Revolution
Sixteenth-century Europeans began to question the scientific assumptions of the ancient authorities and
to develop new theories about the universe. Nicholas Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei
revolutionized astronomy. Copernicus claimed that the sun, not the earth, was at the center of the
universe—an idea considered heresy by the Catholic Church. Equally revolutionary were Isaac Newton's
explanations of gravity and the movement of the planets. There were breakthroughs in medicine and
chemistry, and numerous women contributed to the body of scientific research. The new view of the
universe affected Western philosophy. The Frenchman Rene Descartes, the first rationalist, declared that
matter could be independently investigated by reason. Francis Bacon, an English philosopher, developed
the scientific method—a system for collecting and analyzing evidence.
Section 2 The Enlightenment
The Scientific Revolution gave rise to the Enlightenment, an eighteenth-century movement that stressed
the role of philosophy and reason in improving society. Enlightenment intellectuals, known as
philosophes, were chiefly social reformers from the nobility and the middle class. They often met in the
salons of the upper classes to discuss the ideas of such giants as Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot. In
the economic sphere, Adam Smith put forth the doctrine of laissez-faire economics. The later
Enlightenment produced social thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and an early advocate of
women's rights, Mary Wollstonecraft. Salon gatherings, along with the growth of book and magazine
publishing, helped spread Enlightenment ideas among a broad audience. Most Europeans were still
Christians. However, the desire for a more spiritual experience inspired new religious movements, such as
the Methodism of John Wesley.
Section 3 The Impact of the Enlightenment
The Enlightenment influenced both art and politics. The baroque and neoclassical styles of art endured,
while a more delicate style, called rococo, emerged. The works of Bach, Handel, Haydn, and Mozart
represented one of the greatest periods in European music. Novels attracted a middle-class audience. The
Enlightenment interested the absolutist rulers of Europe. However, only one, Joseph II of Austria,
attempted far-reaching reforms based on Enlightenment ideas; they were largely a failure. The reforms of
Catherine the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia were far more limited. Territorial
disputes in Europe and in the colonial empires of Britain and France produced the War of Austrian
Succession, followed by the Seven Years' War. In the end, France lost India and most of North America,
and Britain emerged as the world's greatest colonial power.
Section 4 Colonial Empires and the American Revolution
In the sixteenth century, Portugal came to control Brazil, while Spain established an empire in the
Western Hemisphere that included parts of North America and most of Latin America. Portugal and
Spain held onto their Latin American colonies for over 300 years. During that time, they profited richly by
exporting Latin American gold, silver, and other natural resources and farm products. Spanish and
Portuguese officials and Christian missionaries played important roles in Latin American societies. In
North America, British control over its colonies began to unravel over issues of taxation. Multiple crises
led the Americans to declare their independence in 1776 and to fight Britain until its defeat in 1783. The
Articles of Confederation that formed the United States were soon replaced with a Constitution, which
created a stronger central government. The Bill of Rights added important freedoms derived from the
natural rights expressed by the philosophes.
Name: ______________________
MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 10: Revolution and Enlightenment, 1550 – 1800 KEY TERMS
SECTION 1: The Scientific Revolution
geocentric (Earth-centered) placing Earth at the center of the universe (page 295)
Ptolemaic system a model of the universe constructed by philosophers of the Middle Ages that
was based on the ideas of Ptolemy, a second-century astronomer (page 295)
heliocentric (sun-centered) placing the Sun at the center of the universe (page 295)
universal law of gravitation a law of nature defined by Isaac Newton that states that every
object in the universe is attracted to every other object by a force called gravity (page 296)
rationalism a system of thought based on the belief that reason is the chief source of
knowledge (page 299)
scientific method a systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing evidence (page 299)
inductive reasoning reasoning from particular facts to general principles (page 299)
SECTION 2: The Enlightenment
philosophe an intellectual of the Enlightenment (page 301)
separation of powers the division of a government into executive, legislative, and judicial
branches that limit and control each other in a system of checks and balances (page 302)
deism an eighteenth-century religious philosophy based on the idea that the world is a
machine and that God is a mechanic who created the world and allows it to run without his
interference, according to its own natural laws (page 302)
laissez-faire (“to let [people] do [what they want]”) the belief that government should not
interfere in economic matters (page 303)
social contract in the theories of philosophers such as Locke and Rousseau, an agreement
among individuals that they will be governed by the general will (page 304)
salon elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy upper class, in which writers, artists, aristocrats,
and government officials gathered to take part in conversations that were often centered on
the ideas of the philosophes (page 306)
SECTION 3: The impact of the Enlightenment
rococo an artistic style in the eighteenth century that emphasized grace, charm, and gentle
action (page 309)
enlightened absolutism a type of monarchy in which rulers tried to govern by Enlightenment
principles, while maintaining their royal powers (page 311)
SECTION 4: Colonial Empires and the American Revolution
mestizo the offspring of Europeans and Native Americans (page 319)
mulatto the offspring of Africans and Europeans (page 319)
federal system a system of government in which power is shared between the national, or
federal, government and the state governments (page 322)
Name: ______________________
MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 11: The French Revolution and Napoleon, 1789 – 1815
Chapter Overview
Poverty, social divisions, and economic crisis led to the French Revolution and a reign of terror. Napoleon
Bonaparte took power in a coup d'etat and tried to overthrow Europe's old order. After his costly military
campaigns, he was defeated at Waterloo, Belgium, and exiled.
Section 1 The French Revolution Begins
Poverty and deep social divisions were the backdrop of the French Revolution. On the eve of the
revolution, financial crisis gripped the government of Louis XVI. Rather than accept higher taxes, the
commoners in France's legislative body, the Estates-General, broke off to form a National Assembly.
Anticipating an attack by the king's forces, commoners then stormed the Bastille prison, marking the start
of the Revolution. The new Assembly took control of the Catholic Church and adopted the Declaration of
the Rights of Man and the Citizen. The document was inspired in part by the American Declaration of
Independence and Constitution. The Assembly then wrote a constitution establishing a limited monarchy
and a Legislative Assembly. France was soon at war with Austria, where some feared the revolution might
spread. Louis XVI was taken captive by the Paris Commune. The commune called for a National
Convention and forced the revolution into a more violent phase.
Section 2 Radical Revolution and Reaction
During the first years of the revolution, a republic was established, Louis XVI was executed, and
thousands of people were killed on suspicion of opposing the revolution. While factions fought over
control within France, European states fearing the spread of revolution made plans to invade France. The
National Convention responded by forming a Committee of Public Safety. The committee led a 12-month
Reign of Terror, executing close to 40,000 suspected enemies and expunging signs of Catholic influence.
The committee also raised the largest army in European history and repelled the invading armies. With
the crisis past, the National Convention ended the Reign of Terror and executed its zealous leader,
Maximilien Robespierre. Power shifted into the hands of more moderate middle-class leaders who
produced a constitution in 1795. The constitution called for a two-house legislative body and an executive
committee, called the Directory. The Directory faced mounting problems. In 1799 a popular General,
Napoleon Bonaparte, seized power in a coup d'état.
Section 3 The Age of Napoleon
Napoleon formed a new government, the consulate, in which he held absolute power. In 1802 he was
crowned emperor and signed a peace treaty with Russia, Great Britain, and Austria. At home, he made
peace with the Catholic Church and created a functioning bureaucracy. His Napoleonic Code preserved
many of the rights gained in the revolution. War was soon renewed. By 1807, Napoleon had created a
French empire. In parts of the empire, Napoleon sought to spread the revolution. However, his invasions
had contributed to the spread of nationalism as well. This, along with British sea power, would spell his
defeat. After a disastrous invasion of Russia, other European nations attacked Napoleon's army and
captured Paris. Napoleon was exiled from France, and the monarchy was restored. Napoleon returned to
power briefly, only to face final military defeat against a combined Prussian and British force at Waterloo
and to be exiled once again.
Name: ______________________
MODERN WORLD HISTORY “FINALS” STUDY GUIDE
Chapter 11: The French Revolution and Napoleon, 1789 – 1815 KEY TERMS
SECTION 1: The French Revolution Begins
estate each of the three divisions of French society (page 330)
relics of feudalism obligations that French peasants owed to their local landlords even though
serfdom no longer existed (page 330)
bourgeoisie the middle class in France that included merchants, bankers, industrialists, and
professional
people (page 330)
sans-culottes (“without breeches”) the name that members of the Paris Commune gave
themselves (page 335)
SECTION 2: Radical revolution and reaction
faction dissenting group (page 338)
elector an individual qualified to vote in an election (page 343)
coup d’état a sudden overthrow of a government (page 343)
SECTION 3: The Age of Napoleon
consulate the French government under Napoleon before he was crowned emperor (page 346)
nationalism the unique cultural identity of a people based on common language, religion, and
national symbols (page 350)