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LATE ADULTHOOD
DEFINITION
Late adulthood is the period of life in every individual that follows the period of his
or her life after he/she turns 60 years of age. This period is marked by the process of
growing old, resulting in part from the failure of body cells to function normally or to
produce new body cells to replace those that are dead or malfunctioning. This in turn
results in significant physical, psychological, and cognitive changes, like cardiovascular, digestive malfunctioning, depression, impaired memory functioning, and so
on.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
A. External
 hair whitens, thins
 skin loses collagen, elasticity
 spinal cartilage thins, leading to a loss of height
 (loss of height also due to stooped posture)
B. Internal
1/ brain
 shrinks by at least a third
 some cell loss in the brain
 brain also undergoes decreased supply of blood, oxygen, glucose
2/ motor function
 reaction time increases
 need more time for tasks (dressing, preparing meals, etc.)
 explained by two hypotheses:
a ) peripheral slowing hypothesis
 peripheral nervous system processing of info decreases in efficiency
 flow of information to brain becomes slower
 once the information arrives, the brain processing speed itself remains ok
 then, information from brain to periphery also becomes slower
 overall, increased reaction time
b ) generalized slowing hypothesis
 whole nervous system begins to function more slowely
 brain doesn’t processes information as well as before
3/ sensory function
a) visual abilities decrease
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— decreased:
 visual acuity
 light sensitivity
 ability to adjust for changes in light levels
b) hearing loss
 30% experience some hearing loss by age 65
 50% by age 75
 greater loss of high frequency sounds
 difficulty hearing conversations when background noise high, etc.
c) taste and smell less sensitive
 decreased number of taste buds, smaller olfactory bulbs
 food now seems less palatable (requires more salt? risk for high blood
pressure?)
4/ other
 cardiac output decreases by 25% from peak
 decreased lung capacity and oxygen uptake by tissues
 decreased size and numbers of muscle fibers
 digestive system becomes less motile, less digestive enzyme activity
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Introduction
 Seattle Longitudinal Study: after 60, there is a decrease in most mental abilities
 especially processing speed, numeric ability
 1999 study: a separate 4-year longitudinal study
 assessed 900 high-functioning adults over 70 (up to their 90’s)
 all subjects lead independent lives
 tested their cognitive abilities
 most abilities decreased (although the rates of decrease showed great
variability)
 some improved in certain abilities
Effect of Sensory Deficits
 1994 study:
 from 70-100 years, approximately half of the variance in cognitive scores
was due to variance in visual or auditory abilities
 if there is less sensory ability, less information can reach the brain in time to be
processed
 even in the brain, this could lead to slower processing, less ability to do Tasks
Memory
1/ Working Memory
 holding, processing new information
 decrease in aging
 ability to remember lists reduced
 especially when distracted
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 ability to perform tasks while remembering lists also impaired
2/ Long-term Memory
 provides knowledge base
 “everything we know”
 decreases in aging
 but, not all memory equal
a) Explicit Memory
 facts: words, concepts, dates, places, events, etc.
 most people usually able to recall when required
 ability decreases in aging
b) Implicit Memory
 unconscious, automatic
 difficult to retrieve verbally
 recalled through:
 recognition
 performance
 less affected by aging
 1992 study: learning serial patterns
 shown group of 4 boxes on screen
 when asterisk appears, must push button under box
 asterisk always appears in same serial pattern
 therefore once the pattern is identified, the subject can know which button to
press next, even before the asterisk appears above it
 if young subjects are compared to old
 old make less rapid response
 but learn pattern just as quickly
 if asked to identify pattern, less able
 therefore, they learned implicitly
 causes of memory decline:
 self-fulfilling prophecy
 aging leads to awareness of memory deficits
 elderly often exaggerate previous abilities, thereby believing that their loss is
relatively greater than it is
 they then assume a great decline, becomes self-fulfilling prophecy, leads to
further declines
 culture
 respect for aging associated with abilities in aging
 in China, great respect for abilities of the elderly
 memory loss in elderly reported to be 1/5 that of Americans
 for deaf Americans, less aware of attitudes towards aging
 memory loss of deaf Americans 1/2 that of hearing Americans
 prescription drugs
 individuals over 65 y take 1/2 of all prescription drugs
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 dosage usually determined in studies for 30 yr-olds
 dosage may be too much for elderly
 may lead to memory loss in elderly
 i.e., drugs for high blood pressure, Parkinson’s, pain
 brain cell loss
 found especially in hippocampus
 hippocampus found to have role in memory
 but not strong association
Compensation
 compensate for losses in abilities
 various forms:
1/ direct compensation
 use aids to improve abilities
 hearing aids, magnifying glasses, etc.
 pill dispensers
 sticks for turning off smoke detectors
2/ selective optimization
 assess abilities and set appropriate goals
 choose small number of tasks
 maintain skill
 i.e., if play musical instrument
 choose particular pieces for ease of play
 then practice, practice, practice
3/ anticipatory behaviors
 engage in behavior to make upcoming task easier
 write notes to self to aid memory
 drive only in daylight due to deteriorating night vision
 drive route to avoid left-hand turns to avoid requirement for fast reaction speed
 take buses at particular times or on particular routes so that seats not occupied,
won’t have to stand
4/ cogiation
 withdraw from activities for short periods to reflect, consider options, etc.
 avoid distractions, etc.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Self-Evaluation
 according to Erikson, late middle adulthood is period of crisis of integrity vs.
despair
 attempt to unify personal history and experience with experience of larger
community
 attempt to maintain continuity through offspring, etc.
 either experience satisfaction/contentment or despair/sense of wasted
opportunities
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2. Ageism
 tendency to stereotype people of advanced chronological age
 two forms:
 attitudes
 expectancies that person will show signs of dementia, helplessness, etc.
 emphasize lapse of memory in the elderly, reduced ability to react in timely
fashion, etc.
 denigrate attempts to compensate for age as further proof of increasing
vulnerability
 problems:
 such behavior leads to a greater risk of decrease in communication
 elderly may become afraid to admit to vulnerabilities
 could refuse to admit to health, financial problems
 behavior
 by speaking to elderly using “baby talk”
 loud, simple sentences
 could discriminate against elderly directly ( when they apply for jobs, volunteer
positions, etc.)
 by ignoring need for privacy, need for autonomy, etc.
3. Challenges to Identity
 foundations of identity throughout most of life:
 physical appearance
 physical health
 employment/responsibilities
 autonomy/agency
 no longer tenable in late life
 lead to loss of identity?
 coping strategies developed
i/ identity assimilation
 no change in identity
 new experiences assimilated into previous identity
 denial of change
 can be adaptable, but lead to problems if extreme:
 increased hostility to others (due to maintenance of false reality)
 risk to health
 ignore own limitations
ii/ identity accommodation
 adapt to new reality by changing self-concept
 again, can be adaptable but could lead to problems if extreme:
 can lead to sense of loss (of self)
 increased self-doubt
 sense that previous values, beliefs, selves unimportant, wrong
 require balance of each
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4. Gender Differences
 difference in lifespan (women live longer)
 difference increases over time
 women comprise 2/3 of the population over 65 (North America)
 but comprise 3/4 of elderly poor
 if over 64, 4X as many widows as widowers
 policies favour men?
 pension plans often based upon full-time employment
 women most likely caregivers through life
 now responsible for ailing husbands
 negative effect on health
i/ effect of death of spouse
 for women:
 2 yrs after death of spouse, more likely to be happier than unhappy
 for men:
 more likely to be unhappy
 more likely to remarry (more chances)
 women more likely to prepare for death of spouse
 more likely to be caregiver during spouses last months
ii/ effects of divorce
 women:
 do well in late adulthood
 if reared children as single parent, then greater satisfaction
 closer to children
 independent (employed)
 increasing number of widows means that they now enjoy being part of a larger
social group
 men:
 do less well
 less contact with children
 less contact with old friends (wives usually social co-ordinator)
 diverced elderly men report increased physical and psychological.
 problems (compared to non-divorced men)
5. Sex
 sexual activity continues in 90’s
 after 70 y:
 2/3 men and women still have sex with spouse
 if have sex, once/week (average)
 43% men and 33% women masturbate
 once/week
 complications:
 males: erections more difficult
 refractory period longer
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 females: less lubrication of vagina
 if individual was sexually active throughout life, they are more likely to remain
so in late adulthood
 if elderly stop having sex for several months, they become less likely to restart
HEALTH IN LATE ADULTHOOD
Introduction
— study of health in the elderly very complex due to
i/ death and/or illness inevitable (not true for any other age group)
ii/ because many of the changes associated with aging are natural, it’s
difficult to assess whether some changes are natural or part of a disease process
iii/ institutionalization of many elderly creates certain health problems, affects certain
treatment decisions, etc.
iv/ elderly have less autonomy, agency
 less of these is associated with poorer health
Loss Of Intellectual Function
 some loss normal
 often due to disease
 generally classified as category of dementia
 includes more than 70 diseases
 chronic, degenerative (most)
 if temporary, called delirium
1. Alzheimer’s
 most common (comprises 50% dementia cases in world)
 leads to abnormalities in cerebral cortex
 involves protein called beta-amyloid
 can form plaques outside brain cells
 can form tangles inside brain cells
 usually begin in hippocampus (site of memory)
 incidence:
 by 65, 1/100
 rate approximately doubles every 5 yrs.
 if over 80, 1/5
o stages:
i/ noticeable forgetfulness
 self-aware
 sometimes, no advance (for more than 10 y)
ii/ generalized confusion
 unaware of problems
 may have mood changes
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 emphasis of prior moods
iii/ debilitating memory loss
 less able to recognize people, places
 dangerous, risk of accidents
 under home care if possible
iv/ full-time care
 no recognition/normal response
v/ no response/emotion/communication
 eventually, death
2. Multi-infarct Dementia
 2nd leading cause of dementia
 series of strokes
 blockages of cerebral blood vessels
 lack of oxygen to tissue leads to tissue damage
 restricted to immediate area
 symptoms varied (type and severity)
 often:
 blurred vision
 slurred speech
 localized paralysis
 confusion (can be specific)
 usually, some recovery over time (neural compensation)
 as number of infarcts increases, more severe symptoms occur until
 dementia results

associated with lifestyle, nutrition, smoking, etc.
3. Subcortical Dementias
 damage in subcortical regions
 intellectual function not impaired
i/ Parkinson’s disease
 damage to neurons producing dopamine
 loss of motor control
ii/ Multiple sclerosis— loss of myelin in brain
REFERENSES:
 www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca
 www.mc.maricopa.edu
 www.megaessays.com
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