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Sophomore Student
Ms. Gustafson
Sophomore English 6
16 March 2012
The Radical Physicist
From the most primitive manifestations of civilization to the current technological era,
humankind has persisted in its ceaseless search for the answers to the universe. In their
observations of natural phenomena such as stars or fire, early scientists developed hypotheses or
myths, many of which have now been disproven, in a feeble attempt to explain them. Later
scientists, such as Isaac Newton during the scientific revolution, applied a more systematic and
analytical approach in order to theorize that the universe and its governing laws are inflexible
and absolute. These ideas were challenged in the early twentieth century, however, by a new set
of pioneering physicists, including the veritable genius Albert Einstein. Despite receiving
criticism for the detrimental applications of his groundbreaking theories, Albert Einstein is
lauded as a catalyst for change for his myriad contributions to the radical field of quantum
mechanics, which have ultimately resulted in both the prevailing model of the universe and a
ripple effect of technological advances in everyday life.
One of Einstein’s first published papers proposed the idea of the photoelectric effect and
guided modern physics into an entirely new direction: quantum mechanics (Rowlinson 255). In
order to make this transition from classical physics, Albert Einstein attempted to counteract “the
limitations of the classical wave theory” of light identified by previous scientists through the
unconventional idea of quantization (Penny). From his and others’ observation that “electrons
are emitted as radiation hits certain metals,” he hypothesized that electrons skip from one energy
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level, or quantum, to the next instead of traveling in a continuous motion (Wilbraham and Staley
130). This proposition casted considerable doubt on the wave theory posited by Isaac Newton in
the seventeenth century, and offered the decidedly unconventional theory of wave-particle
duality in its place (Penny). Consequently, Einstein’s new theory served as a foundation for his
momentous work in quantum mechanics and helped explain essential steps in the process of
photosynthesis (Hoffman 13). Although he was not the first to recognize light’s dual property,
Einstein was the first to adequately and mathematically explain it in a way that defied the
longstanding laws of physics. Einstein’s intuitive ability to form radical solutions – some of
which were so unconventional that they clashed with his own preconceived beliefs – to the
inherent problems of classical physics earns him the title of not only genius, but also catalyst for
change.
A month after the publication of his photoelectric theory, Einstein published a paper
describing Brownian motion, a prime example of how each of his specific theories possesses a
wide range of applications in other branches of science and beyond (McPhee). Again, although
he was not the first physicist to observe this intriguing occurrence, he was able to “develop…a
mathematical model that follows the laws of probability to illustrate the seemingly random
kinetic movement of particles in fluid substances” (McPhee). According to researcher Spenta
Wadia, the theoretical model not only describes probability-based incidents from dust particles
suspended in the atmosphere to variations in a volatile stock market, but also
“calculate[es]…[the] number and size of molecules” in a given amount of matter “to a surprising
degree of accuracy” (5). Most notably, because Einstein’s paper described rebounding atoms as
the cause of the random movement of particles, the theory encouraged more general acceptance
of the emerging atomic theory and later the “quantum mechanical model” of the atom
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(Wilbraham and Staley 137). Much of Einstein’s early work, including his model of Brownian
motion, provided the first substantial pieces of evidence of a minute world where the established
laws of physics did not apply and were seemingly replaced with new, bizarre quantum laws that
would eventually become the foundation of modern physics.
The third of his Annus Mirabilis – or “Miracle Year” – papers described the theory of
special relativity, which acted as the precursor to his “magnum opus,” the theory of general
relativity (Hawking). This “special” theory was one of the first to contradict the idea of a rigid,
eternal universe because it introduced the notion that time is relative, rather than absolute, and
that the “speed of light, however, is constant because…there is nothing faster” (Holton 42).
Although special relativity “reconciled…the [laws of] electricity and magnetism with the laws of
mechanics,” the groundbreaking theory’s major flaw was that it could not account for the laws of
gravity (Hawking). Furthermore, though special relativity is decidedly one of his more abstract
theories, it has led to the invention of a number of commonly used tools that necessitate extreme
precision such as the Global Positioning System, or GPS (Holton 42). Though the theory of
special relativity is sometimes viewed as merely a stepping stone for the more comprehensive
theory of general relativity, Einstein’s singlehanded discovery of special relativity was a
noteworthy feat of its own in the history of modern physics.
From the theory of special relativity, Einstein discovered mass-energy equivalence, the
“only physics equation to have recognition on the street” because of its elegant simplicity and its
indirect role in the invention of the atomic bomb (Hawking). With his almost comically succinct
equation E=mc2, Einstein was able to demonstrate the direct relationship between energy, matter,
and light (Hawking). Because the speed of light is a constant, the equation specifically shows
that “mass determines energy content” and that a particle would require “infinite energy to
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accelerate to the speed of light” (Adam 19). Unfortunately, the equation inadvertently led to the
invention of the controversial atomic bomb, an ethical and security issue that is just as
contentious today, if not more so, as it was in the mid-twentieth century (Whitrow 145). Its
discovery was based on the idea that “a tremendous amount of energy is released” when “the
nucleus of a uranium atom fissions into two nuclei with less total mass,” and it was promptly
utilized in the bombing of Japan in World War II (Hawking). While he did not support its
creation or applications, Einstein is often blamed for its destructive ramifications, including the
deaths of hundreds of thousands of Japanese civilians and the potential of a modern nuclear war
that could eliminate mankind (Whitrow 144). Einstein, who is often erroneously referred to as
the “Father of the Atomic Bomb,” may have unintentionally developed the means for nuclear
weaponry, but his noble intentions and the immeasurable gains made possible by his work far
outweigh the indirect negative consequences of his simple mass-equivalence equation.
Eleven years after the publication of his special relativity theory, Einstein published its
sequel: the theory of general relativity. By creating the space-time model, which challenged the
status quo with its unique fourth dimension of time (along with the three spatial dimensions), he
was able to reconcile the laws of special relativity with those of gravity (Hawking). Instead of
the “static and everlasting universe” of centuries past, Einstein proposed a warped, flexible
model of the universe and predicted that the cosmos and all its contents are expanding
(Hawking). Subsequent theoretical physicists have suggested the Big Bang theory by reasoning
that “[s]ince the universe is expanding, the galaxies were closer at some point…and their density
would have been infinite” (Holton 41). This theory has posed additional questions for future
scientists because of its failure to explain the beginning and end of time (Hawking). Einstein
also introduced the idea of “black holes, regions so warped in space-time that light cannot escape
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and time comes to a stop,” which are still a highly contested subject in the scientific community
today (Hawking). His singular idea of general relativity, which has yet to be disproven, attacked
the traditional view of the universe as a perfectly unwavering, eternal entity and prompted others
to propose a novel theory explaining the origin of everything in the universe.
Arguably his greatest contribution was to the burgeoning field of quantum mechanics,
which offered a new set of laws for the unique world of atoms and other subatomic particles only
recently confirmed scientifically (Wilbraham and Staley 131). One of the keystones of this
theory is wave-particle duality, an idea he had proposed in his earlier work with the photoelectric
effect (Penny). Due to limitations of the wave theory, he concluded that light acts similarly to
not onlu waves but also particles and that, conversely, particles such as electrons also act as
waves (Penny). He explained this hypothesis through the idea of quantization (light quanta are
called photons), which resulted in an improved atomic model (Wilbraham and Staley 131).
Some of the most valuable real-world applications from the quantum revolution include lasers
and electron microscopes, which rely on the relatively miniscule wavelength of electrons
compared to that of light (Holton 36). The ripple effect of his work, therefore, extends even
further because of these inventions, indirectly enabling a multitude of additional scientific and
technological discoveries in the following decades.
More than just an accomplished physicist, Albert Einstein was a revolutionary figure,
introducing a new era in modern physics and redefining mankind’s understanding of the
universe. Each of his theories – from his early work with the photoelectric effect and Brownian
motion to his later tour de force, the theory of relativity – is significant to modern physics in its
own right. His work has paved the way for innumerable technologies, including lasers, atomic
clocks, and GPS, as well as the divisive atomic bomb. By approaching the various flaws of
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classical physics, he helped create its complementary, rather than contradictory, branch of
quantum mechanics. Because scientists rely on the foundations – the theories and research –
established by their predecessors, Einstein’s numerous theories continue to influence modern
physicists, who have yet to find a more elegant or effective model of both the all-encompassing
universe and the submicroscopic atom. After thousands of years compounded by millions of
scientists, the universe and its origins are still largely a mystery and perhaps will remain so until
the end of time.
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Works Cited
Adam, Avshalom M. “Farewell to Certitude: Einstein.” Journal for General Philosophy of
Science. 31.1 (2000): 19-37. 15 Feb. 2012.
Hawking, Stephen. "A Brief History of Relativity." Time. 31 Dec. 1999: n. pag. Web. Web. 15
Feb. 2012.
Hoffman, Banesh. Albert Einstein: Creator and Rebel. New York: Penguin Group, 1967. Print.
Holton, Gerald. Einstein: History, and Other Passions. Woodbury, NY: Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, 1995. Print.
McPhee, Isaac M. "Brownian Motion and Atomic Theory." Suite101. N.p., 22 Feb. 2008. Web.
21 Feb. 2012.
Penny, Saleem. "The Photoelectric Effect." Warren Wilson College. N.p., 08 May 2009. Web. 23
Feb. 2012.
Rowlinson, J. S. " Einstein: The Classical Physicist." Notes and Records of the Royal Society of
London. 22 Sep. 2005: 255-71. Web. 15 Feb. 2012.
Wadia, Spenta. "The Legacy of Albert Einstein." World Science Books. Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research, Dec. 2005. N. pag. Web. 13 Mar. 2012.
Whitrow, G. J. Einstein: The Man and His Achievement. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.,
1967. Print.
Wilbraham, Antony, and Dennis Staley. Chemistry. Boston: Prentice Hall, 2007. 130-137. Print.