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THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT – 2006 VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE-DIVISION OF ENVIRONMENT Published by the Vice President’s Office, Division of Environment, United Republic of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam 2006 Copyright 2006 Division of Environment, Vice President’s Office, URT ISBN: 9987-8990- This publication may be reproduced for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holders provided acknowledgement of the source is made. The Vice President’s Office would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. For further information, please contact: Division of Environment, Vice President’s Office, P. O. Box 5380, Dar es Salaam. TANZANIA. Phone : Fax : E-mail: +255-22-2113983 +55-22-2125297 [email protected] or [email protected] Cover Designer: S.R. Mwinjaka ii TABLE OF CONTENTES ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. 8 FOREWORD ...................................................................................................................................10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................11 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................12 CHAPTER ONE: SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES.........................................15 PART 1: INSTITUIONAL ISSUES ..................................................................................................15 1.0 I.1 1.2 2.0 2.1 2.2 3.0 Location and Administrative Boundaries ........................................................................15 Location .........................................................................................................................15 Administrative Boundaries ............................................................................................15 People and Population Dynamics ..................................................................................15 People of Tanzania ........................................................................................................15 Population Dynamics .....................................................................................................16 Policies, Institutional and Legal Framework in Relation to Environmental Management 16 3.1 Policies ..........................................................................................................................16 3.2 Institutional and Legal Framework .................................................................................18 3.3 International Co-operation in Environment.....................................................................22 PART II: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES ...........................................................................................24 1.0 The State of the Economy .............................................................................................24 1.1 National Gross Domestic Product (GDP) .......................................................................24 1.2 Price Trends ..................................................................................................................25 1.3 Balance of Payment.......................................................................................................26 1.4 Public Finance ...............................................................................................................26 1.4.1 Domestic Revenue ....................................................................................................27 1.4.2 Foreign Grants and Loans .........................................................................................27 1.5 Government Expenditure...........................................................................................27 1.6 National Debt .................................................................................................................28 1.7 Human Development .....................................................................................................29 CHAPTER 2: LAND AND TERRESTRIAL ISSUES .......................................................................31 PART I: LAND ISSUES ..................................................................................................................31 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 General Land Use..........................................................................................................31 Household Characteristics .............................................................................................31 Land Tenure System and Land Utilization .....................................................................33 Land Resources.............................................................................................................34 PART II: AGRICULTURE: ..............................................................................................................35 1 1.0 Background information .................................................................................................35 2.0 Agro-ecological zones ...................................................................................................36 2.1 Soils ...............................................................................................................................37 2.2 Crop Production .............................................................................................................39 2.3 Farm Management ........................................................................................................40 2.4 Irrigation System ............................................................................................................40 2.5 Input Use .......................................................................................................................41 2.6 Crop marketing ..............................................................................................................44 2.7 Farming, livestock keeping activities and their environmental implications ....................45 PART III: FOREST RESOURCES ..................................................................................................46 1.0 Natural Forests and Products ........................................................................................46 1.1 The status of natural forests ..........................................................................................49 1.2 Plantation Forests and Products ....................................................................................50 1.3 Forest Products .............................................................................................................51 1.4 Importance of Forests/woodlands in the National Economy ..........................................51 1.5 Threats to the environment ............................................................................................51 PART IV: WILDLIFE RESOURCES ...............................................................................................52 1.0 Habitats .........................................................................................................................52 1.1 Species Diversity ...........................................................................................................54 1.2 Protection Status ...........................................................................................................55 1.3 Utilization and Conservation ..........................................................................................56 PART V: RANGELANDS................................................................................................................57 1.0 1.3 Range lands and Carrying capacity ...............................................................................57 Land suitability and land management .........................................................................62 PART VI: HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE: ................................................................63 1.0 Cultural Heritage ............................................................................................................63 CHAPTER 3: AQUATIC RESOURCES ..........................................................................................68 PART 1: FRESH WATER RESOURCES .......................................................................................68 1.0 1.2 2.0 2.1 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.0 4.1 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 An Overview of Existing Water Uses .............................................................................68 Inter-Sectoral Considerations on Water Use..................................................................68 Water Resources Management .....................................................................................68 Water Resources Assessment.......................................................................................69 Fresh water resources availability ..................................................................................70 Surface Water Resources ..............................................................................................70 Water Resources Monitoring .........................................................................................70 Ground water resources ................................................................................................71 Water resources utilization.............................................................................................71 General Use and Demand .............................................................................................71 Water quality and pollution ............................................................................................75 Surface Water Quality ....................................................................................................75 Ground Water Quality ....................................................................................................77 Water Quality Standards ................................................................................................78 2 5.4 Water Quality Monitoring Programme ............................................................................78 6.0 Rain water harvesting ....................................................................................................78 PART II: COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEMS ......................................80 1.0 Geography of setting .....................................................................................................80 1.1 Physical characteristics .................................................................................................81 1.2 Geology and Soils..........................................................................................................81 1.3 Hydrology ......................................................................................................................82 1.4 Currents and Tidal Regime ............................................................................................82 1.5 Sea surface temperature ...............................................................................................82 1.6 Salinity ...........................................................................................................................83 2.0 Coastal Ecosystem, Resources and Their Utilization...............................................83 2.1 Coral Reefs ....................................................................................................................83 2.2 Mangrove Forests ..........................................................................................................83 2.3 Fish Resources ..............................................................................................................84 2.4 Marine Mammals ...........................................................................................................85 2.5 Sea Turtles ....................................................................................................................85 2.6 Sea grass ......................................................................................................................85 2.7 Plankton.........................................................................................................................86 3.0 Economic Opportunities for the Coastal and Marine Environment.........................87 3.1 Fisheries ........................................................................................................................87 3.2 Mariculture .....................................................................................................................88 3.3 Coastal Tourism.............................................................................................................89 3.4 Extraction of Minerals and Energy Resources ....................................................................90 4.0 Threats on Coastal and Marine Resources and Ecosystem ....................................91 4.1 Decline of Marine and Coastal Living Resources ..........................................................91 4.2 Loss of Coastal and Marine Habitats and Biodiversity ...................................................91 5.0 Management of the Coastal and Marine Environment ...................................................93 5.1 Traditional Management Systems .................................................................................93 5.2 Policies and Legislation .................................................................................................94 6.0 Coastal Management Plans/Projects/Programmes...................................................94 6.1 Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Programme ................................94 6.2 Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership (TCMP) ....................................................95 6.3 The Marine and Coastal Environment Management Project (MACEMP) .......................95 6.4 Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (KICAMP) .......................................95 7.0 Marine Protected Areas and Reserves ..........................................................................95 PART III: WETLANDS RESOURCES ............................................................................................96 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.1 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Introduction ....................................................................................................................96 Status of wetlands .........................................................................................................97 Classification of wetlands. .............................................................................................98 Compliance with the Ramsar Convention ......................................................................99 Current Uses and Threats of Wetlands ..........................................................................99 Water supply for domestic and industrial use ................................................................99 Agricultural and Irrigation ...............................................................................................99 Livestock......................................................................................................................100 Conservation of ecosystem, biodiversity and tourism ..................................................100 Fishing .........................................................................................................................100 3 4.6 4.7 5.0 Power Production .......................................................................................................100 Threats to wetlands ....................................................................................................100 Current status of policies, strategies and other initiatives. ...........................................101 CHAPTER IV: URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ....................................102 PART I: MINERAL RESOURCES AND MINING AND ENVIRONMENT ......................................102 1.0 Background .................................................................................................................102 1.2 Mineral Rights ..............................................................................................................102 1.3 Impacts of Mining Industry on Environment .................................................................103 1.3 Large Scale Mining Impacts.........................................................................................104 1.3.2 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining ................................................................................106 1.3.3 Illegal Mining Activities.................................................................................................107 PART II: URBAN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS....................109 1.0 National Overview and Context ...................................................................................109 1.1 Urbanization.................................................................................................................110 1.2 Links of Urbanization to Economy ..............................................................................112 1.3 Urban Poverty ..............................................................................................................113 1.4 Urban Poverty and Environment ..................................................................................114 2.0 Urban Governance ......................................................................................................115 2.1 Urban Management Deficits ........................................................................................115 3.0 Initiatives and Priorities ................................................................................................117 3.1 Priorities .......................................................................................................................117 3.2 Initiatives......................................................................................................................118 4.0 Way Forward ...............................................................................................................119 4.1 Improving the Governance of Urban Settlements ........................................................119 4.2 Adopting the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) Process ....................120 PART III: ENERGY SECTOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT ...........................................................121 1.0 Energy resources.........................................................................................................121 1.1 Energy Balance ...........................................................................................................121 1.2 Energy Sources ...........................................................................................................122 2.0 ..... Challenges related to promotion of environmentally and socially sound Energy Technologies ......................................................................................................................................................127 PART IV: POLLUTION SOURCES ..............................................................................................128 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.0 Costs of water pollution to the National Economy........................................................132 Research .....................................................................................................................132 Initiatives......................................................................................................................132 Way forward.................................................................................................................133 Air and Noise Pollution ................................................................................................133 Air Pollution .................................................................................................................133 Noise Pollution .............................................................................................................133 Research .....................................................................................................................134 Policy and Institution Initiatives ....................................................................................134 Way forward.................................................................................................................134 Pollution from transport activities .................................................................................134 4 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.6.1 3.7 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 5.0 5.1 6.0 6.1 Automobile Air Pollution ...............................................................................................134 Noise and vibration pollution from traffic and construction machinery .........................135 Aircraft Noise Pollution ................................................................................................135 Water pollution .............................................................................................................135 Policy and Institution Initiatives ....................................................................................135 Climate Change ...........................................................................................................136 Initiatives......................................................................................................................136 Way forward.................................................................................................................137 Waste Management.....................................................................................................137 Industrial Wastes .........................................................................................................137 Municipal Wastes.........................................................................................................138 Health care waste ........................................................................................................139 Plastic wastes ..............................................................................................................139 Agricultural wastes.......................................................................................................140 Other wastes................................................................................................................140 Research and Development ........................................................................................141 Policy and Institution Initiatives ....................................................................................141 Way forward.................................................................................................................141 Recycling and Resource Recovery ..............................................................................141 Recycling of Solid Wastes ...........................................................................................141 Resource Recovery from Solid Wastes .......................................................................142 Way forward.................................................................................................................142 Public Health Problems Related to Sanitation and Pollution ........................................142 Policy and Programme Initiatives.................................................................................143 Natural Disasters .........................................................................................................144 Policy and Institution Initiatives ....................................................................................144 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION .............................................................145 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................150 APPENDICES ........................................................................................157 5 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1: Contribution of Natural Resources to National GDP (percentage) .................................24 Table 2.1: Distribution of Land Cover in Tanzania Mainland ...........................................................31 Table 2.2: Food Crops Production 2004 and 2005 (tons’ 000) ........................................................39 Table 2.3: Cash Crops production 2004 and 2005 (Tons’ 000) .......................................................39 Table 2.4: Typical Rain-fed and Irrigated Paddy Yields in Tanzania ...............................................41 Table 2.5: Distribution of Forest and Woodland Resources ............................................................47 Table 2.6: Categories of Protected Areas under Wildlife Conservation ...........................................53 Table 2.7: National parks (NPs) and Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) ..................................53 Table 2.8: Game Reserves (Mainland) ...........................................................................................54 Table 2.9: Endemic Species in Costal Forests ................................................................................55 Table 2.10: Wildlife Protection and Management Institutions in Tanzania ......................................56 Table 2.11: Some climatic and carrying capacity characteristics of the Rangeland Vegetation ......59 Table 2.12: Visitation at Selected Cultural Heritage Sites 1996- 2000 ............................................63 Table 3.1: River Basins ...................................................................................................................69 Table 3.2: Freshwater Fish Production from 1995 to 2005..............................................................73 Table 3.3: Recorded Cyclones in Tanzania.....................................................................................81 Table 3.4: Mainland Mangrove Species ..........................................................................................84 Table 3.5: Distribution of sea grass species in Tanzania coast .....................................................86 Table 3.6: Trend of Marine Fish Production (Tanzania Mainland ) from 1995 to 2005 ....................87 Table 3.7: Quantification of shoreline change in the Kunduchi-Manyema creek during the period 1981 – 2002.................................................................................................................93 Table 3.8: Key Policies, Legislation and Plans Relevant to Marine and Coastal Environment ........94 Table 4.1: energy sources contribution to the total energy balance at the end-use level ..............121 Table 4.2: Demand and consumption projections .........................................................................124 Table 4.3: Fuel Consumption (in metric tones) in Tanzania ..........................................................125 Table 4.4: Municipal Pollution loads Trend from urban centres in Lake Victoria Basin in Tanzania (2002-2005) ...............................................................................................................129 Table 4.5: National Coverage of Excreta Disposal Facilities in Tanzania......................................138 Table 4.6: Waste generation rates in some municipalities in Tanzania .........................................139 6 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Agro-ecological zones Figure ........................................................................................37 Figure 2.2: Soil map of Tanzania [source: Tanzania National Resources Information Center] http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/swlwpnr/reports/y_sf/z_tz/tzmp221.htm ..............................38 Figure 3.1: A map showing regions affected by excessive fluoride (hatched) in their water sources. ....................................................................................................................................76 Figure 3.2: Demonstration rooftop catchments system at Mburahati dispensary, ...........................79 Dar es Salaam ............................................................................................................79 Figure 3.3: Tanzania Exclusive Economic Zone .............................................................................80 Figure 3.4: Wetlands in Tanzania....................................................................................................97 Figure 4.1: Trends of rate of urbanization (%) for past, present and future, United Republic, Mainland and Zanzibar ..............................................................................................111 Figure 4.2: Urban Employment by Sector .....................................................................................111 Figure 4.4: Main energy consumption sectors and their share in total consumption .....................122 Figure 4.5: Sectoral contributions of Carbon-dioxide Emissions in Tanzania in 1990 ……………136 7 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS AMD Acid Mine Drainage ARD Acid Rock Drainage ESET Environmentally Sound Energy Technologies FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FBD Forest and Beekeeping Division FR Forest Reserves GDP Gross Domestic Product GML Gemstone Mining Licence MEM Ministry of Energy and Minerals ML Mining Licence MW Mega Watt NIDP National Irrigation Development Programme Pas Protected Areas PL Prospecting Licence RET Renewable Energy Technology SAS Stand Alone Solar SML Special Mining Licence SPH Solar Pre-Heater TPDC Tanzania Petroleum Development Corporation MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism GR Game Reserve CBD DOE GDP GEF ILFEMP Convention on Biological Diversity Division of Environment Gross Domestic Product Global Environment Facility Institutional and Legal Framework for Environmental Management Project National Environment Management Council Non-governmental Organization Sokoine University of Agriculture NEMC NGO SUA 8 UDSM UNDP UNEP URT VPO WFP University of Dar-es-Salaam United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme United Republic of Tanzania Vice President‟s Office World Food Programme AMD Acid Mine Drainage ARD Acid Rock Drainage RET Renewable Energy Technology MEM Ministry of Energy and Minerals TPDC Tanzania Petroleum Development Corporation ESET Environmentally Sound Energy Technologies SAS Stand Alone Solar SPH Solar Pre-Heater MW Mega Watt GML Gemstone Mining Licence SML Special Mining Licence ML Mining Licence PL Prospecting Licence GDP Gross Domestic Product FAO Food and Agricultural Organization NIDP National Irrigation Development Programme FR Forest Reserves FBD Forest and Beekeeping Division PAs Protected Areas MNRT Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism GR Game Reserve 9 FOREWORD Tanzania‟s natural resources and environment are the main source of peoples‟ livelihoods and are the backbone of the country‟s main productive sectors such as agriculture, tourism, fisheries and mining. The relationship between economic development and rational management of the environment and natural resources is emphasized in the National Environmental Policy, 1997 and the Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty, in Kiswahili acronyms MKUKUTA. Addressing environmental degradation is also one of the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Environmental problems especially in relation to drought and its impacts such as shortage of power were among the ten core issues that the President of the fourth phase Government of United Republic of Tanzania in his first speech to the National Assembly promised to address during his term in the Office. As a follow up, in March, this year, the Vice President of United Republic of Tanzania made a declaration on urgent steps to be taken to improve the environment. This culminated into preparation of a Strategy for Urgent Actions on Land Degradation and Water Catchments. Addressing environmental problems effectively require informed decisions. In that regard, up-to-date, accurate and timely information on the state of the environment must be made available This State of the Environment Report is one of the important documents, which are intended to support decision makers in addressing our environmental problems. It is prepared as a requirement of the National Environmental Management Act, 2004, section 175 subsection (1) which require the Director of Environment to publish State of the Environment Report and table it before the National Assembly after every two years. As well, this year, the State of the Environment Report is required for providing baseline information in setting targets and choosing indicators under the General Budget Support Performance Assessment (GBS-PAF) towards better and healthy environment. I am, therefore, happy to avail to the people of the United Republic of Tanzania and the international community at large the first State of Environment Report. I call upon you to work with the Government in developing appropriate and rational interventions based on the information contained in this report among other sources to address the environmental problems for the benefit of this generation and others to come. The government in its part will continue to support your efforts that strive to make Tanzania a better place to live in. Finally, I note with satisfaction that a number of individuals and institutions with different mandates and expertise have been involved in the implementation of this project and the preparation of the State of the Environment Report in particular. I argue all those who are involved in environmental management to use it so that its value can be realized by all Tanzanians and the future generations. Hon. Prof. Mark James Mwandosya, MP MINISTER OF STATE - ENVIRONMENT, VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE 10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The successful preparation of the first State of Environment Report despite time constraint is a result of commitment and hardwork by many individuals and institutions who deserve a vote of appreciation. I would like to take this opportunity to assure them of our heartfelt appreciation and we value their cooperation and support. I would like to express our gratitude to the experts who were involved in the preparation of the chapters of the report. Our thanks goes specifically to Dr. H. Mjengela (Ministry of Water), Dr. P. J. Kabudi (UDSM), Dr. Y. M. Ngaga (SUA), Mr. R. Muyungi (VPODOE), Dr. S. R. Mwinjaka (VPO–DOE), Mr. S. R. Nkondokaya (VPO-DOE), Mr. R. Muheto (NEMC), Mr. T. B. P. Silinge (Ministry of Energy and Minerals), Mr. G. Kasege (Ministry of Energy and Minerals), Prof. G. R. Kasenga (UCLAS), Dr. A. G. Kyessi (UCLAS), and Dr. F. Kilahama (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism). I am particularly indebted to the team of experts that compiled and edited the State of Environment Report for their commendable effort and input. The team included Mr. R. Muyungi, Dr. S.R. Mwinjaka, Mr. S. R. Nkondokaya, Mr. F. Ngeregeza and Mr. C. Shengena all from the Vice President‟s Office, Mr. R. Muheto (NEMC), Prof. G.R. Kasenga (UCLAS), Mr. T. B. P. Silinge (Ministry of Energy and Minerals). I also wish to thank members of the Environment Working Group for the valuable comments and the road map to accomplish the task. Finally I am thankful to Mr. E. K. Mugurusi, Director of Environment, who provided overall guidance and coordination of the process. A.R.M.S Rajabu PERMANENT SECRETARY, VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE 11 Introduction The current global and national environmental challenges has necessitated the need for an integrated environmental assessment and reporting that is cross sectoral, participatory and consultative in nature. Today, throughout the world, the need for such a comprehensive integrated environmental assessment and reporting is necessary in order for providing a comprehensive and informed approach to address the environmental challenges of the day. This is done either through global cooperative mechanisms such as the work of the Commission on Sustainable development and the various Multilateral Environmental agreements and related treaties or through national actions such as the National Strategy on Urgent actions to address the degradation of land and water catchment areas. This kind of assessment and reporting is being done at various levels. At global level UNEP has been providing a comprehensive assessment and reporting framework through the so called UNEP Global Environment Outlook project which was initiated in 1995 in response to the reporting requirement under agenda 21. At national level countries have been preparing the State of Environment reports through such comprehensive assessment and participation in order to address the national environmental and sustainable development challenges through an informed perspective. This overview state of the Environment Report (SoER) for Tanzania is prepared from this perspective. The preparation of this Report is specifically in response to the need to fulfill the requirement of this year‟s General Budget Support Performance Assessment Framework (GBS/PAF) which requires the production of the State of Environment Report by October 2006 which will provide a key indicator at the outcome/impact level. It is also in response to government desire to implement the EMA and the National Strategy for Growth and the Reduction of Poverty- MKUKUTA. Section 175 subsection (1) of the Environment Management Act No. 20 of 2004 requires the Director of Environment to, every two years; publish a report on the State of the Environment and Environmental Management that shall be tabled before the National Assembly. Subsection (2) of the same section further states that the Director may publish other information he considers necessary for public education on the environment and other environmental issues. This initial work will contribute to the production of a more comprehensive SoER in response to this requirement. This concise report provides environmental trend in each key sectors and areas taking into consideration the widest possible range of social economic, political and cultural drivers and root causes – demographics, production and consumption, poverty , trade, globalization, financing, and others. The report analyses the increased human vulnerability to environmental change affecting the various sectors of the economy and the implications to the achievement of sustainable development, the attainment of the MKUKUTA targets and the Millennium development goals. Thus, this reporting is organized around human concerns rather than environmental resources. The understanding of the implications of environmental degradation to economic sustainability as a country dependent upon climate sensitive sectors is more emphasized rather than just stating the environmental resources of the country. 12 The report therefore provides a more integrated analysis of the current state of the environment aiming at showing the cause and effect of human-nature relationship. It seeks to connect causes (drivers and pressure) to environmental outcomes (state) to activities (policies and decisions) that have shaped the environment recently, and the impact such changes now have on people, on ecosystems, and on sustainable development of the country as a whole. For instance, the current droughts and the continued degradation of water catchments areas are attributed to climate change and continued unsuitable environmental degrading practices that have a boomerang effect to the communities and far reaching implications to economic development and the attainment of the national development vision. The implications of the overall global environment change such as climate change to Tanzania and the role of the international community in this regard has also been underscored. Over and above, the preparation of this state of the environment report has improved the understanding of environmental processes and the impacts of human activities on these processes. Throughout the report the aim has been to use the improved understanding of the causes and effects to provide and recommend for responses to such changes and challenges. In the cause of this work, the assumption is that the analyzed data will be important for developing and monitoring sustainable development strategies, programmes and projects that will lead to the achievement of the poverty eradication initiatives. Thus, for consistence and clarity, this state of the environment report has been prepared in such a way that it provides access to environmental information that has been integrated, analyzed, and interpreted for government and other agencies to enhance decision making and sustainable development planning; provide information for environmental monitoring and additional assessments in areas of priority; increase public awareness and understanding of environment issues and challenges as they relate to sustainable development; the interlinkages between environment, community actions and government policies and strategies thereby encouraging individuals, communities and the government to engage in actions that can improve the quality of life of everyone. Tanzania depends on a robust and healthy environment to support income generating activities and to provide Tanzanians with food, medicines, energy, and building materials. The country is highly endowed with natural resources such as gold/gemstones, fish, forests and wildlife. It has a high richness of biodiversity and natural beauty where approximately 30% of Tanzania‟s land has been set aside in some form of protection. The country's natural resources provide the principle source for peoples‟ livelihoods especially the rural poor. With 80% of Tanzania's population involved in agriculture, the environment is of key importance to the livelihood of the vast majority of Tanzanians. The government has made significant progress in setting up a basic policy and a legislative and institutional framework for environmental management that is, the National Environment Policy (1997) and the Environmental Management Act (EMA 2004). The Act specifies the role of actors at various levels of government, from local government authorities to line ministries in environmental management. It also outlines the various environmental management tools such as Environmental Assessments, Environmental Standards and State of the Environment report. 13 As explained, there is a clear cause-and-effect relationship between poverty and environmental degradation. Environmental degradation leads to widespread poverty; equally, poverty is a habitual cause of environmental degradation as it undermines people's capacity to manage resources wisely. Tanzania has developed MKUKUTA which is the centerpiece of government policy to address poverty in the medium term. The strategy is strongly outcome focused with increased attention to growth and governance and it emphasizes the central role played by environment in sustainable growth and poverty reduction. MKUKUTA makes explicit mention of sustainable development as an underlying principle and has specific goals on environmental sustainability and 15 environmental targets. The Vice President's Office is taking the lead in mainstreaming environment into poverty reduction processes and sector plans and budgets. The long term challenge is how to sustaining the economic growth as well as initiatives for achieving poverty reduction objectives through better management and use of the available environmental resources. 14 CHAPTER ONE: SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES PART 1: INSTITUIONAL ISSUES 1.0 Location and Administrative Boundaries I.1 Location The United Republic of Tanzania is the largest country in the East Africa. It is located between 1 degrees South and 12 degrees South latitude and 30 degrees East and 40 degrees East. It is constituted by Mainland Tanzania and Tanzania Zanzibar. It is a vast country with a total area of 945,087 Sq. km comprised of land area of 883,749 sq. km (881,289sq.km mainland and 2,460sq.km Zanzibar), plus 59,050 sq. km inland water bodies (URT, 2002a). It shares borders with eight countries. Its neighbours include Kenya and Uganda in the North, Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo in the West, Zambia and Malawi in the South West and Mozambique in the South. Tanzania Mainland borders the main water bodies of Africa. To the east is the Indian Ocean, to the north Lake Victoria, to the west Lake Tanganyika and to the south-west Lake Nyasa. Mainland Tanzania also has the highest point in Africa. The snow caped Mount Kilimanjaro is 5,950 metres high. Tanzania shares important ecosystems with its neighbours. Important natural resources straddle across national boundaries and their management present great challenges, which require closer cooperation with neighbouring states. It shares Lake Victoria with Kenya and Uganda, Lake Tanganyika with Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia and Lake Nyasa with Malawi and Mozambique. It is also part of the Nile Basin with nine other countries. The existence of substantial transboundary natural resources necessitate Tanzania and its neighbours to put in place protocols, agreements or mechanisms for the conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits of the transboundary resources. Already regional instruments and mechanisms have been put in place for the management of some of the transboundary resources. 1.2 Administrative Boundaries Mainland Tanzania is divided into 20 regions and 123 Districts. The regions are: Arusha, Kilimanjaro, Manyara, Tanga, Pwani, Lindi, Mtwara, Ruvuma, Rukwa, Kigoma, Tabora, Shinyanga, Mwanza, Singida, Dodoma, Morogoro, Kagera, Mara, Iringa and Mbeya. 2.0 People and Population Dynamics 2.1 People of Tanzania The people of Tanzania who constitute the most peaceful, politically stable and vibrant democracy in Africa are drawn from more than 120 major ethnic groups, which can be identified culturally speaking different languages or dialects. If the sub-ethnic groups are also included then the figure goes over 150 different groups. Majority of them are composed of Bantu speaking people but there are also Cushites and Nilotic speaking ethnic groups and a few thousand Khoisan people. There are also Tanzanians who belong to the Asian Tanzanians, Arab Tanzanians and European Tanzanians. Therefore it can be 15 surmised that Tanzania is one of the least homogeneous nation with an estimated seven percent homogeneity. However in the past 45 years of independence in managing this heterogeneity, Tanzania has been able to forge a sense of nationhood and discarded negative tendencies of tribalism that has plagued other African countries leading to internecine wars and genocide. The cultural and linguistic diversity of the Tanzanian people has blended a unique sense of togetherness and solidarity consolidated by the use of Kiswahili by all the people as the national language. People of different races and religions live side by side without acrimony respecting each other and cooperating in social events and activities. It is a taboo in Tanzania to use or exploit ethnicity or religious identifies for political or public gains. The peace and stability of the country has made it also a haven of peace to other Africans who have found asylum in Tanzania as freedom fighters or refugees running away from oppression, tyranny or killings in their countries. The influx of refugees has nevertheless posed a serious stress to the environment and in some areas to catastrophic environmental degradation. 2.2 Population Dynamics Based on the 2002 Population and Housing Census, the country was reported to have about 34,569, 232 people: 33,584,607 from mainland Tanzania and 984,625 from Zanzibar with an annual average intercensal growth rate (1988 – 2002) of 2.9 (URT, 2002b). By 2005 the country has about 36.2 million people (17.7 million people were males and 18.5 million people were females). The average household size was estimated at 4.9 overall and 4.9 and 5.3 in mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar respectively. The population density was estimated to be 39 persons per sq.km overall and, 38 and 40 persons per sq. km in mainland Tanzania and Zanzibar respectively. An increase in population has always been associated to rapid degradation of the environment particularly deforestation, pollution and soil erosion. Both population growth and environmental degradation have become global problems of concern. 3.0 Policies, Institutional and Legal Framework in Relation to Environmental Management 3.1 Policies The Government has promulgated a number of national policies on different aspects including environmental and natural resources management in the 1990s. There are number of existing policies that relate to environmental management in Tanzania. These are policies that provide guidance or impact the implementation of management at different levels of governance in the country. Environmental management is complex, multi-sectoral and cross-sectoral it requires a holistic approach and multi-level operation. Effective environmental management involves many actors and incorporates many different and sometimes overlapping institutional and legal mandates, which require cooperation and coordination. 16 Tanzania has promulgated the National Environmental Management Policy, 1997 and other sector specific policies, which provide the policy guidance on how its environment and natural resources will be sustainably managed. There is in place a solid institutional framework mandated among institutions to coordinate the implementation of policies and enforce laws that have been enacted by the Parliament for the conservation and management of the environment and natural resources. The role of National Environmental Policy, 1997 (NEP) can be summarized to include the following: i. Developing consensual agreement at all levels for the challenge of making tradeoffs and the right choices between immediate economic benefits to meet short term and urgent development needs, and long term sustainability benefits; ii. Developing a unifying set of principles and objectives for integrated multisectoral approaches necessary in addressing the totality of the environment; iii. Fostering Government-wide commitment to the integration of environmental concerns in the sectoral policies, strategies and investment decisions, and to the development and use of relevant policy instruments which can do the most to achieve this objective; iv. Creating the context for planning and coordinating at a multisectoral level, to ensure a more systematic approach, focus and consistency, for the ever-increasing variety of players and intensity of environmental activities. One of the major thrusts of NEP is that it provides for the need to develop ways for encouraging a holistic multi-sectoral approach to environmental management by integrating environmental concerns in sectoral policies, strategies and decisions. In that way it creates the context for cross-sectoral planning and coordination. NEP articulates the concept of shared responsibility and distinct accountability for environmental management so as to inculcate collective responsibility in environmental management without blurring specific mandates and responsibilities that have been assigned to each institution. That NEP is comprehensive and covers environmental mandates assigned to other sectors. Paragraphs 45 to 60 of the National Environmental Policy provides on Sectoral policies covering agriculture, livestock, water and sanitation, health, transport, energy, mining, human settlement, industry, tourism, wildlife, forestry and fisheries. This position is also reciprocated and reflected in Sectoral policies by including paragraphs on environment management in general and specifically on the requirement of undertaking an EIA. The National Environmental Policy, 1997 in its diagnosis of the state of the environment in Tanzania identified six major problems that require urgent attention. These are problems of:i. Land degradation; ii. Lack of accessible, good quality water for both urban and rural inhabitants; 17 iii. iv. v. vi. Environmental pollution; Loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity; Deterioration of aquatic systems; and Deforestation. In finding solutions and tackling these problems the National Environmental Policy, 1997 outlines its overall objectives as follows:i. to ensure sustainability, security and equitable use of resources for meeting the basic needs of the present and future generations without degrading the environment or risking health or safety; ii. to prevent and control degradation of land, water, vegetation, and air which constitute life support systems; iii. to conserve and enhance our natural and man made heritage, including the biological diversity of the unique ecosystems of Tanzania; iv. to improve the condition and productivity of degraded areas including rural and urban settlements in order that all Tanzanians and aesthetically pleasing surroundings; v. to raise public awareness and understanding of the essential linkages between environment and development, and to promote individual and community participation in environmental action; vi. to promote international cooperation on the environment agenda, and expand our participation and contribution to relevant bilateral, subregional, regional, and global organizations and programs, including implementation of Treaties. Challenges and problems identified in the National Environmental Policy as well as the overall objectives have informed the enactment of the Environmental Management Act, 2004. 3.2 Institutional and Legal Framework Institutional arrangement for the management of the environment in Tanzania has two basic types of environmental management. These are: Type A: Sectoral Environmental Management Functions This concerns the management of specific natural resources or environmental services, such as agriculture, fisheries, mining and waste management. Type B: Coordinating and Supporting Environmental Management Functions This concerns the task of coordinating the different and sometimes conflicting Type A activities and integrating them into overall sustainable system, and providing the central support functions. Type A functions are to a large extent directly operational and these are also guided by sector specific policies and sector pieces of legislation such as the Forest Act, 2002, Fisheries Act, 2003, and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1974, Mining Act, 1998 and other relevant pieces legislation. 18 Type B functions concern the overall organisation, rules and coordination and the establishment of a coherent general context for environmental management. The National Environmental Policy, 1997 and the Environmental Management Act, 2004, guide type B functions by providing a policy and legislative framework for coordination of implementation of policies and laws on environmental and natural resources management. The Environmental Management Act, 2004 has been enacted by the Parliament in order to provide for legal and institutional framework for sustainable management of the environment and natural resources in implementation of the National Environmental Policy. The following discussion outlines the institutional as well as legal instruments and systems that have been established or recognised by the Act. Specifically the Act creates a legal and institutional framework for coordination of environmental management functions. 3.2.1 Institutional Framework Tanzania did not and does not lack institutions established by the Constitution and other pieces of legislation, which in one way or the other deal or participate in the management of the environment and natural resources. What needed to be done was to identify such institutions and their mandates and put in place a coordination mechanism to ensure that each institution plays its role. The aspect of coordination as one of the major objectives of the Act is aptly reflected in the EMA where in section 7 (2) states that: “ In the promotion of the objective referred to under subsection (1), this Act provides a legal framework necessary for coordinating harmonious and conflicting activities with a view to integrating such activities into overall sustainable environmental management system by providing key technical support to Sectoral Ministries.” Minister responsible for Environment The institutional framework ingrained in EMA places the Minister responsible for environment as the focal coordination institution for the implementation and enforcement of the Act. EMA clearly states that the Minister shall be overall responsible for fostering co-ordination between the Government, Local Government Authorities and other bodies engaged in environmental management as a cross-cutting issue and shall in that respect maintain a system of collaboration, consultation and co-operation with any person having functions provided under the Act. The Act outlines the powers of the Minister in various aspects geared at ensuring proper management of the environment. The powers include issuing guidelines and making regulations for the proper implementation of the Act. National Environmental Advisory Committee EMA creates the National Environmental Advisory Committee (NEAC) as the advisory body to the Minister. NEAC is composed of members whose experience shall reflect the various fields of environmental management in the public service, private sector, the academia and the civil society. In the public service it draws its members from directors of government departments and agencies that are involved in sectors relevant to environmental and natural resources management. 19 Director of Environment EMA recognises the Director of Environment who is a public servant as the head of the Division of Environment which is the working level cell of the Ministry responsible for environment providing policy and technical back-up, and executing the oversight mandate of the Ministry, as required in Government systems and procedures. National Environment Management Council EMA repealed the National Environment Management Act, 1983 which established the National Environment Management Council (NEMC) as an advisory and policy making parastatal organisation. Despite the repeal of that Act the new Environmental Management Act, 2004 has retained NEMC as a statutory body under the Act now charged with, among others, the following functions: carrying environmental audit; coordinate survey, and research in the field of environment and disseminate the information; review EIAs and recommend for their approval; enforcing and ensuring compliance to the the national environmental quality standards; in co- operation with relevant sector Ministries undertake programmes intended to enhance environmental education and public awareness; render advice and technical support to entities engaged in natural resources management and environmental protection; publishing and disseminating manuals, codes or guidelines relating to environmental management; establishing and operating a Central Environmental Information System which may bring together any findings, data and statistics generated by both public and private institutions in the course of environmental observation and management; and managing Environmental Protected Areas that may be established under the EMA, 2004. Sector Environment Sections EMA has recognized the existence of other sector Ministries and their mandates in relations to environmental management. In order to enhance coordination the Act has provided for the establishment in each Ministry of a Sector Environmental Section, which has, among others been assigned duties of coordinating implementation of the Act in that respective Minstry. The Sector Environment Section is to be headed by a Sector Environment Coordinator who shall be appointed or designated to that post by the Ministry from among its officers who possesses adequate knowledge in environmental management. Regional Secretariat The Local Government Reform Programme has resulted in the restructuring of the Regional and Local Government structures and functions. It has created a Regional Secretariat headed by the Regional Administrative Secretary (RAS) assisted by regional experts and advisors. In recognition of that EMA states that it is the Regional Secretariat that will be responsible for coordination of all advice on environmental management in their respective regions. In order to ensure effectiveness EMA provides for the appointment or designation by the Minister responsible for Regional Administration an officer to be known as the Regional Environment Management Expert. The Expert would be responsible for advising local government authorities on matters relating to the implementation and enforcement of the Act. The Regional Secretariat and the Regional 20 Expert links the regional and local government administration with the Director of Environment and NEMC. Local Government Authorities The bulk of implementation of Government functions under the policy of decentralisation by devolution espoused in the LGRP and provided for under the Local Government Laws lies with Local Government Authorities. It is recognition of that fact that EMA has given the responsibility of implementation of the Act at the local government level to the same institutions that have been established under the Local Government (District Authorities) Act, 1982 and the Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act, 1982 as amended to effect changes introduced by LGRP. At the local government level is it the standing committees dealing with environment that have been designated as environmental management committees under EMA. The cross-referencing to the Local Government Acts makes sure that all the existing committees at that level existing now and which will be created in future are automatically committees under EMA. That ensures that there is no discrepancy or gap of the existence of committees responsible for environmental management under EMA and Local Government Acts. In view of that the Standing Committee on Urban Planning and Environment established under subsection (1) of section 42 of the Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act, 1982 as well as the Standing Committee on Economic Affairs Works and Environment established under subsection (1) of section 74 of the Local Government (District Authorities) Act, 1982 shall each be the City, Municipal or District Environment Management Committee in respect of the City, Municipal or District to which each of such Standing Committee is established. Also each Each Standing Committee of Economic Affairs, Works and Environment of a township established under subsection (1) of section 96 of the Local Government (District Authorities) Act, 1982, a special committee formed pursuant to section 107 of the Local Government (District Authorities) Act, 1982 as well as the Ward Development Committee established under subsection (1) of section 31 of the Local Government (District Authorities) Act, 1982. In the case of a village it is the Village Development Committee of each village shall be responsible for the proper management of the environment in respect of the area in which it is established. The same applies to town councils where the committee that deals with environmental matters under the Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act, 1982 will also be the Town Environment Management Committee. EMA 2004 requires each Local Government Authority to designate or appoint an Environment Management Officer who will be a public officer. This Environmental management officer will among others be responsible for coordinating implementation of the Act in that respective authority. 3.2.2 Legal Framework The Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania, 1977 contains a provision on the protection of natural resources, which covers the environment. Natural resources include forests, vegetation, landscape and geographical layout of the country, lakes, rivers and 21 other water bodies, land and minerals beneath and flora and fauna. . Article 27(1) of the Constitution of Tanzania stipulates that: “Every person is obliged to safeguard and protect the natural resources of the United Republic, State property and all property jointly owned y the people, as well as to respect another person’s property.” The Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution obliges the state and all its organs to ensure that the natural resources and heritage are harnessed, preserved and applied to the common good of Tanzanians. This shows that the Constitution, which is the above, all laws lays a firm constitutional foundation for the sustainable management of the environment in Tanzania. All along, Tanzania had several pieces of legislation on natural resources, which touched on some issues of environment. Most of these pieces of legislation are aimed at regulating use and management of natural resources, have evolved along sector lines governing specific environmental media. Nevertheless, a notable development in Tanzania has been the change in approach in legislating on management of natural resources and the environment. There is a shift from the solely using the “command and control” approach. The recent pieces of legislation have provisions on conservation of biodiversity and the use of environmental management instruments such as General Management Plans and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in most of the pieces of legislation enacted after the Rio Conference in 1992. Such recent pieces of legislation include the Marine Parks and Reserves Act, 1994, the Mining Act, 1998, the Forest Act, 2002, the Beekeeping Act, 2002, Industrial and Consumer Chemicals (Management and Control) Act, 2003 and the Fisheries Act, 2003. However, it is truism that before 2004 there was no specific law for the holistic management of the environment in Mainland Tanzania unlike the repealed National Environment Management Act, 1983 that basically created NEMC and provided for its functions. It is the enactment of the Environmental Management Act, 2004 that has provided framework legislation for environmental management in Mainland Tanzania. This is a comprehensive piece of legislation providing for mechanisms and forums of coordination as well as tools/instruments of environmental management. There are instruments or tools of modern environmental management, which are now universally accepted and included in legislation taking into account the specific situation of each country. 3.3 International Co-operation in Environment Environment being a global agenda, Tanzania cooperates with other nations in managing the global environment. In that regard, the United Republic of Tanzania is a party to various international treaties aimed at the protection of the environment. The treaties are divided between those having a universal application and those limited to the Africa Region. Some of the treaties and conventions on environmental issues that Tanzania is a party are as follows: 22 i. The convention relative to the Preservation of Fauna and Flora in their Natural state, London, 1993 ii. The convention on the African Migratory Locust, Kano, 1962 iii. The African convention on the conservation on nature and Natural Resources, Algiers. iv. The convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (the Ramsar Convention), 1971 v. The convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other matters, London, 1972. vi. The convention concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Paris, 1972. vii. The convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution from ships (MARPOL) 1973. viii. The convention on International Trade and Endangered species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Washington, 1973. ix. The United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea, Montego Bay, 1982. x. The Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone layer, Montreal, 1987. xi. The Basel convention on the control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 1989. xii. Bamako convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, 1990. xiii. Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992. xiv. The United Nations Framework convention on climate change, 1992. xv. Convention to combat Desertification, particular Africa, Paris, 1994. xvi. The Kyoto Protocol xvii. The Cartagena Protocol xviii. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001 xix. Rotterdam Convention of Prior Informed Consent Chemicals, 1998 International convention on natural resources and environment had an impact in the enactment and approach adopted in national legislation on similar matters in Tanzania. The Environmental Management Act, 2004 empowers the Minister responsible for environment to initiate and prepare legislative proposals for implementation of international or regional agreements concerning the management of the environment. That includes identification of appropriate measures necessary for the implementation of agreements, which Tanzania is a party. The responsibility of creating mechanism for working closely with international and regional communities in ensuring a peaceful, healthier and better global environment is again vested in the Minister responsible for environment. 23 PART II: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ISSUES 1.0 The State of the Economy 1.1 National Gross Domestic Product (GDP) The Gross Domestic Product in real terms grew by 6.8 percent in 2005, compared to 6.7 percent in 2004 (URT 2005). The increase in growth rate was mainly attributed to an increase in the growth of the whole sale and retail trade, hotels and restaurants (including tourism); mining and quarrying; manufacturing; construction; and transport and communication sectors. Likewise, the growth rates of electricity and water, financial and business services, public administration and other services sectors increased. The average annual GDP growth rate (per cent) increased from 2.5% between 1990 and 1994 to 4.0% between 1995 and 1999 to 5.8% between 2000 and 2004 (URT 2005). The average annual GDP growth (per cent) for Sub-Saharan Africa in 1990, 1995 and 1999 were 1.1, 3.7 and 2.0 respectively (World Bank, 2001: 14p). Therefore, the Tanzania‟s GDP growth rates are relatively higher than the average for the Sub-Saharan Africa in the same years. In 2005, the Gross domestic Product amounted to Tshs 13,063,317 million at current prices or Tshs. 2,237,079 at 1992 constant prices, while the per capita income, at 1992 prices was Tshs. 61,798 in 2005, compared to Tshs. 59,335 in 2004, equivalent to an increase of 4.2 percent. 1.1.1 Contribution of Natural Resources to National GDP The natural resource sectors contributed an average of about 5.7 percent of GDP, with fisheries showing the highest growth rate and substantial increases in export earnings of combined total of over US$ 1.3 billion (NSGRP, 2005). However, in the National accounts of Tanzania, the revenues from forest, hunting and fishing are all treated as subsectors of agriculture. Hence, the contribution of natural resources to national GDP will only appear to include agriculture, mining, tourism and water (Table 1.1). Mining is one of the fastest growing economic sectors in Tanzania today. In 2003, it grew by 17 percent compared to 15 percent in 2002. Likewise, tourism has developed rapidly since the mideighties. It is now economically significant sector as it accounts about 12 percent GDP that has grown at an average of 6.7 percent over the last four years (NSGRP, 2005). Table 1.1: Contribution of Natural Resources to National GDP (percentage) Natural resource sectors Agriculture (crop production, livestock, forestry, wildlife/hunting & fishing) Percentage contribution to GDP 51.0 Mining 17.0 Tourism 12.0 Water 3.0 24 Trade 17.0 Total 100.0 Sources: NSGRP, 2005 and Tanzania website In the medium term and long-term horizon, agriculture will continue to play a central role in Tanzanian‟s economy. A key area of the economy in which the contribution of agriculture is decisive is the country Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The sector contributes to both export earnings and employment, which accounts for 60 percent and 84per cent respectively. Crucial components of the agricultural sector are food crops, livestock and traditional export of crops whose contribution currently stands at 55 percent, 30 per cent and 8 per cent respectively of the total GDP. The water sector contribution to GDP has remained at 0.2 per cent for some years, a proportion which is insignificant considering the importance of the sector to the economy. Hence the government is encouraging private investment in the water sector. Measure by its share of contribution to GDP, water features among the smallest sectors in Tanzania. For some years the water sector contribution to GDP remained at 0.2 percent which is very insignificant compared to what other sectors contribute e.g. agriculture which in 1999 accounted for 48.9 percent of the national GDP. Fortunately water in Tanzania is among the sectors with a greater growth potential. In 1999 waters contribution to GDP recorded a handsome increase of 3.0 percent. However, water as a resource and as an area of activity plays a more important role to social economic development in Tanzania when are take into consideration the linkage effects of this sector. For example even agriculture which is the greatest sector in all important aspects cannot tick without water. 1.2 Price Trends Inflation rate has been declining continuously since 1994 from 35.5 percent to 4.4 percent in 2003 at constant 1994 prices. However, the trend changed in 2004 and increased by 5.9 percent. On the other hand, inflation rate increased by 4.2 percent in 2004 compared to 3.5 percent in 2003, based on the new 2001 basket and weight. The increase in inflation in 2004 was caused by the increase in the average price of food following the prevalence of food shortages in some areas at the end of 2003 and the beginning of 2004. Furthermore, the increase in the relative prices of petroleum products caused an increase in transportation costs and thus induced the upward trend in the average price of other goods and services. In 2004, the price indices of groups of goods and services comprising of food and clothing and footwear increased; and by considering their total weights in the NCPI (62.3 percent), these groups contributed immensely in the increase of national average inflation. The price indices of these groups increased by 5.9 and 5.1 percent in 2004 compared to 4.5 and 2.0 percent in 2003, respectively. The price index of transport, which also has a substantial weight in the new NCPI increased by a small rate of 1.0 percent in 2004 compared to 1.2 percent in 2003. The price index of rent increased by 2.2 percent in 2004 compared to 2.0 percent in 2003. Notwithstanding the reduced weight in the new NCPI, the price index of health services increased marginally by 0.5 percent in 25 2004 compared to 2.9 percent in 2003. The rate of increase in prices declined only in drinks and tobacco group in 2004 by 0.5 percent compared to the increase of 1.5 percent in 2003. The average rates of increase in the prices of other groups of goods and services increased at lower rates in 2004 compared to the prevailing situation in 2003. The average is as follows: (the rate for 2003 in parenthesis): fuel, power and water, 2.3 percent (5.9 percent); furniture and household equipment, 0.2 percent (2.1 percent); household operation and maintenance 0.9 percent (1.1 percent); and education 0.6 percent (2.2 percent). The analysis of the price indices of goods and services consumed by various income groups showed that the lower income group has been affected significantly by the increase in inflation rate. The index in this income group increased at a rate of 8.2 percent in 2004 compared to 4.9 percent in 2003. Furthermore, the rate of increase in prices of many goods and services (including food and household operations and maintenance) increased in this group in 2004 compared to 2003. Those goods and services are highly consumed by this income group. The price indices of food and household operations and maintenance increased by 8.2 and 19.9 percent in 2004 compared to 3.3 and 6.4 percent in 2003, respectively in this low income group. For the middle and high income groups, the overall price indices increased by 8.2 and 7.1 percent in 2004 compared to 7.1 and 6.8 percent in 2003, respectively. The trend in the prices of goods and services for the Dar es Salaam residents was mixed. However, the overall average price indices for the low, middle and high income groups increased by 8.2, 8.2 and 7.1 percent in 2004 compared to the increase of 3.4, 7.2 and 6.8 percent in 2003, respectively. The increased transport costs following the increase in the average price of petroleum products has greatly affected Dar es Salaam residents belonging to middle and high income groups who are the main consumers of these products. The price index of transport in these groups increased by 25.5 and 6.2 percent in 2004 compared to 4.8 and 3.7 percent in 2003, respectively. For the low income residents, the price index for transport decreased by 0.7 percent in 2004 compared to an increase of 0.6 percent in 2003. However, the impact of the increased relative price of petroleum products reflected much in the increased average price of food for the Dar es Salaam residents of all income status. The average price of food for the residents of Dar es Salaam of high, middle and low income groups increased by 13.6, 10.8 and 8.2 percent in 2004 compared to 4.7, 6.6 and 3.3 percent in 2003, respectively. 1.3 Balance of Payment During 2005, the overall balance of payment indicated a deficit of USD 437.5 million compared to a surplus of USD 43.4 million during 2004. The deficit was a result of increased deficit in the trade account balance that widened to USD 985.5 in 2005, equivalent to 13.7 percent higher than the deficit of USD 866.6 registered in 2004. 1.4 Public Finance The fiscal policies for 2004/05 aimed at implementing the Tanzania Development Vision 2025 and the Poverty Reduction Strategy as well as catalyzing development in the country. On the basis of that policy thrust, the government budget for 2004/05 targeted to raise domestic revenue to Tshs.1,739,288 million, equivalent to 14.4 percent of GDP, compared to 13.3 percent of GDP during 2003/04. Tax revenue was estimated at Tshs. 26 1,599,165 million and non-tax revenue at Tshs. 140,122 million. Grants and loans, including proceeds from HIPC debt relief, were estimated to amount to Tshs. 1,233,578 million. 1.4.1 Domestic Revenue Domestic revenue collection for the period July 2004 – March 2005 amounted to Tshs. 1,314,523.8 million compared to an estimate of Tshs. 1,089,261.9 million collected over the same period in the previous year, equivalent to an increase of 20.7 percent. The amount collected is also equivalent to 102 percent of the estimates of Tshs. 1,292,843 million. Out of the total amount collected Tshs. 1,205,492.8 million was tax revenue, equivalent to 91.7 percent of total revenue while non-tax revenue amounted to Tshs.109, 031.0 million, equivalent to 8.3 percent for that period. During July 2004 – March 2005, the trend of domestic revenue was satisfactory mainly on account of improved performance in tax collection, particularly Value Added Tax (VAT) on imported petroleum products and income tax. In addition, customs and excise duties on domestic goods during this period was also satisfactory, compared to the same period during 2003/04, mainly on account of a substantial increase in importation of goods during that period. 1.4.2 Foreign Grants and Loans During the period of July 2004 – March 2005, foreign grants and loans including HIPC debt relief inflows amounted to Tshs. 1,132,450 million. Out of this, foreign grants were Tshs. 595,238 million, external loans, Tshs. 490,592 million and debt relief under HIPC arrangement, Tshs. 46, 620 million. In that period, grants and loans for the development budget amounted to Tshs. 719,817 million, an excess of 23.0 percent of the estimates of Tshs. 585,375 million. 1.5 Government Expenditure Government expenditure policies for 2004/05 focused on enhancing and sustaining good financial management in order to facilitate achievements of national objectives of promoting economic growth and poverty reduction, as outlined in the Poverty Reduction Strategy. The government planned to spend a total of Tshs. 3,347,538 million (including amortization of Tshs. 149,386 million), equivalent to 28.3 percent of GDP. Out of this amount, Tshs. 1,774,773 million (excluding CFS) and Tshs. 1,091,590 million were earmarked for recurrent and development expenditures, being a proportion of 67.0 percent and 33.0 percent, respectively. With regard to recurrent expenditure, Tshs.551, 159 million, equivalent to 31.1 percent, were allocated to wages and salaries; Tshs.374, 358 million, equivalent to 21.1 percent to priority sectors as defined in the Poverty Reduction Strategy; and Tshs. 849,256 million or 47.8 percent to other charges. A total of Tshs. 331,789 million were set aside for Consolidated The period between July 2004 - March 2005, total expenditure amounted to Tshs. 2,429,269 million, equivalent to 97.5 percent of estimates of Tshs. 2,486,892 million. Recurrent and development expenditures reached Tshs. 1,248,105 million and Tshs. 869,202 million, equivalent to 51.4 percent and 35.8 percent of total expenditure, 27 respectively. Expenditure through CFS was Tshs. 311,962 million, equivalent to 12.7 percent of the total expenditure in that period. In 2004/05, budgetary allocation to health sector was 7.8 percent compared to 7.0 percent in 2003/04. The agriculture sector including forestry, fishing and hunting was allocated 4.6 percent of the total budget in 2004/05 compared to 3.5 percent in 2003/04. The budget allocated to agriculture research was 3.7 percent of the total budget allocated to the agriculture sector. The allocation to defence affairs and services decreased to 3.9 percent in 2004/05 from 4.5 percent in 2003/04. The allocation to other economic affairs and services (trade, tourism, labour services etc) decreased from 4.4 percent in 2003/04 to 4.0 percent in 2004/05. The allocation to the mining, manufacturing and construction sectors decreased to 5.4 percent in 2004/05 from 6.0 percent in 2003/04, due to the decrease in number of construction projects. Out of this amount, 83.0 percent was allocated to construction sector alone. The budgetary allocation to education sector continued to decrease from 17.3 percent in 2003/04 to 11.8 percent in 2004/05. The allocation to transportation and communication sector declined to 7.8 percent in 2004/05 from 8.3 percent in 2003/04. The fuel and energy sector was allotted 3.0 percent. The allocation to the social security and community services decreased to 1.0 percent in 2004/05 from 1.6 percent in 2003/04. Other social services were allotted 0.1 percent in 2004/05, the same rate as that of 2003/04. The allocations to other public economic and social services increased from 17.7 percent in 2003/04 to 22.9 percent in 2004/05. 1.6 National Debt As at end-December 2004, national debt stock stood at USD 9,219.3 million compared to USD 8,793.2 million at end-December 2003, equivalent to an increase of 4.9 percent. Out of which, domestic debt was USD 928.3 million, equivalent to 10.1 percent, while external debt amounted to USD 8,291.0 million, equivalent to 89.9 percent. 1.6.1 International Debt Management and External Assistance As at end-December 2004, total external debt amounted to USD 8,291.0 million, compared to USD 7,890.7 million in the period ended December 2003, equivalent to an increase of 5.1 percent. Out of this amount, USD 6,990.6 million was disbursed outstanding debt and USD 1,300.4 million was interest arrears. Out of the disbursed outstanding debt, the Central Government was the largest borrower, owing USD 6,374 million, equivalent to 91.2 percent of the total debt, while parastatal and private sector owed 149.2 million (2.1 percent) and USD 467.4 million (6.7 percent), respectively. The increase of external debt stock was mainly attributed to accumulation of interest arrears for Non-Paris Club debt, exchange rate fluctuations, and disbursements of new and outstanding loans from donors. As at end-December 2004, the overall total external debt committed reached USD 8,740.3 million. Out of that amount, USD 6,990.6 million was disbursed outstanding debt and USD 1,749.7 million was un-disbursed balance. The profile of disbursed outstanding debt by creditor category shows that USD 4,820.5 million (69.0 percent) was owed to 28 multilateral creditors, USD 1,520.1 million (21.7 percent) was owed to bilateral creditors, whereas, commercial and export creditors were USD 401.7 million (5.7 percent) and USD 248.2 million (3.6 percent), respectively. The share of multilateral debt was higher, reflecting the Government policy of borrowing concessional loans, offered mainly by multilateral institutions. The distribution of external debt to various sectors (excluding interest) by end-December 2004 was as follows: 19.5 percent of the total debt was in the form of balance of payments support; transport sector accounted for 16.2 percent; agriculture, and energy and mining accounted for 15.3 and 13.6 percent, respectively. Industrial sector received 6.0 percent; while education, finance, and tourism received 5.0 percent, 1.2 percent and 1.2 percent, respectively. The remaining 22.1 percent was absorbed by other sectors. 1.6.2 External Debt Services As at end-December 2004, total debt service declined to USD 149.9 million from USD 238.1 million at end-December 2003. The decline was attributed to implementation of Paris Club debt agreement and HIPC debt measures. Out of total debt service, USD 126.3 million was paid to multilateral creditors, while USD 4.1 million and USD 19.5 million went to bilateral and commercial creditors respectively. 1.6.3 Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative Tanzania continued to receive debt relief under the enhanced HIPC initiative. As at endDecember 2004, the Government had received debt relief from multilateral institutions amounted to USD 329.7 million as indicated in the bracket: International Development Association (USD 205.1 million), International Monetary Fund (USD 65.6 million), African Development Bank (USD 37.2 million), European Investment Bank (USD 8.3 million), International Fund for Agricultural Development (USD 8.0 million), Norwegian Trust Fund (USD 5.5 million) and Nordic Development Fund (USD 0.11 million). Total debt relief received from Paris Club bilateral creditors was USD 858.7 million. The debt relief was received from the following creditors: Austria, Belgium, Canada, Germany, France, Italy, Russia, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, United Kingdom and USA. In 2004, the Government received debt relief from Non-Paris Club bilateral creditors amounting to USD 104.3 million under HIPC relief from Bulgaria, India and Kuwait. However, Kuwait had offered debt relief by rescheduling debt amounting to USD 31.8 million, while China had offered debt relief outside the HIPC framework by cancelling debt worth USD 37.7 million. However, the Government has initiated dialogue with Hungary, Libya and Abu Dhabi for debt relief. The savings from debt relief were allocated to priority sectors as identified in the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS), which include; education, water, health, agriculture, rural roads, and good governance. 1.7 Human Development The concept of human development is much broader and more complex than any summary measure can capture, even when supplemented by other indices. The human development index (HDI) focuses on three measurable dimensions of human development: living a long and healthy life, being educated and having a decent standard 29 of living. Thus it combines measures of life expectancy, school enrolment, literacy and income to allow a broader view of a country‟s development than does income alone. Despite of the large land size and population, the country is among 34 least developed countries in Africa. It has a HDI of 0.418 and ranked 164th in the 2005 Human Development Report of 2005. In 1999, the country ranked 156th out of 174 countries, down from 126th in 1990. This interprets into downfall in terms of human development in general from a position of 126th in 1990 to a position of 156th in 2005. Life expectancy is another human development indicator, which is 46 years. The combined primary, secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio of the country is 41 per cent. However, gross Enrolment Rate reached 105.3 percent and 106.3 percent in 2003 and 2004 respectively. In relation to the combined gross enrolment rate (41 percent), the pace of transition to secondary and tertiary schools is low, despite the growth in private secondary schools. Illiteracy remains high. About 28.6 percent of Tanzanians cannot read and write in any language. The real income per capita has risen only 30 percent higher than that at independence. The bottom line under human development aspects of the national strategy for growth and reduction pf poverty (NSGRP, 2005) is the need to bring about sustainable human development. That is, use of country‟s natural resources and avoiding harmful effects on the environment and on people‟s livelihood. The strategy also advocates for people-centred development. 30 CHAPTER 2: LAND AND TERRESTRIAL ISSUES PART I: LAND ISSUES 1.0 General Land Use The present land use is categorized into eight major land types, namely, forests, woodland, bushland, grassland, cultivated land, open land, water features and others. Table 2.1 shows the distribution of land cover in Tanzania mainland. Forests and woodland occupies more than 40 percent of the total land area of mainland. In some regions such as Mara and Mwanza, the area covered by forest and woodland is less than 10 percent. On the other hand in regions such as Kigoma, Lindi, Rukwa and Singida, the cultivated land occupies less than 5 per cent of the area. Bushland and grassland occupies around 20 percent of the total land area respectively. Table 2.1: Distribution of Land Cover in Tanzania Mainland Land Cover Area in ‘000 ha Percentage Forest Woodland Bushland Grassland Cultivated land Open Land Water Features Others Total 2,697.5 37,629.3 17,390.4 19,472.0 10,065.1 131.6 7,392.2 67.9 94,846.0 2.8 39.7 18.3 20.5 10.6 0.1 7.8 0.1 100.0 Protected areas occupy nearly 30 percent of the whole area of the country and contribute to the promotion of the tourism industry. In regions like Rukwa, Shinyanga and Singida, these areas constitute nearly 50 percent of the total land. These protected areas should carefully be conserved according to the proper natural resource management policy. 1.1 1.1.1 Household Characteristics Area of Land Utilised The total area of land allotted to smallholders is 11,997,071 ha (11,885,132 ha (99%) on Mainland and 111,939 ha (1%) in Zanzibar). The total utilized land area is 9,521,592 which is 79 percent of the total allocated land area. This is equivalent to 2.4 hectares per household. However, the utilizable area per household (which includes area utilized plus area usable but not used) is 2.3 ha. The national average land area utilized for agriculture per household is 2.0 ha (includes are under fallow, if fallow is excluded the land area per household is only 1.9 percent). This implies that 0.3 hectares of usable land per household of usable land was not cultivated during the 2002/03 agriculture year. 31 The total area allocate to smallholders has not changed significantly over the last 10yrs and if any, there has been a reduction in the allocated area. This implies that smallholders are not encroaching into land which has not been designated for agriculture purposes and the major change is in the area of allocated land that is utilized. The area of land utilized per household has increased by 186 percent since 1993/94. Most of the increase was between 1994 and 1999 and the rate of increase diminished sharply over the period 1999 to 2003. Large differences in land area utilized per house hold exist between regions with Shinyanga utilizing more than three hectares per household and Ruvuma, Tabora, Dodoma and Manyara utilizing between 2.0 and 3.0 ha per household. In other regions the percentage utilization is lower as in Rukwa, Ruvuma, Tabora, Mara and Kigoma. The smallest land area utilized per household is found in Zanzibar, Kilimanjaro and Kagera where the utilization is only between 1.0 and 1.2 ha per household. In Zanzibar, Mtwara, Dodoma, Arusha, Mbeya and Dar es Salaam regions the percentage utilization is approaching maximum. 1.1.2 Land Sufficiency Although Tanzania, with its relatively low population coupled with its large land resources, it has problems with land access in many areas, with 2,201,773 households (46% of total agriculture households) reported having insufficient land. There are large differences in land pressure between regions with over 70% of the households in Arusha and Kilimanjaro reporting insufficiency of land, whilst in Ruvuma, Lindi and Mtwara it is under 35%. Type of Land Use of the land area with crops (9,531,592ha), the area with annual crops only (including fallow) is 7,228,745 ha (76% of the total land area with crops) whilst the land area with permanent crops only (including planted trees) is 1,295,050 ha or 14 percent of the total area with crops. Permanent –annnual mixed stands occupy 997,970 ha (10% of total land area under crops). The area of land under temporary mono-crops is the most common type of agriculture land use in Tanzania constituting 4,436,177 ha (37% of the land allocated to small holders) and cultivated by 3,293,663 households. This is followed by temporary mixed crops (17.6%). Planted trees, land rented to other and least common types of land use (less than 2.5%). Ninety four percent of the total land available to smallholders is utilized. Only 11.6 percent of usable land available to smallholders was not used. About 5.7 percent of the total usable land was fallow. The area under planted trees is small at 1.2 percent. 1.1.3 Area Planted The total area planted with annul crops during the 2002/2003 was 7,818,620 ha (7,740,344 ha on the Mainland and 78,276ha in Zanzibar) of which 6,349,707 ha were planted in the long rainy season (18% of the total area planted) and 1,468,913 ha, in the short rainy season. The overall average planted area of annuals per crop growing 32 households is 1.61 ha. Mwanza has the highest planted area in the country as a result of it having good long and short rainy seasons. A comparison of seasonal annual crop planted area with land area of annual crops in the previous section indicates that, smallholders mostly plant crops on the same land during both season as there is only a different of 196,280 ha, (6,545,987 ha – 6,349,707 ha) between the area planted in the long rainy season and the physical land area planted with annual crops during the year. The area planted during the short rainy season was higher than the area in the long rainy season in three regions. These regions are located in the North West of Tanzania (Mwanza, Kagera and Kigoma). Shinyanga, Dodoma,Tabora, Mbeya and Iringa had the largest planted area during 2002/03 long rainy season. The smallest area planted during the long rainy season was in Dar es Salaam, Zanzibar, Kigoma, Pwani, Kagera and Mara. In the regions with short rainy season the largest area planted was in Mwanza (438,177 ha), followed by Kagera (242,812 ha), Tanga (160,820 ha), Kigoma (145,143 ha), Morogoro (127,604 ha). The average area planted per household during the long rainy season was 1.57 ha; however there were large regional differences. Shinyanga had the largest area planted per household (2.6 ha) followed by Tabora (2.3 ha), Dodoma (2.0 ha), Mwanza (2.0 ha), Singida (1.8 ha) and Rukwa (1.8 ha). The smallest area planted per household during the rainy season was found in Kilimanjaro, Kagera, Dar es Salaam, Zanzibar, Kigoma, Arusha, Mtwara, and Mbeya. For the regions that have short rainy season,the average area plannted per household was 1.1ha. The region with the largest area planted per household during the short rainy season was Mwanza (1.4 ha) followed by Morogoro (1.0 ha) and Mara (0.9 ha). 1.2 1.2.1 Land Tenure System and Land Utilization Land Tenure and Land Use Policy The land tenure system in Tanzania finds roots in the legislation composed of the Land Acts (Land Act and Village Land Act 1998). The Forest Ordinance Cap.389, the National Resource Ordinance Cap.259, the Rural Lands (Planning and Utilization) Act No. 14 of 1973 and the Local Government (District Authorities) Act of 1982. The legislation classifies the land tenure system in Tanzania into four categories (Mnzava and Riihinen 1989) outlined as follows: a. The public sector or state leasehold: under this system the state leases land to individuals and communities for a specified period of time, say, 33, 66 or even 99 years. b. Private or rights of occupancy: this arrangement concerns the parcels of land owned by individuals for the purpose developing them into agriculture, livestock keeping or for the purpose of service industry. c. Traditional or customary land tenure: under this system the ownership of land is gained through inheritance or customary rules among tribes, clans or kinships. 33 d. Collective or village land ownership: the land ownership by a village is based on law. The land must be surveyed and demarcated before a certificate of ownership is issued. Villages are then entitled to use the granted parcel of land according to their own best interests. Land use policy encourages individuals or villages to acquire lease title deeds for their land from the central government in recognition to their right of occupancy. Basically the legal contentions of land tenure, as stipulated in the Land use Act of 1973 pursuant to the Limitation Act of 1971, are clear and embody the principle of proper land use. That are individuals hold only use rights on land. Hence they are entitled to exclude other potential users from a parcel of land as long as the parcel is used in someway or put under long-term crop. In practice, however, there have been disputes' associated with improper interpretation of the Act itself. Disputes occur between villages and between households, and between individual landowners. Some village leaders allocate land to outsiders without the consent of the villagers, who under customary arrangements are the custodians of the land in their respective areas (Mwalyosi 1990). Perhaps one of the reasons for the increased disputes on land is the abolition of chiefs who were responsible for land administration within their respective chiefdoms. The chiefs were more capable of resolving local land disputes. In the quest to reform the land use situation, the National Five-Year Development Plan covering 1988/89 to 1992/93 puts an emphasis on essentially four aspects related to land use planning. First, land use plans at village and zonal level should be prepared and implemented. Second, village boundaries and residential-commercial areas for individuals and the public should be surveyed and demarcated. Third farmlands should be surveyed and clearly demarcated. Fourth, land title deeds for village cooperatives, companies, registered trustees and individuals (subtitles) should be prepared and registered. At the same time there must exist legal and administrative processes to ensure the implementation of these provisions. However, little action appears to have been taken so far. Only 1450 out of about 8,200 registered villages have been issued with title deeds to their land and village land use plans have so far been approved by the respective authorities. 1.3 Land Resources 1.3.1 Area Suitable for Cropping and Grazing As already mentioned, the percentage of cultivated area varies from region to region ranging from 38.4 percent in Mtwara to 2.7 percent in Kigoma, excluding Dar es Salaam. However, when looking at land classified as suitable for cropping it is said that there is over 7 million ha. of land suitable for cropping which is unused. Such an unused cultivable land is mainly distributed in regions including Ruvuma, Iringa, Mbeya, Rukwa and Morogoro. In the regions such as Dodoma, Singida and Kilimanjaro, on the other hand, their suitable area is almost fully utilized. It is thus deemed that Tanzania has comparatively abundant land resources unlike most of its neighboring countries. It is also mentioned previously, livestock activities are important in some of the regions and the grazing land should be managed properly in such regions. Expansion of cropping area, however, is likely to be into areas presently utilized as grazing area. This could bring in 34 conflicts with pastoralists and this issue should always be considered for any expansion of cropping area. The suitable area for cropping and grazing, however, is not precisely defined based on the appropriate criteria. It will be an important task to define on regional or district basis how much suitable land for cropping and grazing is available for future agricultural development. Since the districts with lower population density have generally poorer soil and lower rainfall, any strategy to develop agriculture would need to enhance technologies for sustainable land management including irrigation technology. 1.3.2 Irrigation Land and Areas Suitable for Irrigation About 33 percent of cultivated land is actually utilized for crop production as planted land. Only 6 percent of the planted land which is equivalent to about 200,000 ha. is being irrigated. The substantial areas were managed by small holder farmers through traditional irrigation systems of flood recession or water harvesting. When the other available information is considered, it is said that around 157,000 ha. is developed or improved for irrigation up to now. The total irrigation potential is so far estimated as 1 million ha. Similar to the suitable area for cropping and grazing, the irrigation potential is not precisely defined based on the appropriate criteria. Therefore, it will be also an important task to define accurate irrigation potential on regional or district basis. PART II: AGRICULTURE: 1.0 Background information The agricultural sector is the main source of employment and livelihood for more than two-thirds of the Tanzanian population. It is an important economic sector in terms of food production, employment generation, production of raw material for industries, and generation of foreign exchange earnings. The agricultural sector is the leading sector of the economy and accounts for about 45.6 percent of GDP (Economic Survey, 2005), and about 50 percent of foreign exchange earnings. However in 2005, the sector grew by 5.2% compared to 5.8% in 2004. The decrease in growth rate was attributed to drought in some parts of the country. The contribution of crop production to GDP was 36.5 percent during the 2004 year. Almost all the food (95 – 97 percent) consumed in the country is grown locally. The government all along has been putting in place enabling environment for increased private investment in the agricultural sector. In 2005, the number of private investors in the sector increased to 169 from 145 in 2004, equivalent to an increase of 16.6 percent. Having a diversity of climatic and geographical zones, Tanzania‟s farmers grow a wide range of varieties of annual and permanent crops. The country grows a large number of food crops including maize, cassava, beans, banana, paddy, sorghum and millet. In addition smallholders produce a variety of fruits and vegetables such as mangoes, oranges, water melon, tomatoes, potatoes, egg plants, etc. Permanent crops like coffee, tea, spices, etc. are also grown by smallholders for export. Smallholders in Tanzania mainly carry out rain-fed agriculture for subsistence purposes. The commercial large 35 scale sub sector is very small (1206 holdings) and produces some of the export crops in the country (coffee, tea, sisal, sugar, etc). 2.0 Agro-ecological zones Agro-ecological Zones (AEZ) are land resource mapping units, defined in terms of climate, landform and soils, and/or land cover, and having a specific range of potentials and constraints for land use (FAO). The present Agro-ecological Zone Map of Tanzania provides data on climate, physiography, soils and vegetation/land use and tsetse occurrence, which are the main physical factors that influence potential and constraints for crop and livestock production. The following are the major Agro-ecological Zones of Tanzania (Currently, AEZ map s not in a digital form). i. Zone 1 Coastal. Below 750 m a.s.l with soils of variable fertility, rainfall ranging from 750 to 1,200 mm per year. In the north is usually bi-modal while in the south is unimodal. ii. Zone 11 Arid lands: Range from 500-1,800 m a.s.l, with relatively infertile soils highly susceptible to erosion, which characteristically low and unreliable unimodal rainfall (below 600 mm per year). iii. Zone 111 Semi-Arid Lands: Low to medium undulating plains (200-1,500m asl), with rocky hills and low scarps in central and south-eastern areas, with soils of variable fertility, localised salinity and hard-pan problems, and unreliable unimodal rainfall (500-800 mm/year). iv. Zone IV Plateaux: Medium altitude plains (800-1,500 m a.s.l) in western and southern areas with some rocky hills, Rift Valley scarps and swamps, characterised by marked variations in fertility (eg. High fertility soils in alluvial plains, and infertile soils on sandy plains), and generally reliable unimodal rainfall (800-1,300 mm per year). v. Zone V Southern, South-western & Western Highlands: High altitude plateaux (1,200-2,300 m a.s.l) and dissected hills and mountains with soils of low to moderate fertility, rainfall in the southern and south-western areas are generally reliable and unimodal (800-1,400 mm per year), rainfall in the western areas is bimodal and higher (1,000-2000 mm per year). vi. Zone VI Northern Highlands and Granitic Mountains: These are volcanic uplands, and high plateaux (1,000-2,500 m a.s.l). They have deep and moderately fertile to fertile soils, with bimodal rainfall of variable reliability (1,000-2,000 mm per year). vii. Zone VII Alluvial Plains: Flooded plains with alluvial fans and swamps comprising seasonally flooded alluvial and lacustrine sediments, rainfall is unimodal of variable reliability and ranges between 500-1,800 mm/year. 36 Figure 2.1: Agro-ecological zones Figure Agro-ecological zones map thus provides valuable information for the selection of suitable crops under rain-fed condition, for the evaluation of the area to be proposed for irrigation scheme and also for the investigation of the suitable crop and intensity in each scheme. 2.1 Soils According to the soil map of Tanzania, there are about 30 main types of soils in Tanzania mainland (Figure 1). The dominant soil type is Ferralic Cambisol which is distributed in almost the entire country from east, south, central north-west and western Tanzania. The second dominant soil type is Chromic Luvisol followed by Haplic Phaeozems. Haplic Lixisols are most common in the south-eastern and to some extent in the western parts of Tanzania. It is also important to note that Haplic Ferrasols are only common around western Lake Zones. According to FAO (2004) soil acidification process is currently one of the problems in southern coastal areas of Tanzania. This is associated with the dusting of large quantities of elemental sulphur upon cashew trees aimed at controlling powdery mildew disease (Majule et al., 1997; Majule, 1999). Soil acidification has been associated with leaching or removal of basic cation such as Ca, Mg and K. This is common in Mtwara and Lindi 37 regions in the southern coastal areas of Tanzania. This acidification is likely to reduce the productivity of poor and fragile soils. Figure 2.2: Soil map of Tanzania [source: Tanzania National Resources Information Center] http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/swlwpnr/reports/y_sf/z_tz/tzmp221.htm Soil acidification has also been reported to be associated with an excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers in Songea and Iringa regions particularly in maize fields. Generally, declining in soil fertility in most fields has been reported to accelerate the soil acidification process. There is soil erosion problem in Kondoa (Dodoma region) and Shinyanga where livestock keeping and encroachment of forest has been reported to be major causes. Soil erosion is also very common on steep slopes where there is vegetation clearing, intensive cultivation and poor land management practices (Kaihura, 1991; Lat, 1995 and Dejene, 1996). 38 2.2 Crop Production The main food crops grown in the country are maize, sorghum, millet, paddy, wheat, sweet potato, cassava, pulses and bananas. Maize is the dominant crop with the planted area of over 1.5 million ha. Sorghum is the second largest food crop with the planted area of 0.6 to 0.7 million ha. In 2005, the production of some food crops particularly wheat, maize, millet and bananas declined. However there was an increase in the production of cassava, beans and paddy as indicated in the table below: Table 2.2: Food Crops Production 2004 and 2005 (tons’ 000) Crop 2004 2005 % change 200/05 Maize 4,286 3131 -26.95 Paddy 1030 1077 4.56 Wheat 66 44 -33.33 Millet 937 721 -23.05 Cassava 2470 2851 15.43 Beans 603 650 7.79 Bananas 2576 2007 -22.09 Sweet Potatoes 1245 1300 4.42 Source: Ministry of Aagriculture, Cooperatives & Food Security (2005) Cash crops grown are sugarcane, coffee, tea, tobacco, sisal, cotton, cashew and pyrethrum. In 2005, there was an increase in production of pyrethrum, tobacco and cotton, while production of cashewnuts decreased as shown in the table below. Table 2.3: Cash Crops production 2004 and 2005 (Tons’ 000) Crop 2004 2005 % Change 2004/05 Cotton 344207 378000 9.82 Tobacco 51972 56500 8.71 Sugar 223889 263317 17.61 Tea 30249 30,000 -0.86 Pyretrhum 897 2,500 178.71 Coffee 51970 34,334 -33.94 Sisal 26800 27,794 3.71 Cashew nuts 100,000 90,385 -9.62 Source: Ministry of Aagriculture, Cooperatives & Food Security (2005) In addition to such major crops, Tanzania‟s climatic growing conditions are favorable for the production of a wide range of fruits, vegetables and even flowers. The most important fruits include pineapples, passion fruits, citrus fruits, mangoes, peaches, pears and bananas while vegetables include tomatoes, spinach, cabbages and okra. The cropping pattern varies considerably from region to region. Maize dominates the cropping in most of the regions accounting for more than 50 percent of the food crop area in Iringa. Sorghum, with its drought resistant characteristics, dominates in dry regions such as Dodoma and Singida. Quite considerable part of the land area is allocated for paddy in 39 Morogoro, Tabora, Mwanza and Mbeya. Similarly, cassava is important in Mtwara, Coast and Lindi and also pulses are important in Kagera. 2.2.1 Research on Crops Research centres and higher learning institutions continued with research in cereals, peas, fruit, vegetable, spices, roots and oil producing seed which are drought, pest and disease resistant, and which are high yielding. In 2005, 34 types of new seeds were developed including 9 new varieties for maize; 2 for millet; 3 for sunflower; 2 for wheat; 5 for cassava; and 6 for sweet potatoes varieties. 2.3 Farm Management Tanzania has an estimated 40 million hectares of arable land, out of which only 6 million hectares or 15 percent being cultivated. Small-scale subsistence farming is dominant in Tanzania and characterized by depende on rainfall and use of hand hoes as main cultivating tool. Overall performance of small-scale subsistence farming has been low productivity due to inappropriate land husbandry practices. There are two production systems that follow seasonality of rainfall modals. The first type is the unimodal type and the rainfall is usually from October/November to April in central, southern and southwestern highlands. The second type is bimodal type which occurs in the coast belt, northeastern highlands and Lake Victoria Basin. The bimodal type comprises two seasons, the short rains (Vuli) falls from October to December. The long rains (Masika) fall from March to June. The production systems depending on short and long rains are called Vuli and Masika respectively. Major production depends on Masika for most of the cereals but Vuli production is important in some regions. When irrigation is introduced, the cropping intensity can be increased through the achievement of dry season cropping. In addition to the kind of crop, therefore, the cropping pattern should carefully be designed. Since the market price fluctuates according to the season in case of vegetables specially an appropriate cropping season should also be investigated. The major major constraints related to farm management are improved varieties, late transplanting, low plant density, poor weeding and low inputs. These constraints should be improved through strengthening of farmers supporting systems such as research, extension, input supply, marketing and access to available loans. In case of irrigation development, even more careful support might be needed for proper operation of irrigation system and maintenance practices for sustainable utilization of the facilities. The comprehensive strategy on farmers supporting system should thus be organized. 2.4 Irrigation System The traditional irrigation crops are rice, maize, beans, onions, horticulture, bananas, sugarcane, coffee, tea and cotton. Out of these irrigated crops rice is by far the most important crop in Tanzania. Purely rain-fed rice is not common and rice is produced twice or three times per year in some regions mainly by using water harvesting method or simple river diversions. In the report of NIDP, the typical rain-fed and irrigated paddy yields were compared and the result is shown as below. 40 Table 2.4: Typical Rain-fed and Irrigated Paddy Yields in Tanzania IRRIGATION SYSTEM Rain-fed Traditionally irrigated Improved traditional YIELD (Ton/ha) 1.0- 1.8 1.0-2.0 4.0 New Small Scheme State Farms 2.8 Holder 2.0-6.0 REMARKS Hand cultivaton Water harvesting/River diversions River diversions/Improved land development Mechanization/High inputs/Modern varieties Mechanization/High inputs/Modern varieties Source: NIDP 2000 In 2005, an irrigated area of 22, 506 ha was developed compared to 23,970 ha in 2004, thereby increasing the irrigated area to 249,992 ha. The increase was due to the development of 83 irrigation schemes, construction of 12 irrigation dams, and 12 rainharvest irrigation schemes. It is clear that irrigation can contribute to the increase of yield per unit area. The effect will be upheld when accompanied with mechanization high inputs and modern varieties. Irrigation is also important to stabilize the production of perishable commodities like vegetables, Furthermore, since Tanzania has a long standing production deficit of sugar, the production of sugarcane should also be promoted through irrigation development. The irrigation development for rice and vegetables can contribute to secure food security and also to improve rural incomes. In case of cash crops, such as sugarcane, however, the necessary to carefully investigate the contribution of irrigation development according to the general agriculture and livestock policy. 2.5 Input Use In 2005, Agricultural Input Trust Fund continued to offer credits for purchase, repair and maintanace of tractors. During the period of July to October 2005, the Fund provided 44 credits worth tTshs 1,278,192,000 out of which, 18 credits worth tTshs 922,392,250 were for agriculture inputs and livestock drugs, 10 credits worth tTshs 313,800,000 for purchase of new tractors, and 16 credits worth tTshs 42,000,000 for repair of tractors. 2.5.1 Improved varieties Cereals have the largest planted area with improved seeds (693,817 ha, 54%), followed by cash crops (325.032 ha, 26% Pulses (110,411 ha, 9%) fruit and vegetables (45,9336 ha, 4%), oilseeds (52.902 ha, 4%) and roots and tubers (39.75Oh, 3%). However, the percent of improved seed use in cash crops and fruit is much greater than in other crop types (82% and 66% respectively). Only 11 percent of cereal crops use improved seed. 2.5.2 Fertilizer Use 41 Fertilizer application is based on use and area of application and not on the quantity application. Most annual crop growing households do not use any inorganic fertilizer. The number of households using fertilizers has decreased dramatically since the last census and to this is the case for both inorganic fertilizer and farm yard manure. The reduction in the number of households using fertilizers happened during the period 1995 to 1998 with the number of households using fertilizers remaining constant at this very low level since then. The order magnitude of this decline if around 50 percent for both organic and inorganic fertilizer. Both declines has been with compost/manure as opposed to inorganic fertilizers, however the status of fertilizer use as of 2003 is that only 8 percent of crop growing households use inorganic fertilizer whereas 20 percent use farm yard manure. The area planted without fertilizer for annual crops is 5,952,048 hectares (5,884,799 ha on the mainland and 59,396 ha in Zanzibar) representing 77 percent of the total planted area with annual crops. Of the planted area with fertilizers application (23%), Farm Yard Manure was applied to 1,207,465 ha which represents 15 percent of the total planted area or 64 percent of the area planted with fertilisers. This is followed by inorganic fertiliser (487,934 ha, 6 percent). Compost is used on a very small area and represents only 2 percent of the total planted area. Most of the planted area with permanent crops are without fertiliser (986,528 ha; 75%). On the Mainland, the area of crops with fertiliser follows the same trend as annual crops with only 341,383 ha with applied fertiliser representing 25.7 percent of the total area planted with permanent crops. This is followed by compost (55,265 ha, 4%) and then inorganic fertiliser (42,538 ha, 3%). Most of the fertiliser used in permanent crops is applied to bananas (34.6% of the total area using fertilizer), followed by coffee (29.8%), cassava (13.2%) and cashew nuts (5.3%) and most of this is organic fertiliser 2.5.3 Farm Yard Manure The number of households using farm yard manure on their annual crops is 989,425 and it is applied to 1,207,465 ha representing 16 percent of the total area planted. Most of the farm yard manure is used on cereals (77%), followed by pulses (10%) and oil seeds (5%). However, the proportion of fruit and vegetables with farm yard manure application is higher than other crop types (37%) followed by cereals (19%) and roots and tubers (16%). Yard Manure Farm yard manure is mostly used in Singida region (38 % of the total planted area), Kilimanjaro (30%), Arusha (28%), Dodoma (24%) and Dar es salaam (19%). Very little farm yard manure is used in Lindi, Pwani, Mtwara and Morogoro regions. 2.5.4 Inorganic fertilizer 42 The number of households using inorganic fertiliser on annual crops is 452,881 (443,099 on the mainland and 9,712 Zanzibar) and it is applied to 487,935 ha representing 6 percent of the total area planted. Most of it is applied to cereals (71%), followed by cash crops (11%) and pulses (7%). However, as is the case with farm-yard-manure, a higher proportion of inorganic fertiliser is applied to fruit and vegetables than other crop types (32% of the fruit and vegetables planted area). This is followed by cash crops (13%) and roots and tubers (9%) In-organic fertilisers are used mostly in Ruvuma (37% of the total planted area), followed by Iringa (26%), Kilimanjaro (22%), Mbeya (18%) and Tabora (13%) regions. Most other regions use very little inorganic fertilizer. In permanent crops, inorganic fertiliser is mostly used on coffee (56.5%), followed by cashew nut (10.4%), cassava (8.24%), sugar-cane (7.79%) and banana (6.28%). 2.5.5 Compost. The number of households using compost is 167,205 and it is applied to 171,157 ha (169,993 on the Mainland and 1,159 in Zanzibar) representing 2 percent of the total area planted. The area of application is very low for each type of crop (2 to 3%), however, the distribution of the total area using compost shows that 68 percent of this area is cultivated with cereals, followed pulses (19%) and oil seeds and oil nuts (6%). In permanent crops, compost is mostly used on banana 38.93%), cashew nut (15.5%), coffee (15.3%) and cassava (13.1%). 2.5.6 Pesticide Use Pesticides are chemicals which are used for controlling insects, diseases and weeds on crops. For Annual crops, pesticides are applied to 1,180,450 ha on the Mainland and 3,756 ha in Zanzibar (Note that this is application area. In some cases all three chemicals are applied to the same crop. Insecticides are the most common pesticide used in Tanzania (72% of the total applied area with pesticides). This is followed by fungicides (15%) and herbicides (13%). 2.5.7 Insecticide Insecticides are applied to 810,211 ha (only 9% of the total planted area) (808,569 on the Mainland and 1,642 in Zanzibar). In terms of total planted area with insecticides application, more insecticides are used on cereals than other crop types (426,584 ha, 53%). This is followed by cash crops (227,029, 28%), pulses (73,940, 9%) and fruit and vegetables (41,247, 5%). However, in terms of insecticide use by crop type, fruit and vegetables and cash crops receive a higher percent of insecticide than other crops. Of the total area planted with fruit and vegetables, 59 percent received insecticides and for cash crops is 57 percent. 2.5.8 Fungicides Fungicides are rarely used on annual crops in Tanzania with an applied planted area of only 191,626 hectares ha on the Mainland and 64 in Zanzibar) 2 percent of the total planted area. In terms of total planted area more fungicides are used than other crop types (89,441 ha, 47%). This is followed by cash crops (28,940 ha, 15%), fruit and vegetables (27,571 ha, 15%) and roots and tubers (23,l9l ha, 12%). However, of the total area planted with fruit and vegetables 40 percent received insecticide applications. The 43 regions with the largest planted area with fungicides were Shinyanga (27,060 ha, 3% of the planted area in the region), Iringa (22,214 ha, 5%), Tabora (20,484 ha, 4%) and Mwanza. 2.5.9 Herbicides Herbicides are the least used pesticide in Tanzania with an applied planted area of only 176,563 ha. In terms of total planted area more herbicides are used on cereals than other crop types (133,779 ha, 75% of the total planted area with herbicide application). This is followed by pulses (13.752 ha, 8%) and cash crops (10,407. 6%). Very little was applied to other crop types. Of the total area planted with fruit and vegetables only 7 percent received herbicide application and the planted area with herbicide application for other crop types was very low. 2.5.10 Pesticide Use on Permanent Crops The use of fungicides, herbicides and insecticides on permanent crops is very low. However, smallholders that used pesticides applied more fungicides (204,880 ha, 62% of the total planted area with pesticides) than insecticides (102.632 ha. 31%) and herbicides (24.553 ha 7%). Fungicides are mainly used on cashew nut (75% of the total area planted with permanent using pesticide). Herbicides are mostly used on coffee (45%), cashew nut (18%) and cassava (13%). Whilst insecticides are mostly used on coffee (61%) and cashew nut (24%). 2.6 Crop marketing During 2005, an Act on Warehouse Receipt System was passed by the Parliament. Moreover, the construction of modern markets in small towns of Kibaigwa in Kongwa district, and Nyandira, Tawa and Kinole villages in Morogoro were completed. In 2003, the number of households that reported selling crops in Tanzania was estimated at 3,409,427 which represent 70 percent of the total number of crop growing households. Kagera and Mbeya have the largest number of households‟ crops. However, the percent of households selling crops is highest in Ruvuma (93%), Kagera (89%), Kigoma (86%), Rukwa (82%), Mbeya (79%) and Kilimanjaro (78%). Singida, Tabora, Dodoma and Shinyanga have the smallest number of households selling crops. The average prices for major crops in domestic market showed a mixed trend depending on the supply and demand. The average price for maize decreased from Tshs 18,470 in 2004 to Tshs 16,774 per 100 kg. in 2005, equivalent to a decline of 9 percent. However, from October 2005, it increased to Tshs 19,101 due to delayed rainfall in many parts of the country. The average price for beans increased from Tshs 39,060 in 2004 to Tshs 47,637 per 100 kg. in 2005, equivalent to a rise of 22 percent. The price of Arabica coffee was Tshs 800 compared to Tshs 500 in 2004, equivalent to an increase of 60 percent. Meanwhile price of a kilogram of robusta coffee was tTshs 240 compared to tTshs 180 in 2004, equivalent to an increase of 33 percent. The same trend was observed for cashewnuts. The price of cashewnuts increased from Tshs 500 in 2004 to Tshs 700 prt kilogram in 2005. Price of cotton decreased from Tshs 280 in 2004 to Tshs 250 per kilogram in 2005. 44 2.7 Farming, livestock keeping activities and their environmental implications Majority of the Tanzanians live in rural areas and mostly engaged in the abovementioned activities. Experience shows that farming or livestock keeping practices are poorly done leading to critical land degradation. Very often farming is undertaken through use of hand hoes and to a very limited extent using tractors or other farming implements like oxen operated ploughs for a long time majority of the peasants in the rural sector have operated on small piece of woodland (1-2 hectares) practicing the slash and burn system. Tilling the soils using hand-hoes and crop planting done also manually normally follows after burning trashes. The household operate on land for 2-3 years before shifting to adjacent woodland once they detect that crop yields have declined. Such practices were sustainable when the population was low and sparsely located. It was possible for the cropped land to fallow because cropped land was left idle for enough time, which allowed it to recover in terms of fertility improvements before the farmer was able to return to it for cropping purposes. But because of population pressure arable land to remain idle to permit fertility recovery is no longer a variable option. Not many farmers are still practicing this but in some villages adjacent to wide spread woodland s the practicing slash and burn system cannot be ruled out. Nowadays agricultural lands are over-cropped and therefore in the event of inadequate land amendments practices particularly through application of fertilizers, nutrients in cropland are quickly exhausted resulting into significant decline in productivity (i.e from about 40 to less than 5 bags of maize per ha).Once this happens a farmer has no other options expect to look for another fertile land thus virgin woodlands in general land in Tanzania are used for practicing shifting cultivation: a practice responsible for widespread deforestation. According to FAO (2002) Tanzania is loosing about 92,000 ha forests and woodland per annum. According to Doggart et al.(2004)the principle cause of forest loss in the Uluguru Mountains is the expansion of agricultural land and this is intense below 1800m asl. Apart from unsustainable farming practices, uncontrolled charcoal production and logging as well as annual bush fires have contributed to, a great extent, to loss of forests and woodlands in general land. Also the forest adjacent communities do extend their activities into some gazetted forest and woodland reserves (FBD, 2005, 2006). Most of land degradation in Tanzania is the result of unsustainable farming (e.g. tobacco cultivation contributing to deforestation i.e. 12m3 of solid wood needed to flue cure 1,000 kg) and livestock keeping practices (freelance grazing). Incidences of serious land degradation in Tanzania are not new. For instance, Tanzania has experienced serious land degradation in Dodoma region especially Kondoa district and in the Shinyanga region where HADO and HASHI programmes have been undertaken respectively. In Shinyanga region extensive clearing of forests and woodlands for the purpose cotton farms and high densities of livestock led to overgrazing leaving bare and seriously degraded land. Because land was devoid of vegetation cover, it became susceptible to various agents of 45 erosion including wind and rainfall resulting into plain and various agents of erosion including wind and rainfall resulting into splash and sheet erosion. The same sad story occurred in Kondoa district. High concentrations of livestock coupled with unsustainable cropping practices turned some areas in Kondoa into unmanageable gullies. Such devastated situation forced the government through the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) to undertake activities that aimed at rehabilitating the serious degraded land in Dodoma and Shinyanga Region. The experiences around the lake zone particularly in Mwanza and Shinyanga show that the tendency is keeping more cattle than grazing land can hold. The same tendency has been observed in some areas in Arusha region (e.g. Kisongo area). Too many livestock beyond the land carrying cause heavy land degradation and render it useless as far as cropping and livestock grazing activities are concerned. Pressure for grazing land continued to increase over the years and this forced some cattle keepers to migrate to other areas within the region and to other regions. Over the last decade large numbers of livestock migrated to Iringa, Mbeya, Morogoro and Rukwa Regons. This is because cattle need more grazing land than could be available in their previous localities. An average of 3 ha/SU is needed for sustainable cattle grazing throughout the year. However, keeping more livestock than the land carrying capacity often leads to environmental destruction. Deforestation and depletion grass cover are the most important environmental conservation problems (NBS, 2002). Serious degradation of grazing areas sometimes becomes the source of conflicts between the livestock keepers and farmer‟s whereby the former encroach and graze their animals on agricultural farms. (E.g. the case of livestock keeper‟s and farmers conflicts in Kilosa District, Morogoro region) PART III: FOREST RESOURCES 1.0 Natural Forests and Products There are three types of natural forests in Tanzania namely miombo woodlands, montane forests and mangroves. Miombo woodlands are the most extensive woodland area of about 270 million ha; 257.3 million ha as indicated by Millington et. al., 1994 and WWF, 2001, respectively. These cover large part of the Southern; Central and Eastern African countries and dominated by the genera Brachystegia, Julbernadia and/or Isoberlinia. These are three closely related genera from the legume family Fabaceae, subfamily Caesalpinioideae (Campbell et. al., (1996). According to White (1983) there are 21 species of Brachystegia throughout the Miombo Ecoregion in Africa. In Tanzania Miombo woodlands cover more than 20 million ha. Ecologically this ecosystem can be categorized into wet and dry woodlands. Annual rainfall is more than 1000mm with high degree of reliability. The wet Miombo woodlands usually occur in areas that are geologically old, yet nutrient-poor soils but For instance, in Tanzania such woodlands are found around Lake Rukwa and most areas in Kigoma region including parts of Biharamuro District in Kagera region. Also some parts of Mbeya region along the Lake Nyasa fall under this category. In the wettest sites dominant trees are only briefly deciduous but usually remain with closed canopy. In the dry Miombo woodlands floristic composition is poor compared to Wet-Miombo woodlands and found in areas with 46 shallow soils, which are relatively dry with rainfall below 1000mm and often unreliable. The canopy is less than 15 meters with dominant species being Brachystegia spiciformis, B. boehmii, and Julbernardia globiflora. The areas adjacent to the coastal forests covering greater parts of Morogoro and Ruvuma regions and some parts of Handeni district in Tanga region fall under the dry Miombo category. The dry miombo if undisturbed has a basal area of about 10m2 ha-1 and above ground biomass of about 35m3 ha-1. According to the National Forest Programme-NFP (2001) Tanzania possess about 33.5 million hectares (ha) of natural forest. Existing records in the FBD show that there are 815 FRs with legal status and these are scattered throughout the mainland. These forests, which are legally protected, cover about 15 million ha, (about 45% of the mainland forest estate). Majority of the FRs (approximately 11 million ha) are managed for production purposes while the remaining (approximately 4 million ha) are secured for protection of environmental services mainly as catchment forests (see the Table 2.5 below). A large part of the natural forests (about 18.4 million ha or 55% of mainland forest estate) are managed without legal backing. Table 2.5: Distribution of Forest and Woodland Resources by Category and Use on the mainland Forest Use Production Number FRs 394 Protection 421 3,956,210 Sub-Total 815 15,090,798 Production and No legal protection status 18,401,231 Total Forest Estate Source: MNRT (2002). of Area (ha) 11,134,558 33,500,000 % Of total Comments Forest Estate 33.2 Mainly protecting 11.8 critical water sources and fragile land 45 Forests with legal status These are the forests 55 & woodlands that exist in general lands 100 Tanzania is endowed with several valuable terrestrial resources that are also unique not only to Tanzania but also to the rest of the world. Such resources include the Eastern Arc Mountain forests, the Coastal forests as well as Mount Kilimanjaro, with the highest peak in Africa. Other areas include: the Ngorongoro Conservation area (NCA), Serengeti National Park, Selous Game reserve (the largest in Africa) and spectacular wetlands like Lake Natron, Moyowosi/Kigosi and Kilombero Valley without forgetting the Rufiji Delta. Nationally the montane catchment forests and other watershed areas throughout the country play an important role by conserving not only important biodiversity resources but also ensuring that water is available and flowing in streams and rivers throughout the year. Major rivers in Tanzania include Kilombero, Kihansi, Pangani, Ruvu, Wami, Rufiji, Malagalasi, Kagera, Ruvuma and Zigi. Many Tanzanian obtain 47 water for domestic, industrial, irrigation and commercial uses from these and other rivers not mentioned here. The Eastern Arc Mountain forests are of exceptional global importance because of their high biodiversity values. The forests in the Eastern Arc area possess high endemism for instance about 100 vertebrates (10 mammals, 20 birds, 38 Amphibians, 29 reptiles) are endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountain forests. Also and about 1500 plant species including some 68 tree species, are known to be endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains. The Uluguru Mountains alone has about 135 plant species that are confined to that single mountain block. More than 100 endemic species are known to exist in West and East Usambara Mountains and Udzungwa Ranges. Recent surveys have indicated that the number of endemic species is even higher than was previously recorded. For instance, in year 2005 a large Monkey “Sanje Mangabey”– Lophocebus kipunji was spotted in the West Kilombero Scarp, which is part of Udzungwa Mountains. During the same year another species of shrew-Congosorex phillipsorum was also spotted and described from the same forest area. Records indicate that another five species of Amphibians have been recently spotted and described including the Callulina species that has been found in the South Nguru Mountains. It is against such values that the Conservation International included the Eastern Arc Mountain forests together with the Coastal forests amongst the World‟s 25 Biodiversity “Hotspots”. Recent global classifications by Conservation International have increased from 25 to 34 biological diversity “Hotspots”. The Eastern Arc Mountain forests have been separated from the Coastal forests but joined with the Lift Valley area including the Rungwe and Livingstone Mountain blocks in the southern highlands of Tanzania to form a single hotspot. The Government of Tanzania recognizes these biodiversity values and that is why, through the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), in 2003 formulated a project “Conservation and Management of Eastern Arc mountain Forests”-CMEAMF, with the view “to develop and implement conservation strategies that ensure the sustainable conservation of the Eastern Arc Mountain forests, both for the conservation of forests and biodiversity. The coastal forests including about 115,000 ha of mangroves found along the India Ocean stretching from Mtwara region in the south to Tanga region in the north covering about 800 km are essential forest resources for conservation and sustainable use. The coastal forests are habits for important bird species and support fauna, which are dominated by locally endemic species. The coastal forests are centers for the valuable species such as D. melanoxylon, which exceptional valuable tree for wood curving and production of other important products like music clarinets. Conservation and management of coastal forests has been a challenging task. Due to increased human pressure the coastal forests for instances Pugu, Kazimzumbwi, Zaraninge, Pande, Matumbi hill, Rondo and other forests in Coast, Lindi, Mtwara and 48 Tanga regions have been subjected to high intensities of forest resources utilization. Some forests like Pugu and Kazimzumbwi despite being central government Forest Reserves (FRs) they have been reduced to almost nothing due to high encroachment rates. Pressure on coastal forests is due to more demands for cultivation, timber harvesting and export of logs, production of charcoal to feed the city of Dar-es-Salaam consuming between 200,000-300,000 bags (average weight of 50 kgs) of charcoal month1 grazing. Bush fires that are burnt annual are another hindrance to sustainable forests management in coastal areas. Thousands of hectares of coast forests are set to fire every year thereby reducing their biodiversity values through killing of various flora and fauna and retarding growth rate to some of the tree species. Several initiatives to reduce degradation in coastal forests are being have been put in place in with government collaborating with sectors ministries, local governments, NGOs and development partners. 1.1 The status of natural forests The East Usambara, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountain blocks rank high in terms of biodiversity values. Prioritization of the mountain blocks is based on existing records otherwise based on new discoveries, it is possible for other blocks such as Nguru South or Rubeho to have significant biodiversity values and hence become priority sites for conservation. In terms of endemic tree and other biodiversity values the East Usambara ranks high followed by Udzungwa and Uluguru mountain blocks. Nguru South, West Usambara and Rubeho follow. Not very much is known about Rungwe and the Livingstone Mountains in southern Tanzania but if more surveys could be conducted, it most likely to uncover the biodiversity resources in those areas. However, due to their catchment value and as the main sources of water that flow to Mtera dam, it is clear that these mountain blocks are of significant values to the nation hence deserve the attention of policy/decision makers and conservationists. Some forests like those in the Eastern Arc Mountains despite being centers of endemism they have been severely disturbed. Recent surveys conducted by the Sokoine University of Agriculture, through the CMEAMF programme, and undertaken in 25 Forest Reserves throughout the Eastern Arc have demonstrated that most of the forests are seriously disturbed. Thus, the disturbance and management effectiveness assessment has demonstrated that the ability of the cloud forests in the Eastern Arc Mountains and others areas such as Rungwe and Livingstone mountain forests, to trap rainwater and slowly discharge it into the rivers, even during the dry season has been severely impeded. It is anticipated that through the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) techniques and adoption of water use efficiency plans as well as increasing efforts in law enforcement some positive impacts could be registered. Since the management effectiveness is poor and levels of disturbances within the forests throughout the mainland are high, it is most likely that endemic and near endemic species is threatened to extinction. The habitats are so disturbed to the extent that species like the genus Saintpaulia (African Violets) that are endemic to the Eastern Arc are threatened with extinction. Unfortunately about 70% of the original forests and other vegetation in the Eastern Arc and other parts of Tanzania have been converted to settlements and 49 agricultural lands, especially over the last 200 years. For instance, the forest area in East Usambara has declined from about 33,000 ha in 1970 to about 26,000 ha in year 2000 demonstrating about 21% forest loss over the years. The Uluguru Mountains lost about 13% of the forest cover for the same period: declining from about 31,000 ha in 1970 to about 27,000 ha in year 2000. Generally it is known that by year 2000 only about 323,720 ha of forests with 150 Forest Reserves, remain as the main water catchments and habitat for various biodiversity resources within the Eastern Arc area. 1.2 Plantation Forests and Products 1.2.1 Plantation Forests There are 16 industrial plantations with a total of 80,000 ha throughout the country. The largest plantation (about 42,000 ha) is Sao Hill in Mufindi district, Iringa Region. Tree planting is an activity that requires use of resources including human labour and time. That means the costs related to this activity are indeed substantial. Tree planting is considered an important activity on Tanzania‟s development agenda because of the need to improve and enhance environmental conservation. Between 1985 and 1995 millions of seedlings were produced annually and given to villages and individuals free of charge but the impact was marginally felt. The private sector initiatives in tree planting have not made big impact as well. It is estimated that the private companies and individuals have establishes about 250,000 ha throughout the country. The lesson learnt is that people in villages did not value tree planting when done communally. This is because the ownership (tree tenure) and management responsibility in community operations did not surface well hence in the business as usual scenario villagers worked on their private lands. But even though not many trees have been planted on households‟ farmlands except in Iringa region particularly in Njombe and Mufindi Districts where many farmers planted trees (Eucalyptus spp, Pinus patula and Cupressus lusitanica). A substantial amount of sawn timber from those areas is brought to Dar-es-Salaam through the TAZARA railway hence a good source of income for those who seriously ventured in tree planting. The primary schools have planted 1 to 3 ha of woodlots with about 75% survival rate, which is a good performance. At the turn of the new millennium about 100 million seedlings (more than 50,000 ha) were anticipated for planting throughout Tanzania. Records at the FBD show that more than 150 million seedlings were raised and planted. However, this does not correspond to the reality on ground. The overall tree planting throughout the country is, on average, rated at 25,000 ha year-1. When this is compared with the national deforestation rate of about 92,000 ha year-1 it implies a net deforestation rate of about 67,000 ha annually. This is not a small gap, which indicates that tree planting initiatives have not helped Tanzania to contain environmental degradation hence more efforts and different strategies/approaches are needed in order to make significant impacts. 50 1.3 Forest Products Forests and woodlands are sources for various products including the tangibles and intangible benefits as indicated hereunder: 1.3.1 Tangible Forest products Forests and woodlands are the sources for most of the wood and non-wood products. Wood products include timber, poles, firewood and charcoal. Non-wood products include ropes, raisins, tie and dye colorings, game meat, fruits, traditional/natural medicines, natural vegetables, palm leaves for making baskets/mats, honey and beeswax, mushrooms. Furthermore, forests and woodlands do provide other goods and services to people such as food, natural herbs for medicine and water 1.3.2 Intangible Products A number of intangible benefits do exist as outcomes of presence of forests and woodlands. Such benefits include depository of biodiversity; amelioration of climate (microclimate), Carbon sequestration, habitat to wildlife and cultural and religious values. 1.4 Importance of Forests/woodlands in the National Economy Natural resources sector comprises of forestry and beekeeping, wildlife and fisheries subsectors. In 2005, forestry and hunting sub-sector grew by 45 percent compared to 3.8 percent in 2004. Apart from producing tangible and intangible benefits to people, forests and woodlands in Tanzania are also managed for economic gains. A recent study by the MNRT regarding economic conservation of catchment forests indicates that the total value of catchment forests in the Eastern Arc Mountains (timber, NTFP, eco-tourism, carbon sink and performing other ecological functions) is about USD 496 million and potential use rated at USD 620 million per ha-1 year-1. In 1989 forestry and beekeeping sector contributed to about 3% of the Gross Domestic products (GDP) and 10% of Tanzania‟s registered export earnings (MNRT, 1998). Unfortunately the national accounting system does not consider consumption of woodfuels, which account for 92% of the national energy balance, bee products (especially honey) and poles as important elements in national accounts. If the value of these resources were calculated and recorded into the national accounts, the contribution of the forestry and beekeeping sector into the national economy would increase significantly. Additionally, the catchment (water and other ecological values) is not captured. For instance, the Eastern Arc Mountains cloud forests have a big influence on rainfall patterns in the areas and also conserve and subsequently discharge water into the rivers, which is used in hydropower generation. 1.5 Threats to the environment In the Tanzania‟s context environmental degradation is highly linked to destruction of the country‟s forest and woodland resources base. Experiences show that human activities in forests and woodlands have been very difficult to control due to inadequate capacity in the designated institutions both in central government (FBD) and District Councils. This has led to over utilization of forest and woodland resources (timber, firewood, charcoal 51 and poles) because law enforcement is hardly done. Uncontrolled human activities in most forest and woodlands have threatened existence of valuable timber species like Mvule (Milicia excelsa) and Mninga (Pterocarpus angolensis). Other economically and ecologically important species under threat include: Allanblackia stulmanii, Cephalosphaera usambarensis, or Dalbergia melanoxylon. Furthermore, availability of species like sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata) has been seriously threatened by high industrial demand. The demand for this species is so enormous to the extent of uprooting and using roots. Assessment conducted by FBD (Malimbwi et. al., 2005) shows that field stocks of O. lanceolata have greatly diminished and currently 80% of industrial uses are obtained as roots with the stems accounting for only 20%. This signals that human pressure over this species is massive to the extent of threatening to wipe out the species unless urgent silvicultural treatments are carried out to enable its natural and/or artificial regeneration (domestication) to take place and at the same time control harvesting operations aggravated by the sandalwood processing industries. PART IV: WILDLIFE RESOURCES 1.0 Habitats Tanzania is endowed with significant amount of wildlife whose habitats are mainly within the Savannah grasslands characterized by dry miombo woodlands dominated by the genera of Acacia and Combretum with A. tortilis beatifying the landscape. About 25% of total mainland area is dedicated to conservation and protection of wildlife habitats (Table 2.5). The habitats further include 14 National Parks (NPs); 34 Game Reserves (GRs) as indicated in 2.6 and 2.7, respectively and 34 Game Controlled Areas (GCAs) (Table 2.9). The NPs include the Ngorongoro crater, which is the world‟s eighth wonder also listed as the world heritage site and Serengeti NP, which is also a world heritage but again famous for its endless plains signifying the wonders‟ of nature. In addition to savannah woodlands some national parks such as Katavi, Gombe and Mahale Mountain National Park are found in the famous wet-miombo woodlands in the Western parts of Tanzania. Tourists and other visitors can enjoy the beauties of nature whereby the Goliras and Chimpanzees are easily located in Gombe and Mahale Mountain National Park respectively. 52 Table 2.6: Categories of Protected Areas under Wildlife Conservation S/no 1 2 3 4 CATEGORY No National Parks Game Reserves Game Controlled Areas Ngorongoro Conservation Area Total 14 28 38 1 Area (hectares (ha)) 3,842,800 10,401,250 9,086,502 828,800 %of total area 24,660,552 25 4.1 10.4 9.6 1 On the other hand, Udzungwa National Park (160,000 ha) being part of the Eastern Arc chain of Mountain blocks is an important montane forest park possessing very critical endemic species of flora and fauna. The Udzungwa Park provides essential habitats to some of the rare and endemic species of primates such as the Sanje Mangabey (Lophocebus kipunji) while in the Kitulo NP it is referred to as the Highland Mangabey mostly found within the forests of the Livingstone Mountains. The Udzungwa NP also is the home for the Iringa Red Colobus monkey. The forests of Udzungwa Mountains are among the top ten important birds‟ conservation areas in Africa whereby endemic species like the Udzungwa Partridge and Kufous Winged Sunbird find their refuge. Table 2.7: National parks (NPs) and Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA) S/NO Name of National Park Area (ha) When established 1 Serengeti 1,467,300 1951 2 Ruaha 1,296,000 1964 3 Mikumi 323,000 1964 4 Tarangire 260,000 1970 5 Katavi 225,300 1974 6 Mahale Mountain 157,700 1984 7 Kilimanjaro 75,600 1973 8 Rubondo 73,600 1977 9 Lake Manyara 32,500 1960 10 Arusha 13,700 1960 11 Gombe 5,200 1968 12 Udzungwa 199,000 1992 13 Saadani 2004 15 Kitulo 41,200 2005 5 Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA)** 828,800 1959 ** Ngorongoro Conservation Area is not a national park but included in this table for convenience and easy reference. It is not managed by TANAPA but managed by the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA). 53 Table 2.8: Game Reserves (Mainland) S/NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Name of Game Reserve Area (ha) When established Selous * Rungwa* Kigosi Moyowosi* Uwanda Ugala River Kizigo Maswa* Burigi* Umba* Biharamuro Mkomazi* Rumanyika Mt. Kilimanjaro Mt. Meru Ibanda* Saa Nane Island 5,000,000 900,000 700,000 600,000 500,000 500,000 400,000 220,000 220,000 150,000 130,000 100,000 80,000 76,000 30,000 20,000 50 1905 1951 1983 1981 1959 1965 1972 1969 1973 1974 1959 1951 1965 1951 1951 1972 1964 * National projects managed by the Wildlife Division, MNRT. Total area of Game Reserves 10,300,000 ha 1.1 Species Diversity More than 300 terrestrial mammals exist in Africa and most of them are found in Tanzania. The number could increase or decrease depending on a number of factors such as prolonged drought or over-cropping during the hunting season (July to December). The key species include the larger carnivores such as Lions, Leopards, Cheetahs, and wild dogs. The herbivores group includes population of Elephants, Giraffe, Zebras, Buffalos Antelopes, Wildebeests and others but including the declining number of black Rhinoceros. Furthermore, some additional critical species include Chimpanzee, red and blue Colobus and Mangabey monkeys including the Lophocebus kipunji, which are endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountain forests. Furthermore, the mammalian fauna includes the rich assemblage of species of Antelopes and Giraffes are also numerous and found in most the NPs and GRs. Endemism within the wildlife resources is high i.e. 4% (about 13 species) of terrestrial mammals and five sub-species are endemic to Tanzania. Majority of the endemic species are found only in natural forests: duikers, primates and shrews. The Eastern Arc Mountain forests (North and South Pare; East and West Usambara; Uluguru and Udzungwa) and the Coastal forests are areas of high biodiversity including endemic species. The extent of Endemism in Tanzania is shown in Table 2.9 Tanzania is rich in small mammal species such as Bats (97 species), shrews (32 species) and rodents (100 species). Tanzania has 293 species of reptiles in 104 genera and 21 families and most species has a wide distribution range. The number of bird is 1065 of which 25 (2%) are endemic and mostly are forest-based species. 54 Table 2.9: Endemic Species among the Groups and Category and their Numbers in Costal Forests Endemism of various groups Endemism in Coastal Forests (biological groups) Type of Spp Duikers Shrews Fruit-eating bats Insect-eating bats Primates Rodents Endemic Abbot‟s Duiker Peter‟s musk Shrew, Amani Musk shrew, Uluguru Musk Shrew, Usambara Musk Shrew, Tanzania Mouse Shrew and Uluguru Forest Shrew Pemba flying fox Tanzania Woolly bat, Dar-esSalaam Pipistreslle Sanje Crested Mangabey (endemic subspecies), Uhehe (Gordon‟s Bay) Colobus, Zanzibar Colobus Mt. Kilimanjaro Mole Rat, Swynnerton‟s Bush Squirrel Biological group Plants No. of Endemic Species 400 % 80.8 Mammals 5 1.01 Birds Reptiles 5 20 10.1 4.04 Frogs 5 1.01 Butterflies Millipedes 40 20 8.08 4.04 Source: Burgess and Muir, 1994 1.2 Protection Status Total area for both the NPs and the GRs is 24,326,750 ha. No permanent human settlements are allowed in PAs especially in NPs and GRs. Despite this condition some 10% of human settlements are allowed in PAs where wildlife co-exist with human beings for instance in the NCA and GCAs. There are 815 FRs which amount to about 15 million ha (about 45% of forest estate) legally protected under the forest laws, but internationally they are not categorized as protected areas. However, efforts are underway to rectify this shortfall so that the FRs are coded according to the IUCN criterion and eventually be recognized as PAs. Over 100 forest reserves that are within the Eastern Arc Mountains area have been coded. The intention is to code all the forest reserves on the mainland in order to conform to IUCN categories of protected areas and therefore enable Tanzania‟s FRs to appear on the world map of protected areas. This will definitely increase the area of PAs to about 38% when the NPs, GRs, NCA, and FRs are combined and recognized as one category of protected areas. Management of PAs in Tanzania is entrusted in three different institutions namely the Wildlife Division in the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT), conserving and managing the GRs, GCAs and the Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs); the Tanzania National Parks Authority (TANAPA) that is responsible for managing all the current 14 NPs and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA) entrusted to conserve and manage wildlife resources within the NCA. The role of NCAA is challenging as it caters for a conservation area that deals with multiple uses whereby human activities are integrated with conservation. This means that pastoralism; wildlife protection and tourism activities are simultaneously undertaken and managed for the benefits of both the people living within the area, wildlife and the nation as a whole. In addition other institutions (Table 2.10) are involved in provision of services that are deemed essential for attaining effective conservation and management of wildlife resources through research, training, wildlife resources assessment, processing of trophies and law enforcement. 55 Table 2.10: Wildlife Protection and Management Institutions in Tanzania NO 1 2 3 NAME OF INSTITUTION Wildlife Division 5 Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA) Regional Secretariat and District Council Authorities Serengeti Research Institute 6 Mweka Wildlife College 7 8 9 Pasiansi Wildlife Institute Anti-poaching Unit Tanzania Wildlife Corporation 10 Malihai Club 11 Faculty of Forestry and Nature Conservation (SUA) Institute of Resources Assessment (IRA) of University of Dar-es-Salaam 4 RESPONSILITY (i) Management of national project game reserves; (ii) Protection of wildlife in controlled and open areas; (iii) Government representation in all wildlife conservation issues at home and abroad; (iv) Provision of technical assistance in management of game reserves under the regional administration. Management of all national parks in the country. Management of Ngorongoro Conservation Area. (i) (ii) (i) (ii) (i) (ii) 12 Management of all game reserves other than national projects. Conducting and coordinating wildlife research in the country. Training of wildlife managers and assistants; Wildlife research Training Game Scouts and Rangers Law enforcement operations Tourist Hunting Processing of Trophies Conducting conservation education programmes mainly for young people, Funding of wildlife conservation project Training wildlife managers at degree level Wildlife resources assessment 1.3 Utilization and Conservation Utilization of wildlife resources in Tanzania depends on the demand for the goods and services that are generated as a result of conservation efforts and basing on consumptive and non-consumptive values. Basically consumptive uses hinge on harvesting of game for meat or trophies. This is popular activity for professional hunters or tourist hunting. The Wildlife Division allocates hunting blocks in game reserves and game controlled areas to reputable professional hunters. The NPs are designated protected areas that are strictly meant for game conservation and protection of nature. No consumptive uses are allowed in NPs except tourism activities that are based on non-consumptive values like game viewing or photographic tourism. Additional uses of PAs include research and educational activities where both local and global communities are the beneficiaries. Tanzania is benefiting from her wildlife resources through both consumptive and nonconsumptive uses. A substantial amount of foreign currencies is obtained annually through wildlife-based conventional tourism although cultural and ecological tourism activities are progressively increasing. Generally the NPs and GRs are the main habitats providing refuge grounds for sustaining large population of game those are essential resources for tourism. The need to promote tourism in Tanzania cannot be overemphasized as the potential for earning substantial income and enable Tanzania to respond well to poverty eradication initiatives is quite high. 56 According to “KAKUONA” No. 27 of 2002, tourists coming to Tanzania from world over have increased by, on average annual rate of 12%; from 326,188 (1996) to 525,122 (2001). It is expected that by 2010 Tanzania will register over 1 million visitors. Furthermore, international tourism receipts grew from USD 322.47 million in 1996 to USD 739 million in 2001, which indicates an annual growth of about 19% over the last 5 years. Again tourism receipts have accounted for, on average, 43% of all goods and services over the same period. The sector also provided direct and indirect employment to about 160,000 people. It is therefore evident that tourism is among the major economic sectors in Tanzania. Conservation of wildlife resources and its utilization is great challenge to conservationists. In most cases PAs are in the rural areas surrounded by local communities. Experiences show that perception of the majority of the people in the villages is that wildlife resources in the country should benefit the rural poor. That means conservation and management of wildlife should be done in a way that will greatly benefit local people. Those communities adjacent to PAs attach more value to the wildlife than those local communities at a distant and values differ from species to species. For instance, larges sized herbivores are more valued than those of small sized. In villages hunting animals for meat and rarely for trophies, is undertaken illegally (poaching) and mostly for subsistence and to some limited extent for sale (source of income). Wildlife as a source of food (meat) is the most important benefit to local communities compared to income or existence value and ritual/cultural values. Illegal hunting or poaching is the result of increasing demand for meat coupled with persistent and widespread poverty among the local communities adjacent to PAs. Poaching is one of the threats facing effective wildlife management. For instance, a total of 773 poachers were arrested for the last 10 years (about 77 poachers‟ year-1) in the Udzungwa NP alone. Also some 5,000wire snares set by poachers to trap animals were uncovered and removed from the park during the same period (some 500 wire snares year-1). This demonstrates that poaching in PAs is a serious problem though the Government is trying hard to contain it. PART V: RANGELANDS 1.0 Range lands and Carrying capacity Tanzania possess about 60 mill hectares of rangelands which is ideal for livestock grazing with carrying capacity potential of 20 mill Livestock Units (Table 2.11). Out of the 4,901, 837 smallholder households in Tanzania 174,745 776 keep livestock. In additional to that 580 large scale farmers keep livestock (URT, 2006). The number of cattle increased to 18.5 million from 17.1 million in 2004, goats increased from 12.5 million in 2004 to 13.1 million in 2005. However 63 percent of these farmers are not fully dependant on livestock as they also grow crops. In relation to population cattle are the most important type of livestock, followed by goats. Sheep and pig are much less important. However, due to tsetse infestation, which is estimated to occupy 40% of the total land, the full potential has not been fully realized. 57 Five main rangelands types have been identified according to ecological zones as follows:1. Semi-arid to sub-humid rangelands: These cover nearly 30% of the grazing areas and are mainly found in the Central plains of the country and include the typically pastoral systems of Arusha, Dodoma, Shinyanga and Singida. About 43.3% of the national cattle herd is found here at a density of less than three hectares per head. The area receives between 200 and 600 mm of rainfall per year. Seasonality of production, drought and overgrazing are the major problems. 2. Humid Plateau lands: These lands represent nearly 30% of the grazing land areas and support nearly 50% of the cattle herd. The agro-pastoral areas of Mwanza, Mara and Mbeya typify them. 3. Humid lowlands: These represents 20% of the grazing areas, but are grossly under utilized and only 2% of the herd is found here. The regions covering this type and offering the most potential are Mtwara and Lindi. 4. Very Humid Highlands: These cover 9% of total area and support 5% of the cattle. They are typical of parts of Kilimanjaro, Mbeya, Ruvuma and Kagera and most of the exotic and crossbred cattle are found there. 5. Very Humid Lowlands: This type covers a limited area of about 1%, and is restricted to coast regions. It includes moorland and grassland or barren land and is most suitable as water catchments. However, livestock production, especially crossbreed is of increasing importance. 58 Table 2.11: Some climatic and carrying capacity characteristics of the Rangeland Vegetation regions 59 Source: Rangelands Resource in Eastern Africa KEY: 1. Grass height: Short = <25 cm, Mid=<150 cm, Tall = 150 – 300 cm and Giant = >300 cm 2. Climate: H = Humid, SH = Sub - Humud, SA = Semi – Arid, A = Arid, HA = Hyper Arid. 3. Mean annual rainfall: VH = very high = >1500 mm/year, H = High = 1000 – 1500 mm/year, M= medium = 500 – 1000 mm/year, L = LOW = 250 – 500 mm/year, vl = very low = <250 mm/year, 4. Dry season length = Average number of dry months per year 5. Potential estimated carrying livestock capacity = Ha/Tropical livestock unit = 250 kg / TLU 1.1 Livestock resources Livestock production is one of the major agricultural activities in Tanzania. The sub sector contributes to national food supply, converts rangelands resources into products suitable for human consumption and is a source of cash incomes and an inflation – free store of value. The sector contributed abour 4.1 percent of the GDP in 2004. Out of the sector‟s contribution to GDP, about 40 percent originates from beef production, 30 percent from Milk production and another 30 percent from poultry and small stock production. Livestock production originates from a large resource base composed of the different livestock species, breeds and types whose ownership and distribution differ from region to region. Three livestock production systems are commonly distinguished in the 60 rangeland areas; commercial ranching, pastoralism and agro-pastoralism. Commercial ranching accounts for about 2 percent of the total cattle herd. It is practised mainly by National Ranching Company (NARCO), now in the process of being privatised. National ranching company is state owned established in the 1970s with the support from IDA/world Bank and NARCO is responsible for managing all ranches in the country. The company operates a total of 15 ranches with a land holding of 623,000 ha and stock holding capacity of 155,300 head. Private Commercial ranching exists in different regions of the country with small stock numbers. Pastoralism is concentrated in the northern plains and is practised in traditional grazing areas where climatic and soil conditions do not favour crop production. The main roles of livestock in this system are subsistence, store of wealth and source of cash incomes. Agro-pastoralism, comprising a range of combination of crop cultivation with livestock keeping is thriving, as livestock sector number have continued to increase at a rate of more than 2 per cent per annum. The government is adopting a strategy for range development by formal recognition of associations and organizations of livestock keepers through active collaboration between the government and the pastoral organisations. Action is taken to ensure that livestock keepers obtain formal legal recognition of traditional grazing rights as envisaged in the new Land Act. The livestock numbers have been increasing steadily (ranking third in Africa) in recent decades at roughly the same rate as the human population growth. Out of 3.7 million households in the country, 3 percent are pastoralists and 7 percent are agro-pastoralists. The livestock sub-sector generates over one-quarter of agricultural GDP. Cattle are dominant species, they account for about 75 percent of total livestock production, there are sheep and goats, poultry, and the pigs. Approximately 99 percent of livestock subsector belongs to traditional (small) owners, with big ranches and dairy farms constituting the remaining 1 percent. 1.2.2 Livestock feed resources In Tanzania livestock feed resources can be grouped into four main categories, namely, natural grasslands, established pastures, cereals and root crops, and agricultural byproducts. The following account attempts to describe them and assess their potential. Pastures: Seasonal fluctuations of pastures during wet and dry seasons necessitate migration of pastoralists from one area to another in search of pasture and water resulting into conflicts with other land users. In addition a lot of pasture and fodder biomass is lost every year through trampling and uncontrolled burning of grazing lands. The situation is being addressed through better land use policies, proper grazing management plans, formation of livestock keepers associations, enacting and enforcing by laws and regulations pertaining to range resource management and utilization, sensitization on fodder harvesting and conservation, utilization of crop residues and promotion of in situ fodder conservation methods locally known as “ngitiris” in the West, “alalili” in the North and milaaga in central parts of the country. For a long time, the promotion of fodder production has been implemented by availing quality pasture seeds to livestock keepers from Government farms. Currently, private farmers are also a major source of the same. The list of pasture farms in the country are as shown below. 61 Natural Grasslands: Natural grasslands are the most important feed resources for ruminant livestock in Tanzania. It has been estimated that the country has 451,903 square kilometres (or 51% of the total land-area) of natural pastures which support over 90% of the total ruminant livestock population (UNDP/FAO 1967; Ministry of Agriculture 1982a). These areas, which correspond to ecological-climatic zones IV and V of Pratt, Greenway and Gwynne (1966), are represented by grazing lands on the low eastern plateau between the coastal plains and the eastern rift valley, and on the central plateau. They are characterized by low and seasonal rainfall (usually 760 mm or less annually) and high evapotranspiration potential (over 1,800 mm). The vegetation is characterized by the dominance over most areas of Themeda and Hyparrhenia grass species and the conspicuously meagre content of herbaceous forage legumes (Thomas 1973). Considering both their size and their role as the source of feed for most of the country's ruminant livestock population, national grasslands are, nevertheless, an important resource in Tanzania. Their improvement through better management and utilization, bush and tsetse control, increasing the content of forage legumes (including suitable browse species), and provision of adequate water supplies could, by themselves, considerably raise the production efficiency of ruminant livestock in the country. Planted Pastures: There is a lack of information on the area of planted pastures in the country, but it comprises a very small proportion of the total land area under cultivation. These pastures are found on dairy farms and units mainly in areas of high cropproduction potential. Table 2 shows the various types of planted pastures and the plant species grown. Overall, they are much more productive than natural grasslands and form the basis of the nontraditional dairy industry in the country. A major constraint to the development of planted pastures is the shortage of pasture seed. There is no proper pasture-seed production programme and consequently the country has had to rely on imported seed (Lwoga 1979). Another constraint has been the failure to bring pasture research results to the point of application, even though much research on pasture has been conducted in Tanzania (Lwoga 1979). 1.3 1.3.1 Land suitability and land management Pastoralism Purely pastoral systems are the principal means of livelihood in arid and semi-arid areas where climatic and soil conditions do not favour sufficient food production. The Maasai tribe forms the core of this semi-nomadic system in Tanzania. The main problems of pastoralist systems are undocumented and therefore unrecognised tenure or user rights and a lack of public understanding about this land use and the need to protect it. Extensive grazing by the pastoralists is not perceived as a land use to which secure user rights can be claimed. The land on which it is practiced is therefore treated as unoccupied land that can be claimed by more permanent forms of land use. This problem has become acute, particularly in the last few years due to an increase in instances of outright grabbing of pastoral lands for private ranches as well as encroachment of farm areas into previously marginal grazing areas. Furthermore, opportunity cropping accompanied by soil mining in the most fertile pastoral areas and a significant reduction in the size of pastoral areas available for grazing and watering adds to the problems in this area. 62 PART VI: HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL HERITAGE: 1.0 Cultural Heritage Cultural heritage represents the identity of a community and its environment. Cultural heritage can include monuments or other buildings that represent important events or eras in local or national history, traditional lifestyles, such as the performing arts and handicrafts, and even the everyday activities of local people as they farm, fish or prepare food. Tourists are becoming increasingly interested in learning about the people that live in and around tourist destinations in addition to more traditional tourist activities, such as game viewing and sun bathing. This cultural heritage can be developed into tourist attractions, which, in turn, can provide income- generating opportunities for people living along the coast. The most prominent of the various potential cultural heritage attractions are the physical buildings and monuments that represent the history of place. The Swahili coast of Tanzania contains some world-class cultural sites that can be developed into stand-alone tourist attractions in time. In particular, the ruins at Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara, designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, have unlimited potential to attract tourists. The major cultural heritage sites, including museums, and in 2005, a total of 79,285 tourist visited antiquity attractions compared to 65,544 tourists in 2004, whereby revenue of Tshs 208.2 million was collected compared to 187.1 million in 2004. Recent visitation data are presented in the table below: Table 2.12: Visitation at Selected Cultural Heritage Sites 1996- 2000 2001 Site 2002 2003 2004 2005 Resid ent Nonreside nt Reside nt Nonreside nt Reside nt Nonreside nt Reside nt Nonreside nt Reside nt Non-resident Kaole Ruins 3,08 9 119 6,684 342 6,437 442 2,003 155 3,674 153 Bagamoyo town 1,26 8 108 2630 192 6969 562 8903 759 -- - Magomeni -310 -- 537- -- -853 8- 684- -- 1039 - Kilwa Kisiwani 301 - 444 - 548 791 546 - - - KoloKondoa 283 85 286 123 120 122 105 148 334 227 Amboni Caves - - - - 5281 391 6004 453 5110 391 - - - - - - - - 70 28 Tongoni 63 2001 Site 2002 2003 2004 2005 Resid ent Nonreside nt Reside nt Nonreside nt Reside nt Nonreside nt Reside nt Nonreside nt Reside nt Non-resident 154 99 246 73 172 60 180 108 - - 443 42 637 94 351 158 548 122 571 64 Ruins Kwihara Tabora – Kalenga - Olduvai Gorge 440 42365 463 37638 1007 39835 2616 50619 3418 32227 1006 943 554 521 - - 905 478 - - 633 570 933 457 849 588 1799 681 993 890 Ujiji Kigoma Isimila - Source: Antiquities Department and National Museums, MNRT The trend over the past five years is promising; however, these numbers are quite low in relation to the potential of some of the sites. Other cultural attractions, such as local taraab music performances, artisanal fishing and agriculture and traditional handicraft production, exist but are not systematically managed or promoted so it is difficult to assess how many tourists are enjoying these types of experiences. However, in at least one coastal town, Pangani, a cultural tourism program has been developed to promote local, village-based tourism in that area (see current initiatives section for more details). This successful initiative could be replicated in other coastal areas to promote local culture. It is important to note, however, that the development of traditional performing arts and culture into tourist attractions may have some impacts on the local culture itself. For example, a local taraab group could begin performing for tourists on a regular basis, so much that the original audience of the local community begins to feel that they are not as important to the group as the fee-paying tourists. Conflicts could then emerge and what was once a community event for the community has now changed into a group performance for foreign tourists. These types of cultural changes are inevitable when people of different backgrounds come together as they do in tourism. The degree of acceptable change in local values and culture can only be determined by the local people themselves. Education and awareness for both the local people and the tourists can help to enable the local community to maintain a sense of control over the changes in their unique culture and history. 64 In general, the cultural heritage sites along the coast are in poor condition and therefore are not currently set up to handle tourists. Most sites under the supervision of the Antiquities Department are supervised by one staff person; however, the necessary infrastructure and information that tourism demands is not in place. As a result, much work on the conservation and rehabilitation needs to be done, especially since these important sites are under numerous threats from both human activities and natural processes. The deterioration and decay of various sites are due to the following: • uncontrolled economic development - lack of Environmental Impact Assessment that emphasizes cultural heritage assessment; • Vegetation and plant growth; • Rain water penetration and infiltration; • Animals rubbing and jumping on ruins; • Visitors walking on ruins; • Natural degradation and structural failures • Inadequate trained personnel to manage sites; and • Lack of training institutions for conservation and management of cultural heritage The Department of Antiquities, MNRT, is the government agency that is responsible for conserving and managing cultural heritage sites in the country. This institution was formed in 1964 under the Antiquities Act of the same year (and subsequent amendments made in 1979). For many years, the Antiquities Department has emphasized the conservation of heritage sites with very little concern with tourism. This preservation-forthe-sake-of-preservation approach effectively forced the Department to rely solely on its own meager budget to maintain all the sites in the country. As a result, the majority of sites were not conserved and managed very well. Quite recently, the Government of Tanzania (GoT) has expanded its view of cultural heritage and determined that these sites can also serve as important tourist attractions, which could contribute much-needed financial revenue to conservation efforts. As a result, the Department of Antiquities was recently transferred from the Ministry of Education and Culture to the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism. This move has allowed both the Tourism Division and the Antiquities Department to benefit from closer contact and a shared agenda. In addition, this new approach has also encouraged cooperation between the GoT and other local and international institutions in carrying out conservation and management projects in different parts of the country, particularly along the coast. Major conservation projects include Kilwa Kisiwani and Songo Mnara Conservation Project (joint effort of GoT, French and Japanese governments, with UNESCO); Conservation of Mikindani Old Building (Trade Aid NGO with support from GoT); preparation of a Conservation Master Plan for Bagamoyo historic town and the 65 rehabilitation of the old buildings in Bagamoyo (Swedish and Tanzanian governments); and the conservation of Kaole Ruins (Urban Origin program under SAREC). The government has introduced a policy encouraging community participation in the conservation of cultural heritage. Under the policy, it is possible for individuals, institutions or organizations to receive „wardenship‟ to manage the cultural sites under the supervision and guidance of the Antiquities Department. This type of public/private/local community partnership needs to be encouraged as many potential attractions are in urgent need of rehabilitation, management and promotion. Guidelines or standards for permitted and prohibited activities in and around cultural heritage sites could be developed by the Antiquities Department, but the actual day-today operation could be carried out by private operators or even the local communities or governments. The natural and cultural attractions along the coast present many opportunities and challenges for sustainable tourism development. The potential for many areas to develop into world-class tourism destinations is quite high. Many of the attractions, however, need a great deal of work in terms of rehabilitation, management and promotion. Since different attractions are under the supervision of many different government agencies, it is important to take a comprehensive approach that creates and sustains management constituencies. These management constituencies would be led by the supervising agency, which would establish standards for how the attractions can be used. 66 All relevant stakeholders, including the local population, local and national governments, and the private sector should be included in this participatory management regime and share in the cests and benefits. 67 CHAPTER 3: AQUATIC RESOURCES PART 1: FRESH WATER RESOURCES 1.0 An Overview of Existing Water Uses The country's main water uses are domestic, industrial, irrigation, transportation, agriculture, fisheries and hydroelectric power generation. The population of the country is 33.6 million people as per National Census 2002, out of which, about 75% live in rural areas and 25% in urban centres. Currently irrigated agriculture covers about 150,000 hectares of which about 120,000 ha or 80% are under traditional irrigation schemes. The remaining areas are large centrally managed irrigation schemes owned by public and private institutions and individuals. With regards to electric power supply in the country, about 90% is hydroelectric generated power supply. Currently the generation is from the Great Ruaha and Pangani rivers only. The sector has suffered due drought and the reservoir do no have water 1.2 Inter-Sectoral Considerations on Water Use Catchment degradation resulting from indiscriminate tree cutting for fuel and poor agricultural practices have caused severe land degradation at many places resulting into increased incidence of flooding in the lowland areas, sedimentation and reduced dry season flows. The ever-increasing population places an increasing demand on water for domestic, food production, energy and other basic social and economic needs. Experience shows that fragmented planning and management, lack of sectoral integrated approaches to development are the main causes of conflicts in water use. These call for the need for managing the available water resources in a comprehensive manner, which takes into consideration integrated plans in cross-sectoral uses of water, land use, water quality, and the environment including public health considerations on a basin wide basis. 2.0 Water Resources Management Water demand for various activities is continuously increasing, while the availability of the resources is rather limited. For sustainable use of the resource, a Water Resources Management Strategy for the country is being developed, to guide both the medium and long term development and management plans. The process of strategy formulation is meant to build an element of environmental sustainability and therefore involving and encouraging cooperation among different relevant Ministries/Institutions, to attain this objective. 68 2.1 Water Resources Assessment The area framework adapted for the water resources assessment is the natural river basin boundaries, and these are the boundaries of the area which is being drained by a particular river system. Hydrologically river basins offer the best opportunity as an appropriate planning unit. To this effect and in accordance with the Water Utilization and Pollution Control Act No. 42 of 1974, and its Amendments of Act No. 10 of 1981 the country is divided into nine Drainage River Basins (Table 3.1). Table 3.1: River Basins S/N 1 River Basin Pangani 2 Rufiji 3 Wami/Ruvu 4 Lake Nyasa/ Songwe River Lake Victoria 5 6 Key Management Challenges High population density; water shortages; water conflicts between supply for hydropower generation and agricultural production; resource degradation. High population density in the Ruaha Basin; water shortages; water conflicts between supply for hydropower generation, agricultural production, livestock needs, floods and environmental uses. Increased demand and acute water shortages for Dar es Salaam, low flows in Upper Ruvu have affected reliability, unregulated river source; vulnerable to drought and floods; catchment degradation, inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline information. Unstable Songwe River course leading to unstable international border with Malawi; fisheries management in Lake Nyasa, inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline information Water pollution; fisheries management; wetlands and catchment degradation; and water hyacinth proliferation; local supply shortages, inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline information. Water pollution; catchment degradation; fisheries management, inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline information. Frequent droughts, acute water shortages, catchment degradation, inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline information. Domestic water supply shortages, inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline information. Floods, land degradation, landslides, inadequate hydrometric networks and poor baseline information. Lake Tanganyika 7 Internal Drainage 8 Lake Rukwa 9 Southern Coast/ Ruvuma Source: World Bank/DANIDA/ Ministry of Water, 1995. All these basins have been established and planned based on the assessment of the scale of the problem. What remains now is for the ministry to strengthen these basins so that they operate as expected. 69 3.0 Fresh water resources availability 3.1 Surface Water Resources About 50% of the surface runoff flows directly into the Indian Ocean, from the major river systems of Pangani, Wami, Ruvu, Rufiji, Mbwemkuru, Matandu and Ruvuma. The Rufiji contributes 50% of this. The remaining 50% is divided into surface water draining northward into Lake Victoria, westward into Lake Tanganyika, southward into Lake Nyasa and finally into the Zambezi and then into a number of drainage basins which have no outlet to the sea. The principal of these are the Lake Rukwa drainage basin, the Bubu complex, Lake Eyasi and Lake Manyara. The Lake Nyasa, Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika basins drain into international water bodies. Considerable water resources exist in the country's lakes, namely Lakes Victoria, Nyasa, Rukwa, Eyasi and Natron. These lakes support diverse ecological communities that are quite unique. Except for Lake Victoria, the usefulness of lake waters for water supply and irrigation is limited. 3.2 Water Resources Monitoring For an effective assessment, planning and management of the water resources as well as for effectively monitoring, instituting preparedness, response and remedial action against adverse effects of environmental degradation such as pollution of water bodies, drought and decertification and floods; meteorological and hydrological information is needed. An efficient and effective network of water monitoring stations and climate observation stations is required to provide such information. The assessment of the state of hydrological network report by the World Bank/UNDP (1990) Sub-Saharan Africa is correct and still valid. The network of river flow monitoring stations is now near collapse state. The first priority is the rehabilitation, rationalization and modernization of the basic network of hydrometric and climatic stations. This should also include facilities to process and analyze the data. Sediment Transport in Rivers The sediment transport characteristics of a stream are important for reservoir planning and design. Concentration of sediment in the rivers is also an important water quality parameter, and is required in the design of canals and their headworks. It also indicates the magnitude of catchment soil erosion, which is influenced primarily by soil drainage characteristics, cultivation practices, livestock population density and forest management. In general proper land use management practices can reduce soil erosion drastically. This is an issue which has to receive appropriate attention now than ever before. There is a need to formulate and implement a programme to study soil erosion mechanisms and the resulting sediment discharges and sedimentation of reservoirs and wetlands. A sedimentation survey of existing reservoirs in the country will provide data needed in planning and designing of new dams. 70 3.3 Ground water resources Groundwater potential varies from one locality to another and so does its development. Over a wide part of the country groundwater development have concentrated on small scale mainly shallow groundwater for domestic purposes. The country as whole has a good potential of ground water resources. The Inland drainage basin is explored and taped more for the use of domestic and industrial purposes. It is only in few localities in Dodoma region, where groundwater is used for irrigation purposes. In assessing groundwater availability in the basins, Pangani basin seems to be quite potential and adequate supplies can be obtained for both domestic, industrial and irrigation purposes. Adequate supplies can be extracted for Moshi, Arusha and Tanga city water supplies. Utilization of groundwater for irrigation is possible in Sanya plains and Kahe plains. At present 88% of groundwater extracted in Pangani basin is used for irrigation purposes, 4% for Industrial use and 8% for domestic use. Sanya plains and Kahe are the areas being irrigated using groundwater. Ground Water Recharge: Groundwater recharge is mainly from rainfall. In Pangani basin parasitic formations on the slopes of mountain Kilimanjaro plays a major role in the recharge of plains as they are quite porous. Other areas of recharge are the fault zone in Same near Usambara Mountains and at contact zones of the Usagaran belt and the Karoo/volcanic areas. The recharge mechanism in Makutopora in the Wami/Ruvu basin is still under study but it has been established that the recharge is through the major fault lines which surround the basin. The established recharge rate is about 10 to 12 million cubic meters per year. 4.0 Water resources utilization Major reforms are underway in the water supply and sanitation sectors, including decentralisation, full cost recovery and an increased role for the private sector are being taken care of. A strategy for managing water resources using river/lake basins as a unit of planning and managing water resources is under implementation in all the nine basins 4.1 General Use and Demand Major uses of water in the country are domestic, hydropower production and irrigation. Water demand varies from one place to another. A large part of the total water demand is for domestic use and it is higher in highly populated cities and municipalities than in small towns and rural areas. However, the demand is estimated from the population by multiplying it with the per capita water use per day which is 45 litres per day for rural areas. (i) Groundwater Uses Groundwater uses have been confined mainly for domestic purposes. In most of the river basins except for Pangani and Inland drainage, groundwater mainly from shallow aquifers is the source of water supplies to the rural community. Shallow groundwater is extracted by means of hand pumps. Deep groundwater is also used for supply in towns and in some of the rural areas. The inland drainage basin areas are almost entirely dependent on groundwater for both domestic and industrial use. In few areas of Dodoma Region, irrigation by utilizing 71 groundwater is being practiced on a small scale. In Pangani basin, groundwater is used for domestic, industrial and irrigation purposes. More than 80% of water extracted is used for irrigation in this basin. (ii) Irrigation Water Use The main objective of the Government's agricultural policy is the promotion of self sufficiency and security of food production. Irrigation is seen as a protection against drought, and a means of establishing and increasing smallholder production. It is estimated that about five million hectares of land in Tanzania is under cultivation. Irrigated agriculture however, covers only about 150,000 hectares of which about 120,000 hectares or 80% of the current irrigation takes place on existing traditional irrigation schemes. The remaining area of about 30,000 hectares covers the centrally managed schemes including large parastatal farms, private and public institution owned farms and modern smallholder schemes. Most of the traditional irrigation activities are found in Pangani, Rufiji, Wami-Ruvu Basins and in drier parts of Tanzania, notably in the Bubu, Wembere, and Duma/Simiyu Valleys where irrigation is mainly through water harvesting techniques. Most of the irrigated schemes in Tanzania are operating at an overall efficiency of between 15% to 20%. Low water use efficiencies are caused by poor irrigation water facilities and management skills. (iii) Hydroelectric Power Generation The energy policy emphasizes the use of indigenous energy sources for the country energy requirements. These sources include Hydropower, solar, renewable bio-energy, coal and gas. While gas and coal exist in abundance in the country, hydropower development has been given a high priority. Today about 85 - 90% of electric energy is from hydropower plants at Hale (installed 21MW), Pangani Falls (17.5MW) on river Pangani, Kidatu (200MW) and Mtera (80MW) on the Great Ruaha. However hydropower generation and irrigated agriculture in these basins are in direct conflict due to the fact that all the hydropower generating plants are situated at the most downstream of basins. The problem of water conflicts, are also caused by lack of integrated and sound water resources planning. Water allocation mechanisms have been on ad hoc basis and arbitrary. Freshwater Fisheries It is estimated that freshwater bodies cover about 58,000 km2. Lake Victoria, Tanganyika, and Nyasa constitute the large area of freshwater with substantial amount of fish production. Fish production from freshwater is estimated at 320,566 metric tones, as opposed to marine waters which is about 54,968 metric tones (Table 3.2). In 2005, earning from fish and fish products exports (both marine and freshwater) were US $ 141,597,362.2 whereas earnings from domestic fish market (both marine and freshwater) were Tshs. 9,845,961,126 (URT, 2005). Much of the earnings came from freshwater fish production. (iv) 72 Table 3.2: Freshwater Fish Production from 1995 to 2005 Year Number of Fisherman 1995 61,799 1996 61,799 1997 61,799 1998 58,047 1999 58,047 2000 81,704 2001 101,195 2002 105,499 2003 105,499 2004 103,443 2005 103,443 Source: Fisheries Division Statistics - 2005 Fish Production (M. Tonnes) 207,139 262,572 306,750 300,000 260,000 271,000 283,354 273,856 301,855 312,040 320,566 Lake Victoria contains the world‟s largest freshwater fishery with production estimated at 400,000 to 500,000 metric tones. Tanzania harvest around 40% of the total fish production. The lake is also ecologically sensitive and important biodiversity zone providing habitat for 350 endemic species of fish. Specific problems facing the lake were identifies as:i. Exploitative and unsustainable use of fishery resources leading to changes in fish biomass; ii. Wetland encroachment and degradation and reduction in biodiversity, including endemic fish species; iii. Discharge of untreated industrial and municipal solid and liquid wastes leading to deterioration of water quality; iv. Discharge of untreated sewage into the lake leading to nutrient increases and resultant phytoplankton bloom and oxygen depletion; v. Infestation by weed and exotic species such as water hyacinth and nile perch; vi. Poor sanitation conditions in the lake side communities leading to human health, environmental and thus economic impacts; vii. Deforestation, overgrazing and increased runoff of water and eroded topsoil together with organic matter and nutrients contributing to algal growth and eutrophication of the lake; and viii. Lake/water health problems such as bilharzia, malaria and intestinal diseases. To address problems facing the lake, Lake Victoria Environmental Project was prepared and implemented from 1994 to 2006. This project made significant improvement in the knowledge base and environmental management of the lake basin and its resources including:i. Establishment of some 400 Beach Management Units to assist with enforcement of fishing regulations and collection of data on fish catch; 73 ii. iii. iv. v. vi. An estimated 80 to 90% reduction in surface coverage of water hyacinth in the lake; Undertaking whole lake fishing pressure and water quality/limnology surveys; Implementation of highly successful pilot projects involving soil conservation, catchment afforestation, wetlands management, microprojects, and water quality components; Improving beach sanitation; and Regaining export certification of fish from the lake to be shipped to Europe markets. Lake Tanganyika is outstanding for its extraordinary north-south extension (670 km) and depth of about 1,470 m. Its very ancient origin, and a long period of isolation resulted in the evolution of a great number of indigenous organisms, including coloured cichlid fishes, well-known gastropods with the appearance of marine snails. Of the 214 species of native fishes in the lake, 176 are endemic, the number of endemic genera amounts to 30 in cichlids and 8 in non-cichlid fishes. Of many environmental threats facing Lake Tanganyika, the most immediate are excessive loads of sediments and nutrients caused by erosion in the water shade. The lake‟s basin is undergoing deforestation in an alarming rate, rapid erosion as a consequence of this deforestation is resulting in the discharge of excessive load of nutrients and sediment into normally clear-water littoral and sub-littoral environments. Industrial and urban pollution and intensive fishing using inappropriate methods are also imposing threat to the lake environment and its biodiversity. Lake Nyasa possesses a number of features that make it unique among the lake of the world. As one of the East African rift valley lakes, it is the ninth largest in the world and the third largest in Africa. The most well known feature is the species-rich assemblage of fishes whose diversity surpasses that of any other freshwater fish community in the world. There is about 700 species belonging to the cichlid family of which all but five are endemic to the lake. This unique biodiversity of the lake forms the basis for economic survival and livelihoods of communities living on the lakeshore, while contributing nutritionally and economically to the communities of the lake catchment areas. Development pressures on the lake ecosystem are increasing because population growth and the multi-purpose role of the lake that is becoming increasingly important even as its capacity to cope being threatened. Near-shore resources are heavily exploited and habitat destruction around the lake and land based pollution represent key challenges for management of the lake. Lake Jipe is situated south-east of Mt. Kilimanjaro in the Coast Province of Kenya and in the Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania. The open area of the lake water area is approximately 10 km long and 3 km wide. Lake Jipe has an area of about 4047 ha and an average depth of 2 metres. The lake and its wetlands are of international importance as a 74 home to a diverse fauna (including Palaearctic migrant‟s birds, intra-African migrants and large mammals) and flora as well as providing support to many people on both sides of Kenya and Tanzania. Lake Jipe is also well known for its waterbirds and is one of the few places in this part of Eastern Africa where the Lasser Jacaca and the Purple Gallinule are commom and where the Madagascar Squacco Horon, Balck Heron, African Darter and African Skimmers are often seen. Many Palaearctic migrant waders visit these wetlands, as do inter-African migrant water birds. The lake shares the endemic tilapia Oreochromis jipe with the Pangani river system and has and has significant fishery based upon this species as a barbell fish and the sardines Rastrineobola argentea. Hippopotamus are present in Lake Jipe and Waterbuck occur on its margins. Lake Jipe is beset with management with management problems that include runoff, increased siltation, decreasing water quality, a shrinking fishery and advancing wetland plants that threaten the existence of the open waters. There are other freshwater bodies which contribute to freshwater fish production such as Lake Rukwa, Lake Manyara, Lake Chala, Mtera dam, and Nyumba ya Mungu Dam. However, information on the status of biodiversity in these water bodies is scanty. 5.0 Water quality and pollution 5.1 Surface Water Quality The physical, chemical and bacteriological quality of water in the water sources in the country changes with time, area of the country, type of water source and season of the year. (i) Physical Quality The physical quality of the water from many surface water sources is greatly affected by colour and turbidity especially during the rainy seasons. In the semiarid regions of Dodoma, Singida, Tabora, Shinyanga and Arusha during the rainy season the colour of water in perennial and seasonal rivers increases up to more than 200 mg Pt/L. Apart from the semiarid regions, the colour of water in rivers and dams in other parts of the country normally increases to a maximum of 400 mg Pt/L during the rainy season. During the dry seasons average colour levels in surface water sources of 60 mg Pt/L normally prevail in many water sources in the country. High turbidity values of more than 500 NTU are common in many surface water sources during the rainy season. Rivers in the semiarid regions are the most affected. Turbidity of about 80 NTU is normally observed during the dry seasons in most rivers in the country. (ii) Chemical Quality The chemical quality of the surface waters is mainly affected by the geology of the area in the case of rivers, streams and dams. Some rivers and streams in the "fluoride belt" which include Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Singida and Shinyanga regions tend to have higher concentrations of fluoride. These water sources tend to pick up fluoride as they flow thorough fluoride rich geological formations. In Arusha region where the research where research was carried out the fluoride 75 levels in drinking waters are high ranging up to 22 mg/L in surface waters and up to 70 mg/L in ground waters. The severe fluorosis has been observed in Ngurudoto village, Arumeru district. In Tanzania high fluoride water sources are found in Kilimanjaro, Arusha, Mara and Mwanza regions. Other regions include Shinyanga, Singida and Manyara and Mbeya as shown in figure 3.2. The chemical quality of lake waters and dams is generally good in that it falls within the Tanzanian Drinking Water Quality Standards; exceptions are lakes Kitangari, Eyasi, Natron and Manyara which are very salty, alkaline and have excessive levels of fluoride. Figure 3.1: A map showing regions affected by excessive fluoride (hatched) in their water sources. (iii) Bacteriological Quality Bacteriological water quality is a major problem in most surface water sources in Tanzania. Non observance of personal hygiene at water sources and minimal enforcement of water sources protection legislation has led to 95 percent of surface water sources being bacteriologically polluted by faecal matter. 76 5.2 (i) Ground Water Quality Chemical Quality The presence of Iron and Manganese in groundwater affects the physical quality of the water. Iron and manganese presence has been observed along the coastline of Tanga, Coast and Mtwara regions. The problem also prevails in the semiarid regions of Dodoma, Shinyanga, Singida and Tabora. Apart from these regions, Rukwa region has also groundwater with high levels of iron in some areas. The presence of higher levels of iron and manganese in groundwater, results in coloured turbid water immediately the water gets into contact with air e.g. at the time of drilling. In such cases, colour and turbidity levels are well above the Tanzanian Drinking Water Quality Standards. The groundwater mineralization process in various geological formations has resulted in differences in chemical water quality in different parts of the country. Along the coast that is Tanga, Dares-Salaam, Lindi and Mtwara, their groundwater are in most areas salty, where electrical conductivity values exceeds 2,000 µS/cm. These high concentrations make the water undrinkable and certainly not fit for irrigation. Such situations occur when boreholes are sunk into basement rocks. High levels of iron, colour, and turbidity are a major problem in many water sources. In the North Eastern regions of Arusha and Kilimanjaro there are substantial number of water sources which have high fluoride concentrations. Fluoride concentrations above 8.0 mg/L have been observed in springs, rivers and boreholes. Due to the extensive use of fertilizers, some boreholes have been observed to have excessive nitrate nitrogen greater than 100 mg/L. Concentration of nitrate nitrogen in the springs varies from 1.0 - 2.0 mg/L. Some boreholes have also indicated the presence of high levels of sulphate especially those which had been drilled in sulphate bearing rocks such as barite. In the Central part of the country, a common water quality problem being experienced is high salt content and elevated levels of fluoride in the ground water. In the lake regions the chemical water quality of groundwater is generally within the Tanzanian Temporary Drinking Water Quality Standards. In Rungwe District of Mbeya Region, however, some of the water sources such as boreholes and springs have excessive levels of fluoride. The groundwater quality in Mtwara and Lindi regions especially along the coast is corrosive due to the presence of carbon dioxide thus pH values of 4.0 have been observed. Low pH values have also been observed in Dar es Salaam and Coast Regions. (ii) Bacteriological Quality The bacteriological quality of deep groundwater in the country is generally better than that of shallow well and surface water. In most cases it does not need to be disinfected unless it had been contaminated mostly by faecal matter. 77 5.3 Water Quality Standards Water Pollution is regulated through the Water Utilization (Control and regulation) Act No. 42 of 1974 and its amendments of 1981, 1989 and 1997. The effluent and receiving water standards contained in the Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Amendment Act No. 10 of 1981 were formulated in 1977. According to the amendment, no person may discharge effluents from any commercial, industrial or other waste systems into receiving water without consent, duly granted by a Basin Water Officer. Moreover, standards in respect of effluent and receiving waters are specified. It further state that these standards “shall be complied with by users of water before or during discharge into water courses, receiving waters or sewers”. The standards prescribed in the Water Utilization Act include standards for receiving waters bodies, effluent standards, and drinking water standards. 5.4 (i) Water Quality Monitoring Programme Water Quality Monitoring Situation To date, 15 out of 20 regions have not been provided with water quality analytical laboratories. These regions are: Dar es Salaam, Morogoro, Dodoma, Mtwara, Kigoma, Arusha, Tanga, Singida, Shinyanga, Mwanza, Musoma, Bukoba, Mbeya, Iringa, and Songea. Efforts are being made by the Government strengthening these water analytical laboratories. Presently there is no well defined water quality monitoring programme. Water sources are generally monitored irregularly. First priority is to carry out full analysis of water samples from newly developed water sources such as shallow wells, boreholes, gravity water schemes etc. Second priority is to carry out bacteriological water quality monitoring of regional and district urban water supplies and large rural water schemes. For urban and large rural water schemes, emphasis is put on bacteriological water quality analysis. Generally with the exception of Dar es Salaam, other urban water supplies are monitored once a month while the pipeline distribution network is monitored weekly when considering bacteriological aspects. A third priority is given to the monitoring of water sources which are liable to pollution be either industrial or domestic sewerage. Agrochemical pollution monitoring is not being carried due to lack of equipments and personnel to carry out the analysis. (ii) Parameters Analyzed Major water quality problems as explained earlier in this chapter include pH, turbidity, colour, iron and manganese, fluoride, nitrate, hardness, dissolved oxygen, and faecal coliform. All the regional laboratories are able to analyze most of them. The Water Quality Monitoring Programme is severely affected by lack of operational funds, transport, equipments and chemicals. 6.0 Rain water harvesting Rainwater harvesting is a technology used for collecting and storing rainwater from rooftops, the land surface or rock catchments using simple techniques such as constructed 78 water storage tanks drums and pots as well as more complex techniques such as underground check dams. Various forms of rain water harvesting in micro-catchments and other techniques are used in Tanzania in order to try and capture and concentrate rainfall. Rainwater harvesting is a feasible option for improving the living conditions of millions of Tanzanians currently facing serious water supply problems. It is a known fact that successful implementation of large scale rainwater harvesting relies on number factors. To mention a few these include among others a suitable climate, an enabling environment that supports rainwater harvesting, key planning and technical skills at all levels particularly in local implementing agencies recognition of the different roles that water plays in men and women‟s livelihoods. Household rainwater harvesting has number of potential benefits these include a reduction of burden of collecting water over long distances particularly women, improved health due to clean water, improved sanitation and improved nutrition, reduction in vulnerability to external shocks and poverty reduction through productive use of water. Figure 3.2: Demonstration rooftop catchments system at Mburahati dispensary, Dar es Salaam Efforts are being made to sensitize and create awareness among relevant people at national, district and village levels on the importance and potential of the rainwater harvesting technology. Furthermore the technology has considered in the Water Sector Development Programme. 79 PART II: COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES AND ECOSYSTEMS 1.0 Geography of setting Tanzania has a coastline which stretches for about 800 km along the Western Indian Ocean from the Mozambique border in the South to the Kenya border in the North. The coast includes all areas bordering the Ocean in the five regions of Tanga, Coast, Dar es Salaam, Lindi and Mtwara as well as three large islands of Unguja and Pemba (which make up Zanzibar), Mafia and numerous islets. About two thirds of the coastline has fringing reef, often close to the shoreline, broken by river outlets like the Rufiji delta, Pangani, Ruvuma, Wami and Ruvu (Fig. 1). It is characterized by a very narrow continental shelf which is 5.8 km wide except the Zanzibar and Mafia channel, where the continental shelf reaches a width of about 62 km. Most of the continental shelf bed is covered with coral outgrowths and some parts of the coastal margin have extensive mangrove stands. The continental shelf has on estimated area of 17,500 km 2. The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (Shared with Zanzibar) has an estimated area of 223,000 km2 (TCMP Working Document No. 5008, 1998). Figure 3.3: Tanzania Exclusive Economic Zone 80 1.1 Physical characteristics 1.1.1 Climate The climate of coastal areas is hot and humid. The monsoons have thee dominant influence on wind direction and strength, temperature and rainfall. There are two monsoon seasons namely the northeast monsoon (Kaskazi) which prevails from November to February and is characterized by high air temperatures (>30oC) and weaker winds and the Southeast monsoon (Kusi) which lasts from April to September and is marked by lower temperatures (approximately 25oC) as well as strong winds. Occasionally, the Southeast monsoons are associated with epidemic events such as storms and cyclones. Table 3.2 indicate recorded cyclones in Tanzania. Table 3.3: Recorded Cyclones in Tanzania Date Event 4 April 1872 Cyclone 15 April 1952 Cyclone 1989 Tropical Storm August 1994 Cyclone Source: State of the Coast Report - 2003 Affected Places Zanzibar, Bagamoyo Lindi,Mtwara, Mikindani, Dar es Salaam Zanzibar No. of Human Death Not specified 34 7 5 1.1.2 Rainfall Two types of rainfall regime prevail on the Tanzania coast. A unimodal type with a single annual maximum, general between December land April, which prevails in the Southern areas such as Mtwara, Lindi and Mafia. A bimodal type composed of a long rainy season (March – May) and a short one (November – December) which prevails in the northern areas such as Tanga and Dar es Salaam. 1.2 Geology and Soils Most of the country lies on the Great African Plateau with altitudes between 1000 and 2000m above mean sea level, the exception being the narrow coastal belt. The coastal plains are composed of both marine and terrestrial sediments. If we refer to the Geologic Time Scale, which is simply a list of ages of the earth and its past life forms, the ages of the sediments range from Jurassic through cretaceous to Tertiary and Quaternary. The marine rocks consist mainly of marls, limestone and shells. The soil type of coastal areas in Tanzania include deposited alluvium that is mostly found in river estuaries, dark clays on older alluvial deposits which are found along the Rufiji Delta and Tanga, grey bottomland soils found mainly in coastal plains. The most fertile soils are found on river basins, in the volcanic areas and on alluvial deposits of volcanic origin. 81 1.3 Hydrology The coast is strongly influenced by rivers that bring to it water, sediment, nutrients and pollutants. Tanzania is traversed by a number of rivers and streams, which could broadly be divided into four drainage basins, namely the Indian Ocean drainage, the Atlantic Ocean via Lake Tanganyika, the Lake Victoria – Nile complex that drains into the Mediterranean sea and the Rift Valley depression. The Indian Ocean drainage system is thee largest drainage basin, covering almost 20% of the country and constituting about 50% of the surface, runoff. The Rufiji, one of the largest river in Africa, contributes 50% of this runoff. The surface river flow regime and moisture conditions in the country correspond to the general rainfall pattern. The peak outflow from major rivers that discharge into the Indian Ocean occurs between March and May. Rivers and lakes start rising in November/December and experience maximum in March – April, with a recession period from May to October/November. The hydrological year starts in October/November and ends in September/October (UNEP 2001). 1.4 Currents and Tidal Regime Ocean currents and tides are important features that strongly influence the distribution of marine organisms and the availability of nutrients. The dominant major currents prevailing in the coastal waters of Tanzania are the south Equatorial current, which flows westwards and the northwards flowing East Africa Coastal Current (EACC). Three main water masses have been identified off the Tanzania coast. Firstly, surface water (depth <100m) brought to the West from the Bay of Bengal and the eastern India Ocean area by the South Equatorial current. The second is the high salinity water found at a depth of 150-250m. The thirds is the Indian Ocean Central water, which is found of at 250-500m depth. The tides along the Tanzania coast are semi-diurnal type, characterized by two occurrences of both high and low waters within a day. These are the mean spring tide of about 3.5m and mean neap tide of about 2.5m. The age of the tide in most areas ranges from one to two days. 1.5 Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperatures exhibit seasonality that is influenced by changes in the water mosses of the Indian Ocean and by climate factors. During the Southeast monsoon, the South equatorial current bring water of relatively low temperatures from the Pacific Ocean, while during the Northeast monsoon, the South Equatorial current draws waters of high temperature from the same. The Sea surface temperature of the coastal waters of Tanzania averages at 27oC but many reach 25oC during July to September and rise to 28oC 29oC in shallow areas during January to March. Temperature variations, particular offshore are mainly diurnal as they are controlled by day heating by so low radiation and night cooling. In near-shore waters, temperatures are semidiurnal due to effects of thee tides. 82 1.6 Salinity Salinity values are lower during May following the peak freshwater outflow and the highest in November. The salinity values starts to decrease in February before the beginning of rains. In open ocean salinity value normally range from 34.0 to 35.50/00. However, the salinity is low near the coast due to freshwater runoff. 2.0 Coastal Ecosystem, Resources and Their Utilization 2.1 Coral Reefs Coral reefs are tropical shallow–water ecosystem that has high productivity and biodiversity. Hard coral which produce calcium carbonate as they grow are the main building blocks of these ecosystems. A few other organisms, such as coralline algae contribute to reef building. The variable topography of the reef structure creates numerous microhabitats which in turn, support a high diversity of algae, sea grass, sponges, sea anemones, soft corals, crustaceans, gastropods, bivalves, echinoderms, fish and marine turtles. The greatest concentrations of well – developed coral reefs are along the coast of Tanga, Pemba, Unguja, Mafia, Kilwa (Songo Songo Archipelago) and Mtwara. Coral reefs are critical habitats due to their ecological and socio-economic importance. Besides having high productivity and biodiversity coral reefs provide shelter as well as feeding, breeding and nursery ground for a great variety of invertebrates and fish. Thus, coral reefs play a role as keystone ecosystem in the ocean by proving ecological services that extends far beyond the area of coverage. Due to their ecological importance, coral reefs also have great economic importance, supporting 70% of the artisanal fish production in Tanzania. In addition, coral reefs are one of the most important tourist attractions in Tanzania bringing foreign currency into the country. At the same time, due to the uniqueness, complexity and high biodiversity of coral reefs, they have significant educational and scientific value. 2.2 Mangrove Forests Mangroves are salt tolerant trees or shrubs that form the major complex tropical and subtropical mangrove ecosystems. These ecosystems occupy the intertidal zone, primarily in muddy, sheltered areas of the coast such as bays, inlets, estuaries, channels and the Ieeward sides of islands. They sometime cover vast areas in large river deltas. The other components of mangrove ecosystems include algae, marine fauna living in mud, on the bases of trees and in tidal water; and terrestrial animals living in the tree canopy. Mangrove forests are found in all coastal districts of Tanzania. There are eight species of mangroves in mainland Tanzania. These are Avicenia marina, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Heritiera littoralis, Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia alba, and Xlocarpus granutum. The largest continuous mangrove forests occur in Rufiji, Kilwa, Tanga, Muheza na Mtwara districts. Table 3.3 shows the Mainland mangrove spp. 83 Similar to coral reefs, mangrove forests are considered critical habitats with great ecological and socio-economic value. They are also keystone ecosystems with high productivity, producing large quantities of organic matter that serve as food for many organisms. This includes those living within the forest and also outside it, since much of organic matter produced is exported to other areas of the marine environment. Mangroves also serve as feeding, breeding and nursery grounds for a great variety of invertebrates and fish, many of which move out into the ocean during their adult stage. In addition, mangroves filter river water and facilitate the settlement of sediments, which would otherwise be detrimental to surrounding seagrass beds and coral reefs. Mangroves also play on important role in stabilizing the coastline, thus preventing shoreline erosion. Economically, mangroves are source of firewood, charcoal, building poles, materials for boat construction, tannin and traditional medicines. More over mangrove forests serves as great tourist attraction and have important scientific value. The area covered by mangroves in mainland Tanzania was approximately 109,593 ha from 1988 – 1990 and about 108,138 in ha 2000 (TCMP Coastal Management Report No. 2002, 2003). Table 3.4: Mainland Mangrove Species Mangrove Species Preferred Habitat Avicernia marina Exposed area facing the sea Bruguiera gymorhiza Middle of the mangrove forest extending into the seaward area Ceriops tagal Inner part of mangrove forest on well drained soil Hiritiera litoralis River banks, tidal estuaries and mangrove swamps Lumnitzera racemosa Saline and dry areas Rhizophora micronata Tidal stream, river banks and estuaries Sonneratia alba Mudflats in sheltered locations and estuaries with slow moving water Xylocarpus granatum Upper portion of river banks and dry areas Source: State of the Coast Report - 2003 2.3 Fish Resources The demand for fish in Tanzania is progressively increasing, particular with the greater number of people being along the coast and with expansion of tourism activities. This increased demand for fish products has raised the prices substantially, which has enlarged the income of some people in the fisheries trade. However the fishing industry is still 95% artisanal as the majority of the local fishermen still use traditional fishing gears. Fish resources caught by these fishermen which are of special significance include the pelagic, or surface living species such as the sardine, jack, swordfish, mackerel, kingfish and tuna. The group that dominate the marine dermesal, or deeper catch are bream, grouper, parrotfish, snapper, rabbit fish and emperor. These are caught using hand lines, traps and nets. The small for pelagic species consist primarily of sardine, small tuna and mackerel. These are mainly caught by purse seines and ring nets. Other species include octopus and lobster that are usually collected by hand from reef flats at low tide or by divers. Prawn and shrimps are caught in seine nets in estuaries water particularly in the mouths of large rivers. Sea cucumbers and cockles are gathered at low tide in the intertidal flats. Squids are mainly caught using hand lines, seine nets or fixed nets. Other 84 species that are caught include sharks and rays. The crab species caught in Tanzania are dominated by two species, both of which are of commercial importance. They are Scylla serrata, commonly known as the mud or mangrove crab and Portunus pelagius commonly known as blue swimming or sand crab. 2.4 Marine Mammals Marine mammals are warm-blooded animals that spend the majority of their life in or near the sea. The key characteristics of mammals are being warm blooded, having at least few hairs, nourishing young with milk land given live birth to young. An outstanding diversity of marine mammals exists in Tanzania. The most common seen is the dolphin (pomboo). However, there are other marine mammals such as whales (nyangumi) and dugong (nguva) which are also known as seacows or manatees. Out of the ten species of dolphins found in the Western Indian Ocean, eight species have been reported in Tanzania waters. They are Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncata), Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis), Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), Pan-tropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) Risso‟s dolphin (Grampus griseas); rough-toothed dolphin (Steno brendanensis) and Sousa plumbes which is a sub-species of the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin. They are typically found in Zanzibar, Mtwara, Bagamoyo and Tanga. In Tanzania waters there is little information on the occurrence, distribution and abundance of whales, although humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are often sighted off the coast particularly on the East Coast of Zanzibar and Tanga between October and December. Several humpback and sperm wholes (Physeter macrocephalus) have also been sighted by fishermen or travelers in ships near Tanzania waters. The dugong (Dugong dugong) is believed to be almost extinct in Tanzania. However, reports suggests that these animals are still in existence in the southern part of Tanzania near Kilwa and Mafia as well as in the northern part of Pemba. 2.5 Sea Turtles Turtles locally known as “Kasa” are group of vertebrate‟s animals belonging to the order Testudines. Like snakes, lizards and crocodiles, they are reptiles. For long time marine turtles have been used as food. The eggs and meet from sea turtles are consumed and are considered aphrodisiacs in some coastal communities. The eggs of many endangered sea turtles are still collected by poachers. Five species of sea turtles are found in Tanzania waters. These are the Green turtles, Hawksbill turtle, Olive Ridley turtle, Loggerhead turtle and Leather back turtle. Two of the five species Green and Hawksbill are known to nest on the Tanzanian waters. 2.6 Sea grass Sea grasses are marine flowering plants (angiosperms) that are adapted to live submerged in shallow sea bottoms. Thirteen species of sea grasses have been reported in Tanzania. 85 In Tanzania, sea grass beds are widely distributed in inter-tidal, and sub-tidal mud and sand flats, coastal lagoons, and in sandy areas around the bases of shallow, patchy and fringing reefs. They are also found in creeks exposed to low tide or always submerged, in fine sand mixed with mud and on sand flats and sand bars. They are found in abundance in sheltered areas of the coast around Tanga, and tidal zones fronting the deltas of Ruvu, Wami and Rufiji rivers and around Kilwa. The actual area covered by seagrass beds and the relative species densities have not been established. Seagrass play important ecological roles. They have strong intertwining rhizomes and roots that penetrate the substratum to stabilize bottom sediments and support plant against water motion. Because seagrasses are plants with extensive nutrient cycling and fast regeneration, they have a very high productivity rate. By servicing complex food webs through dead and living organisms, seagrass beds are critical habitats in maintaining marine biodiversity, supporting both artisanal and industrial fisheries and protecting beaches from erosion by attenuating strong sea waves. Table 3.4 shows the distribution of sea grass spp in the Coast of Tanzania. Table 3.5: Distribution of sea grass species in Tanzania coast Species Tanga Dar/Coast Tanga Pangani Coast Dar Cymodocea rotunda X X C. serrulata X X Enhalus acoroides X X Halodule wrightii X X X H. uninervis X X X Halopohila minor X H. ovalis X H. stipulacea X X H. wrightii X X X Syringodium X X X isoetifollium Thalasia ciliatum X X X T. hemiprichi X X X Lindi Mafia X X X X X Mtwara X X X X X X X X X X X X X 2.7 Plankton Plankton is made up to organisms with ability to float in aquatic habitat such as oceans, rivers and lakes. Plankton are divided into components, namely Phytoplankton and zooplankton. Phytoplankton consists of primary producers of organic matter that stand on the baseline of food webs in aquatic environment. About 95% of the total marine primary production comes from phytoplankton which is the total sources of energy in the ecosystem. Species composition of phytoplankton varies with location season and time of day. Species diversity in Tanzania waters was found to be higher then normal. About 265 tax were reported to occupy coastal waters around Dar es Salaam and 192 species found in 86 Zanzibar waters (Bryceson 1977). Studies conducted in salt marshes and coastal waters of Bagamoyo identified 41 species of microalga. Zooplankton includes tiny herbivores that feed on the smaller phytoplankton. Zooplankton is primary consumers and like phytoplankton they play a major role in transfer of energy from one trophic level to another in the marine food web. Zooplonkton is the basic food of many fish larvae and adult fishes as well as many marine animals like whales. Although important in the marine food web very little has been studied concerning zooplankton in the coastal waters of Tanzania. 3.0 Economic Opportunities for the Coastal and Marine Environment. 3.1 Fisheries Most coastal people are involved in fishing activities. Nearly all fishing takes place in that continental shell which is quite narrow. The inshore marine fishery is extremely important to coastal communities. The number of fishermen is increasing whereas currently it is estimated that there are over 60,000 fishermen operating the whole coast of Tanzania including the islands. The importance and impact of fishing extends much beyond these fulltime fishers and include all those involved in boat construction and repair, and marketing and sale of fish products. Therefore when a fishery collapses it does not only affect the fishermen but a whole group of people who depend on it. Fish is also important source of animal protein to a large part of the coastal population. The high seas, or the “Exclusive Economic Zone” that extends 200 nautical miles out the sea is so far unexploited by local fishermen because they lack stable vessels to venture into these distant waters. The contribution of fishery to Tanzania GDP varies between 2.1. – 5% in Tanzanian mainland and 2.2 – 10.4% in Zanzibar. In Tanzania mainland, marine fisheries catches fluctuated between to 48,761 tones in 1995 to 54,968.6 in 2005 (Table 3.5). Table 3.6: Trend of Marine Fish Production (Tanzania Mainland ) from 1995 to 2005 Year Number of Number of Fishing Fish Production Fisherman Vessels Tons ) 1995 13,822 3,768 48,761 1996 13,822 3,768 59,508.1 1997 13,822 3,768 50,210 1998 20,625 5,157 48,000 1999 20,625 5,517 50,000 2000 20,625 5,517 49,000 2001 19,071 4,927 52,934.9 2002 19,071 4,927 49,674.5 2003 19,071 4,927 49,270 2004 19,071 4,927 50,470 2005 29,754 7,190 54,968.6 (M. Source: Fisheries Division Statistics 2005 87 3.1.1 Artisanal Fisheries In Tanzania, marine fisheries is still mainly artisanal. Marine fisheries contribute about 15% of the total fish production in the country, with the rest coming from freshwater fisheries. Most of the artisanal fishermen are poor and thus despite profit opportunities, they have not been able to adjust to the increased demand. Most of fisherfolk use simple gears and vessels with limited operational range. 3.1.2 Industrial fisheries Prawn fisheries represent the most important industrial fishery in the country and have been operating since 1980‟s. Deep sea fishing which is currently at a small-scale is been. The industrial fishery for prawns is based mostly in the in short shallow areas around the mangrove fringed Bagamoyo/Saadani and the Rufiji deltas. Offshore fisheries are potential resources with high value migratory fish species such as tuna, sailfish, marlin and swordfish. Foreign vessels are also known to fish these waters. 3.2 Mariculture Seaweed farming began in 1989 along the coast of Zanzibar and it has since expanded to other areas. The socio-economic impacts of sea weed farming have been overwhelmingly positive providing income to women from poor remote villages. It also represents a source of foreign exchange for the national economy. There are abundant natural habitat areas with good water quality where the industry can expand. Seaweeds can be used in food processing, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. It is estimated that this industry employ more then 30,000 people. Women are the primary cultivators of seaweed and the additional income has benefited their families and communities. The increasing importance of seaweed farming is reflected in its dramatic growth, starting from barely 500 tones of dry seaweed per year in 1989 to 7,000 tones per year in 2000. Between 1993 and 1994 seaweed contributed 15-27% of the Zanzibar export income. Two species of seaweed are under cultivation in Tanzania, Eucheuma cottonii and Eucheuma spinosum. In coastal mainland of Tanzania Eucheuma cottonii is now almost exclusively farmed, being grown in coastal villages in all coastal regions. The price paid to seaweed farmers is about US $ 400 and US $ 1,000 for a metric tone of dried spinosum and cottonii respectively. Despite the rapid spread of seaweed farming there is a room for improvement. Quality of existing harvest can be improved if technical assistance is given to seaweed farmers. Promotion of seaweed farming is paramount as it provide alternative income-generating options to reduce pressure on overexploited inshore fisheries as part of marine conservation and integrated coastal management strategies. 88 3.3 Coastal Tourism Tanzania is internationally renewed for its terrestrial parks and wildlife safari Tourism. The wildlife resources of Tanzania rank among the finest in the world. The tourism industry is already a major source of foreign exchange accounting for about 16% of national GDP, and nearly 25% of total export earnings. The size and income from coastal tourism is smaller but with tourist numbers increasing to near capacity levels in terrestrial parks, leaders in the industry sea a future shift to tourism expansion and diversification along the coast. The National Integrated Master Plan points to coastal areas as having strong potential for tourism growth. The natural, cultural, and historical heritage of Tanzania is what makes coastal and marine sites attractive to international tourists. Clusters of hotels and lodges that provide nature based tourism with market that relies primarily on international travelers are found in Pangani, Zanzibar Islands, Mafia Island, and Kilwa. These hotels and lodges offer tranquility, beautiful braches and natural environment, sport fishing, diving and snorkeling, culture and history, and archeological suites. While assessing the potential for coastal tourism development, it is important to identify and understand the potential impacts such development will have on human and natural resources of the coastal area. The development of coastal tourisms can have a myriad of impacts on the coastal region, and can, in turn impacted by non-tourism related activities. These impacts can be positive, such as job creation for local people, or negative, such as coastal degradation due to unplanned development of coastal degradation due to unplanned development of coastal hotels. The economic impacts of coastal tourism include both positive and negative aspects in terms of the local and national economy. At local level the construction and operation of hotels and other accommodation can lead to emergence of numerous types of supporting services and businesses, such as restaurants, tour agencies etc, many of which can be developed and managed by local people. Coastal tourism can also provide revenue to local government authorities through taxation and other revenue bearing activities. At national level, the development of coastal tourism can provide much needed foreign exchange and tax revenue, contributing to the growth of the national economy. The social impacts of tourism are quite difficult to measure but often are fairly negative. On the positive side, tourism can promote inter-cultural understanding between host and visitor, however, can lead creeping of foreign values and ideas into the host population and thus eroding local value systems. (TCMP, Working Document No. 5057) The environmental impacts of coastal tourism can be numerous. Unplanned development of tourism-related facilities and infrastructure can adversely affect the natural resources base that local populations depend on for their livelihoods. Appropriate sitting of tourist hotels and other structures can minimize these impacts, as can the development of adequate waste disposal facilities. The carrying capacity of the ecosystems needs to be 89 taken into account in order to ensure that coastal tourist activities don not exceed the limits of acceptable use for that area. Critical systems, such as mangroves, estuaries and reefs can be damaged by coastal tourism activities if not properly managed. The impacts of coastal tourism on cultural heritage are also important. The development and promotion of cultural heritage attractions can lead to further protection of those attractions through self –sustaining financing mechanisms. 3.4 Extraction of Minerals and Energy Resources 3.4.1 Salt Production There are about 197 saltworks in Tanzania and 193 of them are coastal salt works (UNEP, 2001). Salt making is prevalent in all coastal districts in Tanga, Dar es Salaam, Coast, Lind and Mtwara regions. There are four main methods for salt production in Tanzania namely: thermal evaporation, vacuum evaporation, solar evaporation, and foothills salt collection. Among these, solar evaporation is the most widely used method and the one that is the least capital intensive. Big companies that conduct the largest salt mining business use solar evaporation and is normally carried during the dry season. Salt is also produced through boiling by small scale miners. This method entails the availability of large amount of firewood which is obtained by cutting down mangrove forests and neighboring terrestrial trees. 3.4.2 Sand mining Sand mining exists in most coastal towns and villages. Areas where sand mining is undertaken include:(i) Tanga town at Kiomoni (ii) Muheza district at Bagamoyo village and in river courses (iii) Pangani district from the beach and some areas on Pangani river bank upstream (iv) Mitema in Lindi town near the shore (v) Kilwa Kivinje – near the shore (vi) Dar es Salaam area at Mbagala, Chamazi, Pande, Tuangoma, Magohe, Makongo, Mpiji, Bunju, Kawe and in four main streams (Tegeta, Mbezi, Mlalakuwa and Kijitonyama) (vii) Mtwara – near the shore 3.4.3 Quarrying Quarrying is done at a commercial scale near urban centres and use coral rag and other stones. Quarrying is undertaken in all costal regions and is normally near the shore. However, data on the extent of quarrying is limited. 90 3.4.4 Gas exploration Tanzania has gas resources in coastal areas that make significant contribution to the national economy. Currently gas is being extracted at Songo Songo gas field. Plans are underway to start extracting gas from Mnazi Bay in Mtwara. The natural gas from Songo Songo is used to provide fuel for power generation plants and for industrial use. 4.0 Threats on Coastal and Marine Resources and Ecosystem Signs of environmental degradation as well as the decline in natural resources and biodiversity are becoming obvious in the coastal and marine environment. Of these threats, the main ones are:(i) declining harvest of marine and coastal living resources (ii) loss of coastal and marine habitats and biodiversity (iii) Coastal pollution (iv) Beach (coastal) erosion 4.1 Decline of Marine and Coastal Living Resources The artisanal and industrial fisheries in Tanzania have been falling consistently in recent years. For example; the artisanal fish landings have decreased from 54,327 tones in 1990 to 32,286 tones in 1994. Furthermore, there is evidence that increased commercialization of octopus, sea cucumber and seashell harvest has resulted in declines of these species in a number of areas in Tanzania. The decline may signal that the artisanal fishery is exploiting the coastal fishery at its maximum potential and that the decline in catches may in indicate overfishing. Prawn fishery represent is the most industrial fishery undertaken in the country and has been operating since mid 1980‟s. Prawn fishery is based mostly in the inshore shallow areas around the mangrove fringed Bagamoyo, Saadani and the Rufiji delta with approximately 21 prawn trailers. Catches for prawns has shown decreasing trend. Prawns being exported have declined drastically from about 1,360 tones in 2000 to 467 tones in 2005 (SMT, 2006). This decline in catches may signal the resource is overexploited. Natural calamities such as storms and strong waves are known to damage corals and indirectly could affect fish populations. Other impacts could be caused by river runoffs, which create siltation especially around river mouths. A recent event was coral bleaching caused by the increase in water temperatures in 1998. This is believed to have impacted coral reefs in several parts of Tanzania with one of the affects being change in fish species composition. 4.2 Loss of Coastal and Marine Habitats and Biodiversity 4.2.1 Coral Reefs Much of the degradation of reef ecosystems has been caused by destructive fishing methods. By far, the most destructive fishing is the use of dynamite. Dynamite fishing was once widespread, but its use has been drastically reduced throughout the country. It has been practiced in Tanzania for over 40 years. Each blast of dynamited instantly kills 91 all fish and most other living organisms within a 15-20 meters radius and completely destroys the reef habitat itself with a radius of several meters. The use of small mesh seine nets to capture fish on the bottom and around reefs is almost as destructive as the use of plynomite. The nets are weighted and dragged through the reef flat or are pulled around coral reefs. Dragging them over the reef flat unavoidably damages coral and other marine life. 4.2.2 Mangroves During past decades, degradation of mangroves occurred in many parts of the country. Besides decrease in the area coverage of mangroves, there was also considerable decrease in the density, height and canopy cover of the mangroves within the forests. The areas hardest hit were those near urban centres such as Kunduchi, Mbweni and Mtoni in Dar es Salaam and forests around Tanga. Less accessible areas such as Rufiji remain largely pristine. The major immediate causes of mangrove forest degradation were the over-harvesting of mangrove for firewood, charcoal-making, building poles, boat construction which accounted for about 46 %, and clear-cutting of mangrove for mariculture, agriculture, solar salt production, road construction, urbanization and hotel construction which accounted for about 30%. Near urban centres, various types of pollution including municipal sewage, garbage and oil pollution also pose threat to mangroves. 4.2.3 Coastal Pollution Dar es Salaam, being the highly populated city generate large amount of waste. Domestic sewage is the principal sources of pollution in the city‟s coastal waters especially in habour areas. Pollution originating form discharge of untreated water from sewer systems, pit latrines, soak pits, garbage dumps normally found their way to coastal waters. As a result pollution, high levels of nutrients, faecal and coliform have been recorded in coastal waters. Further more heavy blooms of micro-algae are a regular feature of near shore waters especially in the vicinity of the northern end of ocean road beach in Dar es Salaam. Manufacturing industries are another source of pollution especially in Dar es Salaam. Various industrial wastes from Keko, Chang‟ombe, Kurasini, Mtoni and Temeke in Dar es Salaam have been discharging untreated wastes into the shore via the Msimbazi creek. These pollutants include chemicals from textile industries such as dyes, paint wastes and strong alkalis. The principal threat to water quality in Tanzania coastal waters is due to untreated municipal wastes. The water quality outside urban areas, though largely free from the impact of domestic wastes, is under threat from agricultural run-off, pesticides and fertilizers. 92 4.2.4 Coastal Erosion About two thirds of the coastline of Tanzania has fringing reefs, often close to the shoreline, broken by river outlets such as the Rufiji delta, Pangani, Ruvuma, Wami and Ruvu. Coastal erosion is a natural process in which the boundary land and water shift its position overtime that is shift towards the land in which the sea wears away the shoreline. The rate at which both erosion and accretion occur is dependent upon the wind, waves, currents, tides, vegetation, sand composition and geology specific to a particular coastline. The causative factor of coastal erosion is natural, ho owever, can be also intensifying by human activity. For example, more than 8 million people in Tanzania depend on the resources and ecosystem surrounding the water. Activities such as dynamite fishing, coral and sand mining, mangrove cutting, seaweed farming, waste disposal, and tourism have a marked effect on erosion of the coast. Both accretion and erosion occur throughout the coastline of Tanzania,. However, from few studies that have been done, it has been seen that increased human activity along the shoreline has increased the rate of erosion. For example the destruction of coral reefs around Maziwi Island off the coast of Tanga has led to severe erosion that the island disappeared in 1987. In Dar es Salaam during the March – May rain season, accretion of up to 30 cm has been noted. However, in August erosion is up to 2 meters thus the overall impact of these season events is still erosion. Table 3.7: Quantification of shoreline change in the Kunduchi-Manyema creek during the period 1981 – 2002 Erosion in the Northern Part of the Creek (Area in Acres) 1981 – 1992 5.03 1992 – 2002 1.67 1981 - 2002 6.57 Source: State of the Coast Report - 2003 Year Erosion in Southern Part of the Creek (Area in Acres) 2.80 0.30 2.56 5.0 Management of the Coastal and Marine Environment Different responses have been undertaken in the management of coastal and marine resources in Tanzania. These include traditional management systems, enforcement of policies and laws through regulatory mechanisms, collaborative management. 5.1 Traditional Management Systems It is now recognized by authorities and scientist that fisher folks in Tanzania know much more about the coastal and marine environment than was previously acknowledged. Despite the fact that it was advocated a long a time ago, marine scientists and decision makers are starting to realize and seriously appreciate the value of traditional knowledge. Fisher folks for example, do plan their activities depending on among others, seasons, 93 weather conditions, and lunar/tidal effects. Variation of these aspects which has impacts on fish catches is well known to fisher folks. 5.2 Policies and Legislation There are several sectoral legislations that have relevance for the management of marine and coastal environment (Table 3.7). These legislations cover sectors such as: environment, fisheries, forestry, land use planning, marine transport, tourism, energy, minerals culture, and industries and trade. A wide range of approaches have been adopted within the legal and regulatory framework aiming at protection of the coastal and marine environment. These include:(i) Setting of environmental quality standards; (ii) Protection of the key habitats such as coral reefs and mangroves; (iii) Environmental Impact Assessment; (iv) Monitoring, Surveillance and Inspection; (v) Pollutant discharge fee; and (vi) Penalties. Table 3.8: Key Policies, Legislation and Plans Relevant to Marine and Coastal Environment Aspect Policies/Legislation/Plans Natural Resources Land use Shipping Tourism Cross-cutting National Fisheries Sector Policy and Strategy Statement (1997) National Forest Policy ( 1997 ) Fisheries Act (2003) The Territorial Sea and EEZ Act (1994) Deep Sea Fishing Authority Act (1997) Marine Parks and Reserve Act (1994) National Forest Action Plan 1990/91 – 2007/08 Mangrove Management Plan (1991) National Land Policy (1995) Town and Country Planning Ordinance (1956) Cap. 378 The Town & Country (Public Beaches Planning Area) Order (1991) Land Act (1998) Merchant Shipping Act (2003) National Tourism Policy (1999) National Environmental Policy (1997) Water Policy (1991) Water Utilisation (Control & Regulation) Amendment No. 19 (1980) Regional Administration Act (1997) Local Government (District and Urban Authorities) Acts (1982) Public Health (Sewerage and Drainage) Ordinance Cap. 336 National Water Policy (2002) Mining (Environmental Management Protection) Regulation (1999) 6.0 Coastal Management Plans/Projects/Programmes 6.1 Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Programme The Tanga Coastal Zone Conservation and Development Programme is implemented in three Districts of Muheza, Tanga and Pangani. The overall objective goal of the programme is to develop sustainable use of Tanga coastal resources through:- 94 (i) (ii) Improvement of the institutional capacity to undertake integrated coastal management and; Assist coastal communities to use resources in sustainable manner. 6.2 Tanzania Coastal Management Partnership (TCMP) TCMP is a joint initiative between the Government of Tanzania through the National Environment Management Council (NEMC), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the University of Rhode Island Coastal Resources Centre. The goal of TCMP is to establish the foundation of effective coastal governance which is essential precondition for the improvement of the quality of life of coastal communities. TCMP now focuses on conservation of the coastal environment through livelihood approach. Income generating activities such as sea weed farming, honey production, and paprika farming are among activities undertaken. 6.3 The Marine and Coastal Environment Management Project (MACEMP) The objective of this project is to strengthen the sustainable management and use of the United Republic of Tanzania‟s Exclusive Economic Zone, territorial seas, and coastal resources resulting in enhanced revenue collection, reduced threats to the environment, better livelihoods of participating coastal communities, and improved institutional arrangements. 6.4 Kinondoni Coastal Area Management Programme (KICAMP) The overall objective of this programme is to improve the understanding and management of marine and coastal resources in the Kinondoni District. The programme focuses on four components namely:- coastal land and water use planning; coastal community development; coastal surveys, assessment and monitoring; and education, information and communication. 7.0 Marine Protected Areas and Reserves Marine and coastal protected areas (MPAs) are widely recognized as important component of any management strategy for the sustainable development of the coastal and marine environment. In this regard, MPAs take into consideration both conservation and development interests. MPAs in Tanzania are:(i) Mafia Island Marine Park Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP) encompasses two reserves of Chole Bay and Tutia Reef which was officially gazetted in April 1993, following the approval of the Marine Parks and Reserve Act of 1995. (ii) Mnazi Bay Marine Park The Mnazi Bay Marine Park which include the Mnazi Bay and Ruvuma estuary, is located at the southern end of Tanzania coast bordering Mozambique. Mnazi Bay and Ruvuma estuary have extensive mangrove forests which are breeding and nursery ground for prawns and other species including commercial fish. (iii) Marine Reserves Several areas were designated as Marine Reserves, and became subject to the regulations laid down in the repelled Fisheries Act of 1970, Government Notice No. 1370 of 1975. 95 Marine reserves are areas being used for recreation, aesthetic, education and research activities. Designated marine reserves in Tanzania are found at:(a) Dar es Salaam area: the Islands of Mbudya, Bongoyo, Pangavini, and Fungu Yasini; (b) Tanga Region: Maziwi Island (off Pangani) which has submerged in 1978 probably due to the rise of the sea. PART III: WETLANDS RESOURCES 1.0 Introduction Wetland is an area which has water permanently or temporarily mostly in low land areas. In Tanzania wetlands are all over the country constituting about 10% of the country‟s land area. Wetlands have both economic and ecological importance and they are delicate therefore they have to be managed diligently to avoid destruction or drying up. The concept "wetland" is a collective term for ecosystems whose formation has been dominated by water, and whose processes and characteristics are largely controlled by water (Maltby, 1986). They constitute a wide range of inland, coastal and marine habitats that share a number of common features. Although there are as many definitions for wetlands as there are types, the Ramsar Convention provides the most comprehensive definition i.e. wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty, including areas of marine water, the depth of which does not exceed six meters. Wetlands are important ecosystems which in their natural state play an important role in the water cycle through numerous functions. By way of ground water recharge, wetland water filters down to be stored into underground aquifers as potable water. The same would then move out of the aquifer to become surface water through Ground water discharge. Wetlands also store large volumes of precipitation, releasing the water slowly into rivers. This diminishes the destructive effects of flooding downstream. As for coastal areas, wetland vegetation such as mangroves stabilizes shorelines by reducing the energy of waves, currents, or other erosive forces. Wetlands do filter and recycle soil nutrients, preventing eutrophication of rivers and lakes. The overall hydrological, nutrient and energy cycles of wetlands may stabilize local climatic conditions, particularly rainfall and temperature. This enhances productivity with positive influence on agricultural and other natural resources based activities. Also, due to sediment and biomass transportation from upstream, many wetlands support dense populations of aquatic life, cattle and wildlife which feed on the nutrient rich waters, substrates and graze on the lush pastures. 96 2.0 Status of wetlands An overview of wetlands in the country is provided in Kamukala (1991) and most recently in IRA draft report 2002. This notwithstanding, Tanzania has had no comprehensive inventory of wetlands, hence the total area under wetlands is not known. Even detailed information on many of the important wetlands is scanty or completely lacking save for a few which have been studied as discreet projects. Lake Natron Malagarasi Moyowosi System Lake Eyasi Wembere Swamp Lake Balangida Lake Tanganyika Bahi Swamp Ugalla Lake Rukwa Usangu Flats 200 km Lake Nyasa 0 Pangani System Wami System Rukwa-Kaviti System N Lake Manyara Ruvu System Kilombero Valley Liwali Swamp KEY Lakes Wetlands Figure 3.4: Wetlands in Tanzania This includes areas like Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika basins and four areas declared as Ramsar sites. Until some decades ago, many of the wetlands were fortuitously protected by their remoteness, their vastness and their marginal usefulness for agriculture or other economic activities. The last thirty years have witnessed rapid conversions of wetlands in the country as a result of various socio-economic developments. Figure 3.5 shows the distribution of Wetlands in Tanzania. 97 Although such historical loss of wetlands does not necessarily represent inefficient resource use, as multiple use of wetlands can lead to significant improvements in social welfare, it is generally agreed that such conversions have not always put the concerned wetlands in Tanzania to wise use1. This has resulted into rampant degradation of the resources in them. The main driving force for the continual loss of wetlands is their continued and often unregulated use for various economic activities such as agriculture, intensive livestock grazing, industrial development, damping or residential uses. The IRA report attempts to describe the status of the major wetland systems in the country in the wake of different socio-economic developments. The report also highlights the major information gaps that prevail on some of these systems and the need to get them filled. Figure 1 provides an overview of the major wetland. 3.0 Classification of wetlands. According to the draft National Wetlands Strategy, wetlands in Tanzania have been classified into six categories, namely: i. Highland head water wetlands which are characterized by long rivers originating in the highlands meandering through the plains forming lakes, swamps and flood plains before draining into the ocean or lake basins. Examples are Southern Highlands, Hagafilo and Ruhudji in Njombe Kihansi headwaters, Little Ruaha headwaters at Sao Hill in Mufindi District as well as Usangu in Mbarali District. They are characterized by fertile alluvial soils of varying textures. ii. Internal drainage wetlands which are found in the rift depressions and are characterized by salt lakes, swamps and short streams with inland drainage. Soils are heavy and are affected by salinity; examples are the Lake Manyara-Tarangire-Lake Babati System and the sodic Lake Natron. iii. Marine and coastal wetlands which are formed by wave action and tidal influence along the shoreline. They include mud flats, marshes, mangrove swamps, estuaries and deltas. They dominate in Tanga towards the Kenyan border and support 16.2 km2 of mangrove swamps in Mtwara and 62 km2 in Lindi in the south. They are characterized by heavy saline soils. iv. Others are fresh water estuarine wetlands, rivers and inland drainage wetlands and man made wetlands. Since wetlands have diverse functions, there is a need to undertake a more rigorous classification to isolate wetlands with uses other than conservation. This would assist in specification of site specific management guidelines, consistent with individual wetlands‟ critical role in the socio economic development initiatives of the country. 1 Wise use is defined as sustainable utilization for the benefit of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem. Sustainable utilization is understood as human use of a wetland so that it may yield the greatest continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. Wise use may also require strict protection. 98 3.1 Compliance with the Ramsar Convention The broad aim of the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971) is to halt the worldwide loss of wetlands and to conserve those that remain, through wise use and management. The Ramsar Convention, as it has come to be commonly known, was among the very first intergovernmental treaties among nations for the conservation of natural resources. The implementation of the Convention on Wetlands is guided by its mission statement, which is 'the conservation and wise use of wetlands, by national action and international cooperation as a means to achieving sustainable development throughout the world.' Tanzania complied with the Ramsar Convention in August 2000. Some wetlands have been identified to possess international importance based on the Ramsar criteria, which include, having sites containing representative, rare or unique wetland types and sites of international importance for conserving the biological diversity based on species and ecological communities, waterbirds, fish and other taxa. Accordingly, four wetlands with a total surface area of about 4,868,424 hectares have been designated as Ramsar sites; these are: Kilombero valley floodplain Lake Natron Basin Malagarasi-Muyowosi wetlands Rufiji-Mafia-Kilwa Marine Ramsar site Pipeline Ramsar sites include Lake Manyara, Usangu and Lake Nyasa. 4.0 Current Uses and Threats of Wetlands Wetlands in Tanzania are multifunctional with diverse values and functions. Apart from the hydrological functions high lighted in the introduction, other major uses are water supply for domestic and industrial use, agricultural through irrigation, livestock grazing especially in the drier parts of the country, conservation of ecosystem biodiversity and tourism, power production and fishing. 4.1 Water supply for domestic and industrial use Many of the rivers in Tanzania originate from wetlands and it is these rivers which supply both domestic and industrial water in rural and urban areas. Wetlands often occur as oasis in areas of low rainfall and therefore making life habitable in places like Dodoma, Singida, Shinyanga, Tabora and Arusha which fall in the dry land zone. 4.2 Agricultural and Irrigation Tanzania wetlands are mostly utilized for crop production. In many flood plains rice has been grown for centuries. Maize is often grown as a flood recession crop during the dry season. Most of these crops are grown without additional fertilizers and rely on the natural fertility of wetlands and alluvial soils. Many wetlands could be a good source of irrigation to adjacent dry areas. The total irrigation potential for Tanzania from major 99 wetlands is estimated at 851,000 ha. There is a need to harmonize the multiple uses in order to ensure over the sustainable management of the wetlands resources. 4.3 Livestock Wetlands play an important role in supporting livestock production; the principal livestock keepers are the Sukuma and Masai. The Sukuma make extensive use of wetlands in the northern part of the country (south of Lake Victoria) for dry season grazing. Due to livestock population pressure they moved to the Usangu plains in the south through the Chunya corridor. The Masai traditional grazing land is in the north east but again livestock population pressure has forced them to migrate further south into Kilombero valley as well as Mkata and Usangu plains for dry season grazing. 4.4 Conservation of ecosystem, biodiversity and tourism Many wetlands are rich in biodiversity, flora and fauna including micro forms of life and small invertebrate species. Wetlands ecosystems have been supporting lives of migratory wildlife especially birds which in return provide balance in the food chain. Protected areas in Tanzania cover about 30% of the total land. These include areas set aside as National parks, game reserves, special conservation areas e.g. Ngorongoro Conservation Area and forest reserves. These areas maintain their ecosystem services and tourism potential largely because of the thriving wetlands that are critical for life support of the flora and fauna species there in. 4.5 Fishing It is estimated that over 110,000 artisanal fishermen are engaged in the fishing industry in Tanzania (Kamukala and Crafter, 1993). Many of these operate in ecosystems that are classified as wetlands, that is, swamps, rivers, reservoirs as well as mangrove, estuaries, deltas and shallow offshore waters which are vital for maintaining coastal finfish, shrimp and mollusk fisheries. 4.6 Power Production Power production is vital to the economy of the country and in many instances, wetlands have been their major driving force. Power production centers such as Mtera, Kidatu, Pangani, Kihansi and Nyumba ya Mungu have been constructed in strategic areas with vast wetlands upstream, such as Usangu – Ihefu ecosystem in Mbarali district. Like wise, Pangani and Nyumba ya Mungu power stations do rely on the Lake Jipe – Chala wetlands upstream. 4.7 Threats to wetlands The following activities are threats to the integrity of wetlands in Tanzania: i. Cutting of aquatic and other vegetation for fuel, housing and commercial activities, ii. Overgrazing and over-cultivation by pastoralists and farmers. Due to destruction arising from conflicts of demand on wetlands ecosystems in recent times, Tanzania has experienced a major conflict among pastoralism, power production, conservation and small holder farming that 100 iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. has obliged the government to take action to reduce pressure from specific critical sites. Improper fishing practices Siltation due to deposition of erosion materials that reduce the depth of the wetlands. Pollution by domestic sewage, industrial effluent, and agrochemicals Siltation caused by poor agricultural methods Development activities such as coastal development, mining and quarrying Eutrophication leading to oxygen depletion Establishment of new human settlements Unregulated hunting and killing of wildlife Introduction of non native or alien species into wetlands, e.g. water hyacinth, is not only a menace to the Lake Victoria ecosystem but there is evidence of it spreading in other critical ecosystems including protected areas e.g. Mikumi National park. Other potential threats to the wetlands and their biodiversity are upstream soil erosion, wildfire and deforestation, weed infestation, mining activities, hunting, pollution (by domestic sewage, industrial effluent and agro-chemicals) and development activities. 5.0 Current status of policies, strategies and other initiatives. Wetlands being cross-sectoral, a number of policies subscribe to wetland management in relation to poverty reduction. The policies include National Environment Policy (1997); the Wildlife Policy of Tanzania (1998); the National Water Policy (2002); the National Integrated Coastal Environmental Management Strategy (2003); the National Land Policy (1995); the National Forest Policy (1998); the National Fisheries Policy and Strategy Statement (1997); the Agricultural and Livestock Policy (1997) and the Mineral Policy (1997). Tanzania is yet to produce a wetlands strategy; however the issues and concerns necessary for implementation of the above policies have been summarized in the draft wetlands strategy (MNRT 2006). These intend to achieve sustainable management of wetlands and include sustainable utilization, conservation and management, research and resource monitoring, coordination for wetlands management, communication, education and public awareness, cross cutting issues and financing. Other national initiatives already in place include; a national wetland program and a Ramsar sites secretariat. 101 CHAPTER IV: URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES PART I: MINERAL RESOURCES AND MINING AND ENVIRONMENT 1.0 Background Tanzania is among many countries endowed with a variety of minerals such as gold, diamonds, gemstones, industrial minerals and building materials. Most of the mineral resources are in class of potential resources for exploitation and use for humankind in the course of improving the economy, well being and living standards. Despite this potential, exploitation of mineral resources countrywide has been traditionally limited due to various reasons; among which lack of proper fiscal regime, inadequate promotional information and materials; and poor infrastructure has played a major role in hampering its development. Furthermore, many investors who are capable of undertaking further detail exploration works leading to development of mines are deterred due to lack of information on basic exploration works and geological data needed as a basis for initial investment. The trend toward investment in the mining industry took a turning point in late nineteen nineties following the mineral sector reform strategy. The Government with technical assistance from the World Bank instituted the mineral policy, legal and administrative regimes to implement strategies that were proposed. The outcome was the Mineral Policy of 1997, the Mining Act (Act No. 5) of 1998 and the Mining Regulations of 1999. Both addresses environmental management issues and advocate the use of best practices. The 1999 regulations contain specific regulations for environment matters, under The Mining (Environmental Management and Protection) Regulations 1999. The mining sector accounted for about 3.5 per cent in 2005 of gross domestic product (GDP) in Tanzania, and made up about 42.4 per cent in the same year of all goods that were exported. The vision for the sector for year 2025 is for the sector to contribute 10 per cent of the national GDP. The growth over the next years is expected to meet, particularly the growing demand for energy; by opening up more coal resources, gas, and intensifying the search for hydrocarbons. Also the growth is aimed at providing secondary industries that will engage a number of Tanzanians in value adding activities. 1.2 Mineral Rights Activities for mineral exploration and mining are regulated under the Mining Act, (Act No. 5) of 1998. No one is allowed to carry out any exploration or mining activities without being granted a mineral right pursuant to the aforementioned Act. There are seven types of mineral rights, divided into three Divisions A, B, and D. Division „A‟ has two types of mineral rights, namely prospecting license (PL) and retention license (RL). Division „B‟ contains three mineral rights; special mining license (SML); mining license (ML) and gemstone mining license (GML). The last division deals with two types of licenses; primary prospecting license (PPL) and primary mining license (PML) (See Box 1). 102 Box I: Mineral Rights Issued to Carry Mining Activities as of September 2006. (Source MEM) Licence Type ML GML PML AOBG 6 Ball Clay 2 Bauxite 1 B/Materials 112 2418 Coal 2 2 Diamonds 15 Dim/stones 3 Galena 1 Gemstones 58 2758 Gold 5 10 1784 Gypsum 2 Kaolin 1 Limestone 13 Niobium 4 Oxygen 1 Phosphate 2 Pozzuolana 1 Ruby 1 Salt 9 Sand 5 Tanzanite 1 1 Tin 1 Travertine 1 TOTAL 8 195 59 6960 Environmental matters that are usually addressed with relation to this piece of legislation are those that fall under division „B‟ and division „D‟. Overall, the legislation has given much attention to environmental impacts of mining and processing activities and disregards those stemming from exploration works. The legislation also deals with environmental issues depending on the scale of operation (tonnage of ore produced per annum); location of the mines (sensitivity of the area in terms of ecological location) and perhaps the type of operations that is taking place. Commodity 1.3 SML Impacts of Mining Industry on Environment The mining industry broadly impacts on environment by degrading the quality of the basic resources, namely; air, water and land. The mining industry also impacts the environment through consumption of electricity, of which the industry is a large consumer. Impact on air may result from dust generation during blasting operations, the use of haul roads, loading and unloading of ore, and dry crushing operation. Tailing dams, if not vegetated or capped may also be a source of dust. Vehicles, plants and machinery 103 operating within the mine are also a source of air pollution. Smelter operations with insufficient safeguards in place have the potential to pollute the air with heavy metals, sulphur dioxide, and other pollutants. The mining industry uses large quantities of water. Mining activities brings sulphide containing minerals into the presence of air, where they are oxidised. When the oxidised sulphide containing minerals come into contact with water, they form sulphuric acid. This acid forming process; known as acid rock drainage (ARD) or acid mine drainage (AMD) impacts both groundwater and surface water. Tailings dams or tailing storage facilities (TSF) as sometimes known and waste rock dumps or heaps are also potential sources of acidic drainage water, affecting surface and underground water. Chemical deposits left behind by explosives and poor usage of explosives results in toxic compound that can contaminate and increase the salinity of mine water. Artisanal mining particularly of gold may impact water where mercury is used for amalgamation. 1.3 Large Scale Mining Impacts The impact of large scale mining on the environment can easily be felt on short term basis (Plate 4.1). Serious negative impacts on environment and on human health are usually accompanied with mining activities especially where adequate precautions are not taken. Plate 4.1: Typical Alluvial Medium-Scale Gemstone Mining Environmental Degradation. Mbinga Area, negative Ruvuma. impacts and effects can be avoided or greatly reduced by using Many of these modern practices. Much of the damaging impact can be minimised through careful 104 project planning, choice of appropriate mining technologies, and careful ongoing operation. Large scale mining operations commences and includes a number of major phases; which on there own, impact the environment in different ways. The major phases are: i. Exploration - which include surveys, drilling and exploratory excavations. ii. Project development – construction of roads and buildings, underground access tunnels works, erection of treatment plants, overburden stripping and placing, preparation of disposal areas, construction of service infrastructure such as power lines or generating plants, railways, water supplies and sewerage, laboratories and amenities. iii. Mine operation – include surface and underground mining, hydraulic mining in or near river beds. Also contemporary practices such as heap leaching of tailing dumps, bio-leaching of surface heaps or deposits, and solution mining of buried deposits. iv. Beneficiation – include comminution to reduce particle size, flotation using selected chemicals, gravity separation or magnetic, electrical or optical sorting, ore leaching with a variety of chemical solutions. v. Associated transport and storage of ore and concentrates may be a handling risk and can result in localised site contamination. vi. Mine closure – this is an important if often neglected aspect of mine operation. Mine closure is assured by rehabilitating mined out areas and the mine sites to an acceptable condition; that is more appealing than before. In order to achieve this, progressive rehabilitation is recommended to be part of the on going mining and processing operation in the mine plan. While the closure and rehabilitation is intended to mitigate environmental impact, it is important that it does not itself create secondary effects such as excessive fertilizer use, spread of weeds, siltation and incompatible landscape features. 105 Potential environmental impacts are as summaries in Box 2 below: Box 2: Potential Environmental Impacts of Mining (after Balkau, 1993; UNEP, 2000) 1.3.2 Environmental Impacts Destruction of natural habitat at mining and waste disposal sites. Destruction of adjacent habitats as a result of emissions and discharges. Destruction of adjacent habitats arising from influx of settlers. Changes in river regime and ecology due to siltation and flow modification. Alteration in watertables. Change in landform. Land degradation due to inadequate rehabilitation after closure. Land insatiability. Danger from failure of structures and dams. Abandoned equipment, plant and buildings. Pollution Impacts Drainage from sites (acid mine drainage and mine water). Sediment runoff from mining sites. Pollution from mining operations in riverbeds (dredging). Effluent from mineral processing operations. Sewage effluent from the site. Oil and fuel spills. Soil contamination from treatment residues and spillage of chemicals. Leaching of pollutants from tailings and disposal areas and contaminated soils. Noxious emissions from minerals processing operations. Dust emissions from sites close to habitats. Release of methane from mines. Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining This part of the mining sector is dominated by low income, unsafe working conditions, serious environmental impacts, exposure to hazardous materials and conflict with large mining companies, governments and other land users. Often represents the most promising income opportunity for many; but it is also very disruptive particularly when it takes the form of a sudden rush causing local people to desert their normal farming activities and farms or resulting in in-migration. When the rush is curbed or over, most of the generated profits are not left there but disappear, while the social and environmental damage caused by the rush persist. It is quite concerning that small-scale miners tend to do more damage to the environment than those working in modern mining operations with a greater environmental cost per unit of output. Lack of awareness particularly of the less visible long-term environmental impacts of activities, combined with a lack of information about affordable methods to reduce impacts and lack of obvious incentives to change; all contribute to this problem. Potential environmental impacts are summarized in Box 3. 106 BOX 3: Environmental Impacts of Small-scale Gold mining Siltation of dams and rivers by loosened up sand and gravel due to mining and washing at mine sites. Mercury pollution during amalgamation stage. Deforestation usually extensive and indiscriminate for purpose of clearing land for mining, wood/trees for fuel and shelter. Creation of squatter problems as haphazard settlement accompanied by crowding, spring up in communal or commercial farmlands, forest reserves, etc. overnight. Lack of or improper sanitary facilities leading to health risks. Destruction of potable water sources and/or river sources. Pollution of groundwater and surface water by mineral processing effluent and raw sewage. Air pollution, from refining processes, poorly maintained rock and slimes dumps. Acid mine drainage from waste dumps. Dust pollution from blasting, earth moving equipment, and from waste rock and slimes dumps. Loss of the land‟s economic and aesthetic values through random pitting and subsidence. Water table depression as a result of pumping water through shafts. Heavy metal and hydrocarbon pollution. The challenges and features that make-up artisanal and small-scale mining impact obvious and hard to mitigate are those inherently characterised by, and include: Limited application of contemporary concepts and technologies; Low cost per workplace, utilizing low and sometimes inappropriate technologies; Exploitation of surface or near surface deposits with little waste or overburden; Operations necessitates relatively simple processing techniques and easy access; Usually the organisational side is by single person or family operations. 1.3.3 Illegal Mining Activities Illegal mining activities pose the most challenge to both the government and the local authorities in both the economic, social and environmental spheres. Illegal miners tend not to address environmental impact of their actions and take no initiative to protect the environment. The impacts of their activities range from physical, human health to social impacts. 107 The problem of illegal mining is complicated as it involves hundred of thousands of people, and often carried out near or within other legally licensed areas (Plates 4.2 and 4.3). The proximity of these two entities creates social and environmental problems affecting more the legally miners. Plate 4.2: Typical Environment Destruction by Illegal Mining (Songea) Prior to granting of the licence, the owners were/are required to prepare and submit environmental impact statement (EIS) and environmental management plan (EMP). However, this requirement was (as per mining legislation) required for certain type of mining licenses. As a result, about fifteen per cent of the holders of the aforementioned licences submitted EISs and EMPs as required by law. The remainder were suppose to carry on mining with a „due care to environment‟ approach. Mining companies that has undertaken EIA, mostly multinational companies, has developed extensive “in-house” procedures such as undertaking audits, reviews, monitoring and environmental reporting; both internal and external, mostly guided by company-specific policies, protocols and procedures, usually of international standards. Environmental reports produced by these large scale mining companies currently cover a range of social and community issues. 4.1.4 Initiatives to address environment management Due to the significance of potential environmental, health and social impacts of mining operations, particularly artisanal small-scale mining, several initiatives have been Plate.4.3: Typical Open Pitand Large Scale Mining at Tulawaka Mine. mooted. These include: i. Introduction of alternatives to use of mercury in gold mining. The idea is to promote the use of cleaner and safe technology in gold recovery. The proposal is part of a project aimed at introducing new technologies to the mining industry. ii. Carrying out baseline environmental survey on all mining areas; specifically where small scale mining is rampant and where mineral rushes occurs. This 108 will enable the establishment of conditions that will be used as benchmark for future monitoring and reporting of environment condition. iii. Build capacity of the regulating authority to conduct proper environmental inspection, monitoring and reporting, iv. At least conduct strategic environmental assessment of small scale mining areas and prepare environmental management plan to be upheld and implemented by everyone engaged in mining activities within that particular area, and v. Make consideration of including other activities like detailed exploration works in the Environmental Impact Asessment (EIA) Environmental Mnagement System(EMS), and Emergency Prevention Preparedness (EPP) processs. Also produce mining environmental regulations that are in line with EMA, 2004. PART II: URBAN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS 1.0 National Overview and Context Tanzania, like most countries in the sub-Saharan Africa, has experienced rapid urbanization particularly since independence in 1961. Urbanisation is a challenge in the country not only because of its social and economic significance but also because of its high rate and lack of effective mechanism to manage its outcomes (Ngware et al. 2000). A typical example is the pressure on urban services and infrastructure brought about by 109 fast urbanisation (Kyessi 2002). After the implementation of the structural adjustment programmes, liberalisation and the removal of subsidised services since mid-1980s, poverty is as pronounced in towns as it is in villages (Lerise and Kyessi 2002). Attitudes and policies, which perceived urbanisation as an inevitable process, impact in the process and thus provide not only challenges but also opportunities to central and local governments, bilateral and multilateral donors and the local communities as well as individuals (Ngware et al. 2000). 1.1 Urbanization In Tanzania like many of the developing countries, especially those of Sub-Saharan Africa, the type of urbanisation depicts rapid population increase and uncontrolled expansion of cities with limited economic opportunities and narrow productive bases (Aligula 1999, Lupala 2002, Kironde and Ngware 2000). The main features that characterise urbanisation in the country include rapid population increase due to natural increase and migration and sprawling urban centres beyond the limits and capacity of local authorities to provide basic infrastructure and social amenities (Ngware et al. 2000). A typical example is the pressure on adequate shelter, urban facilities and basic infrastructure brought about by fast urbanisation in major cities such as Dar es Salaam, Mbeya, Arusha and Mwanza. The cities depict features of rapid increase in unemployment and urban poverty, growth and expansion of informal settlements, deterioration of existing infrastructure and social services, proliferation of the informal sector and growth of non-urban activity sectors such as urban farming (UNCHS 1996, Kyessi 1998). This kind of urbanisation is taking place amidst abject poverty, a concept that has been named by some scholars as urbanisation under poverty. Figure 4.1 shows trends of the rate of urbanization or the proportion of urban population in total population for 1967, 1978, 1988 and 2002, and estimated rate of urbanization for 2007, 2012, 2017 and 2022 (URT 2006). In absolute numbers, the urban population of Tanzania as a whole increased from 787,000 in 1967 to 7.9 million in 2002, an increase of over ten times during the period of 35 years. As the urban population increased at a much faster rate than the total population, the percentage share of the urban population in the country‟s total population has been increasing steadily over this period. The urbanization showed a different trend between Tanzania Mainland and Tanzania Zanzibar. The speed of urbanization was much faster in Tanzania Mainland than in Tanzania Zanzibar. The urban population of Tanzania Zanzibar increased 3.8 times only during the 35 year period between 1967 and 2002. The growth of urban population in Tanzania is characterised by acute shortages of adequate shelter as evidenced by dilapidated urban slums and unplanned settlements in most urban centres. It is also faced with run-down social and economic infrastructure and unemployment as depicted in Figure 4.2. 110 (Source: National Census 2002) Figure 4.1: Trends of rate of urbanization (%) for past, present and future, United Republic, Mainland and Zanzibar Source: Household Budget Surveys Figure 4.2: Urban Employment by Sector 111 1.2 Links of Urbanization to Economy Even though urban areas are no longer offering “ready-made” employment in the public sector or in the industrial sector, they are seen as possible engines of development, creating diverse opportunities for earning income, ensuing production and distribution at a low cost, and generating all kinds of markets for both urban and rural activities. With regard to urban planning, in the previous political and economic contexts, the government dominated the economy, and planners served as its sole agents in settlement planning and management. Indeed, formerly the state was seen as the obvious provider of many kinds of services and infrastructure and key owner of land. Even when there were considerable deficiencies in the provision of services the state still acknowledged its official responsibility. These facts have led to a re-assessment of the role of the state in land development, management and services provision (URT, 1995 and 1999). The recent political and economic shifts in Tanzania have necessitated a review of various policies and laws, including, inter-alia, the national land policy, the national human settlements development policy and the land law. The land policy has changed with a view to facilitating operationalization of land markets, democratization of the planning practice and recognition of individual rights and equity in land. Thus, within the new policy, the state acknowledges the existence of an informal land market and informal mechanisms of administering land by actors outside the public domain (URT, 1995). These policy intentions and the revised laws are seen to be in line with the new urban governance and urban planning paradigm. They call for more effective reforms in the planning system, to recognize and incorporate CBOs, NGOs, and the private and popular sectors in managing urban development (Nnkya, 1999; Lerise, 2000). It is generally observed that the quality of any urban settlement largely depends on the institutional framework under which it is managed. Consequently, the efficiency and effectiveness of service delivery systems and decision-making processes are a pointer to the quality of such institutional frameworks. Thus, in the last two decades, there has been a move towards more inclusive, participatory and transparent approaches to the management of urban affairs. This approach, coupled with decentralization and devolution of management systems and functions to lower levels of government, is expected to contribute to the pursuit of efficient and sustainable human settlements. The political and socio-economic changes that are occurring in Tanzania are expected to facilitate movement towards more democratic and accountable planning practice in the country (Lerise, 2000). Despite these dynamic developments with regard to national socio-economic environment in Tanzania, the planning practice has basically remained inept and slow to adjust to the ongoing reforms. Urban planning still operates as a sectoral activity, with a statutory function that is normative and top-down in perspective. Thus, the shift is seen to be happening still, with no evidence of satisfactory grass-root participation in local planning and management of development. While Tanzania has decided to democratize the land-use planning system, structural problems persist. The planning practice is still expert-oriented and dominated by the central government, while the central-local relationships are still unclear. 112 Since last one and half decades and more so the beginning of this Millennium there has been global concerns about the state of urban areas, specifically slums and informal settlements, as manifested in the United Nations Millennium Declaration. The UN Millennium Development Goal 7, Target 11 aims to significantly improve the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by the year 2020 (UN-Habitat 2004) in developing countries. Although Figure 7 represents a mere small percentage of the total population without basic social and economic infrastructure services, it is justified by the fact that slums and particularly informal settlements represent people‟s investments and initiatives in addressing the problem of affordable shelter within the available means. By upgrading them, it is hoped that more investments will be attracted, conducive environments created and hence increased standard of living of the residents. 1.3 Urban Poverty Urbanisation under poverty and urban management deficits are the two major challenges in urban planning and development that appear in all towns in Tanzania. Most of the urban population live in un-serviced parts of towns and in the ever expanding informal settlements with environmental conditions which threaten their life and health. A substantial number of the growing urban population fails to obtain their daily needs (Lugalla 1995, Holm 1995). The Tanzania National Poverty Profile (World Bank 1993) showed that in general, poverty was concentrated more in rural areas where it was also widespread and more severe. Some 59 per cent of the people living in rural areas were shown to be poor, as compared to 39 per cent of those in urban areas. Although the situation in urban areas may appear to be better, the continued rapid growth of these urban areas partly caused by the movement of people from rural areas is, however, increasing urban poverty (Kironde, 1999). A little more than half of urban population lives in informal settlements with inadequate municipal services including basic infrastructure (Kyessi 2002). Generally, most urban areas in Tanzania are characterised by paucity of infrastructure investments and poorly delivered services. Thus, poverty should not only be regarded as a rural phenomenon but also a thorny issue facing urban communities where concentration of people is higher than that of the rural areas. In addition, poverty is one of the major drivers of environmental degradation. In particular, the urban poor, who are unable to compete for scarce resources or protect themselves from harmful environmental conditions, are most affected by the negative impacts of urbanization. Despite various responses by different actors, including the government, urban poverty still remains a major problem in Tanzania. Drawing from previous studies, two issues are pertinent: The scale of growth of unplanned areas in urban areas is unprecedented and the poor are predominantly tenants and those with property have restricted access to formal land tenure (Kironde, 2002). The poorest are being marginalised into hazardous lands (valley bottoms, flood plains, polluted areas, etc.) and that there has been limited responses by the local authorities to this situation (Narayan et al. 2000). 113 In the 1991/92 Household Budget Survey (HBS) data it is indicated that 2.6 percent of the national population lived below the food poverty line, that is, they had a total expenditure that was insufficient to obtain enough food to meet nutritional requirements. In urban areas other than Dar es Salaam the food poverty line had declined from 14.99 to 11.36 percent in 1991/92 and 2000/01, respectively, a sign of improvement. In Dar es Salaam however, the trend is the same but the decrease is more significant, falling by almost half. It is interesting however to note that many households have to engage themselves with informal activities including urban farming in order to gain or supplement their incomes. The informal sector is known to provide employment and income to most rural and urban households. The sheer size of the urban population (about 65%) that is openly engaged in the informal sector activities has for the past three decades warranted policy makers to initiate serious efforts not only to understand the dynamics of the operations in the sector, but more importantly also to identify the necessary support for the sector‟s development. The trend of household expenditure for the period from 1991/92 to 2001/2 shows that, it has declined from US $ 58 to 16 in urban areas. The decline is much higher in Dar es Salaam compared to other urban areas. Given that situation, and that a higher percentage of expenditure is on food purchases, this implies that fever households are able to meet their basic food requirements. Apart from the fact that many households are likely to experience poor nutrition, they are also not able to meet the costs of non-food essentials such as investment in health, shelter and in other important household welfare services. Apparently costs for these services are on the increase. 1.4 Urban Poverty and Environment There is a clear cause-and-effect relationship between urbanization and environmental degradation. Of particular concern is the limited capacity of urban authorities, agencies and community groups in addressing issues of land use management and environmental conservation, within the formal and informal urban settlements. This aspect is further corroborated by the fact that the urban environment in general and urban land use in particular has been experiencing the negative impacts of rapid population increase and human activities leading to dire effects on the land resources, ecology as well as local livelihoods. Changes in land use and environment resource quality in urban Tanzania have been linked to human activities such as urban agriculture including livestock keeping, sand and quarry mining, informal housing development, informal petty trading, and informal small scale industries including residential car garages. On the urban scale there is a multitude of environmental concerns hinged on the inadequate provision of municipal services, inadequate disposal of liquid and solid waste and inadequate location of settlements, particularly the unplanned ones 114 Plate 4.4: Road with no drainage channels in Buguruni area Dar es (Plate 4.4). It has been documented that the quality of drinking water is in most cases poor and there is inadequate access by the majority of dwellers to this essential service (Kyessi 2002). There is also very limited treatment of waste water in most urban areas. All informal settlements in the country are not connected to sewerage systems. In general, the provision of urban services demands a collective action of all urban stakeholders to achieve a sustainable environmental and poverty reduction. 2.0 Urban Governance In principle, all the ministries play a role in managing urban planning and development in one way or the other. However, the Prime Minister‟s Office - Regional Administration and Local Government (PMO-RALG) and the Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements Development (MLHHSD) play a key role in influencing the administration of human settlements and in carrying out urban planning functions respectively. There are several culprits to this fact. 2.1 Urban Management Deficits i) Over-reliance on central government The institutional and regulatory framework for urban management in Tanzania is made up of central government ministries some of which have considerable investment and management powers in urban areas; and the district and municipal authorities. A major observation of this set up is that powers are over centralized within the central government vis a vis local authorities. Major public utilities such as water, energy, major roads and central sewer systems in urban authorities fall under the responsibility of authorities without local financial base. One of such examples is the Urban Water and Sanitation Authorities responsible with water and sanitation in all cities, municipalities and town councils. Urban authorities are not responsible with the provision, operation and maintenance of these services. The marginalisation of urban authorities in the provision of such essential public utilities, apart from weakening the revenue base of urban councils, has also led to uncoordinated provision of these services with actual urban development. The result has been gross under-provision of urban services through the public sector (Kyessi 2002). ii) Unguided urban development A peculiar characteristic associated with informal settlements is uncoordinated land development, which is attributed by the absence of a regulatory mechanism/tool to direct and control development in such areas. The result is urban development contrary to the urban plans. Low capacity in terms of resource base, including human technical know-how, is one of the main factors that have contributed to the poor performance of the urban authorities to administer and foster planned development in the urban area. The urban planning practice in Tanzania is unable to address the specific problems of human settlements (Nnkya 1999) particularly the informal settlements. A major negative feature in the process includes urban development 115 without guidance. This is indicated by inter alia: mushrooming of informal settlements on marginal lands to include areas liable to flooding, steep slopes, areas left for recreational purposes and relocation of development from the designated areas to the informal settlements or other strategic areas as determined by the developers. As a result, large numbers of households with property are left without legal tenure and access to safe water and quality sanitation or accessibility, while the increase in the haphazard patterns of urban growth has caused economic inefficiency, environmental degradation and human misery (Kyessi 2002). iii) Non-coherent regulatory frameworks and rigid and unaffordable standards There has been a problem of inefficient use of resources caused by selection of inappropriate planning tools and mostly relying on rigid standards. Traditional or conventional practices based on outdated and inappropriate legislation have continued to be applied in urban settlement planning, development and management in Tanzania. Much emphasis is on well-planned neighbourhoods, isolating the informal settlements, based on conventional surveying techniques although there has been limited capacity to realize this on the ground. A large spectrum of technical planning concepts incorporating rigid and unaffordable standards have been proposed through different „planning schemes‟ including master plans and squatter upgrading programmes to meet the growing demand for land and infrastructure. High standards in upgrading have created a situation where more property had to be demolished especially in informal settlements such as in Manzese and Mtoni/Tandika in Dar es Salaam (Kironde 1995). Decreasing budgets and increasing demands for compensation have created situations where some of the infrastructure services have had to be foregone or standards reduced during the planning stage or in the implementation stage (Materu 1986). iv) Uncoordinated efforts of actors There is lack of co-ordination of local actors for their effective participation in urban development matters. Furthermore, there is missing linkages of municipal service providers and users; exactly what planning should be for. For about four decades since independence, each institution offering infrastructure utilities has usually concentrated on its own sector in terms of planning and implementation of projects without co-ordination with other parties and the result has been complete chaos. The whole planning system and procedure has been top-down and very sectoral, a process that has created deficiencies in urban development and management in the country. Indeed, potential developers acquiring plots formally or informally in urban areas have usually taken their own initiatives, at exorbitant costs, to secure municipal services on an individual basis. It is common to find one developer or house owner financing the installation of a kilometer of water pipe, sewerage pipe, electricity power line and a road to his single plot/house. 116 v) Top-down planning without local participation Besides, the interventions by local authorities to provide some infrastructure when requested by residents, the central and local governments have initiated and implemented squatter upgrading projects, the planning, design and implementation of which has followed varying approaches and taken different forms over time. The upgrading projects which were implemented in the 1970s and early 1980s were characterized by lack of community participation and lack of ownership of the improved infrastructure; did not deal with regularization of property rights, so that after upgrading further land subdivision and building could not be checked to control densification to undesired levels. A poor record on cost recovery and operation and maintenance of the improved; application of inappropriately high design and building standards that made projects very expensive, unaffordable to the target group and impossible to replicate to other informal settlements. Both lack of community participation and poor cost recovery contributed to poor or lack of maintenance and subsequently deterioration of infrastructure and services in the upgraded areas. 3.0 3.1 Initiatives and Priorities Priorities There are several priorities for human settlements development dictated by current national policies and addressed in already prepared strategies and programmes under – implementation. The priorities include: i. Serviced land available for shelter and human settlements development to all sections of the community including women, youth, the elderly people with disability and disadvantaged; ii. Improvement of the level of the provision of infrastructure and social services for sustainable human settlements development; iii. Facilitating creation of employment opportunities and eradication of poverty; iv. Promotion of active participation of all stakeholders in planning, development and management of human settlements; v. Conservation and protection of the environment of human settlements and of ecosystems from pollution, degradation and destruction in order to attain sustainable development; vi. Building of capacities in training and retraining of professionals in fields of related to shelter delivery, human settlements development and environmental development; vii. Promotion of capacity building of (i.e. technical, financial and management) for all stakeholders involved in shelter delivery and human settlements development; 117 3.2 viii. Promotion of the use of locally available and affordable building materials; ix. Building of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) data base for planning, development and management of urban and rural settlements. Initiatives Because of the importance and urgency of charting out strategies to manage fast urbanisation in the country, the Government of Tanzania has initiated several policies, legislations and programmes to develop a multi-sectoral approach towards facilitation of urban development and management of the environment. This has taken shape in the recently formulated Human Settlements Development Policy that has led to the development of a National Housing Development Programme 2003 - 2007 (URT 2000, URT 2002), National Environmental Policy and the Environment Act (2004); and National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP 2005). i) Government Reforms The recent civil service reform and particularly the local government reforms, meant to reverse the situation, are co-ordinated by the Prime Minister‟s Office Regional Administration and Local Government while the Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlements Development guides reforms in land administration and in urban planning. The trends show positive results from the implementation of the 1996 National Local Government Reform Programme in terms of increasing transparency and accountability among urban local authorities. While this situation contributes to building trust among development partners, it also contributes to good urban governance. However these achievements have not sufficiently lead to equal opportunities among men and women urban dwellers. The government reforms include also further decentralization of regional administration to district levels. Many staff have already been transferred to district councils. ii) Adopting the Participatory Approach in urban planning and management Meeting the challenge of urbanisation under poverty through demand-based approaches requires adopting participatory policy frameworks that entails effective decentralisation and institutional co-ordination, broader involvement of communities and mobilisation of the local resources including those of the private sector (Kyessi 2002). The National Poverty Eradication Strategy of 1998 identified four reasons that had prevented the efforts of the government in eradicating poverty, one of them being low level of peoples' participation in different stages of planning which resulted in lack of support and hence made the plans unsustainable. In general, there appears to be an agreement that respective local authorities should carry out both long-term broad strategic urban development planning and short term detailed planning at local level. The role of the Ministry of Lands, Housing and Human Settlement Development would be essentially that of providing policy framework, technical support and when necessary carrying out activities which cannot be undertaken by local authorities alone. In some 118 instances, the staff from the Ministry of Works work hand in hand with staff in the local authorities. To really effect the decentralization of urban planning, relevant policies and pieces of legislation have been devised. These include the National Human Settlement Development Policy (URT 2000), the National Land Policy (URT 1995) and the Land Act no. 4 of 1999 and the Village Land Act no. 5 of 1999. Participatory planning and regularization of informal settlements have been clearly been imbedded in the policies and the legislation. iii) iv) Responses by the Private Sector Shortage of urban services is related to small budget allocations, limited participation of the private sector and lack of capacity to monitor performance by both central government and local authorities. Recently, the private sector has responded fairly well to the problem of urban public transport and garbage collection especially in Dar es Salaam. In many urban centres, public transport has improved considerably, and this has in turn created a number of livelihood opportunities to many urban dwellers. Although responses by the private sector, especially in the provision of services are not necessarily directed towards poverty reduction, some initiatives such as those in public transport services have contributed substantially to improved transportation, particularly in the unplanned settlements, where public transport is an important input to the livelihood strategies of the inhabitants. Pursuits, which depend on, and greatly benefit from, public transport, include petty trading, formal employment, schooling, urban farming as well as social and recreational activities. Responses by Civil Societies (NGOs and CBOs) It has been observed that there is an increase of civil society organizations in urban areas. Most of these facilitate provision of social, economic and public health related services particularly to the poor. In addition, they also enhance community participation in development activities in the urban areas. Some civil societies such as NGOs, CBOs and other community based groups have been very successful in advocacy and mobilising people to contribute towards service provision for instance water supply, road construction and maintenance, solid waste collection, schools building and management and security as well as upgrading projects. To ensure that, upgrading programmes also contribute in poverty reduction, some NGOs and CBOs have adopted innovative strategies, for instance labour intensive infrastructure upgrading. 4.0 4.1 Way Forward Improving the Governance of Urban Settlements The government regards urbanisation and urban development as an important process for the development of the country as a whole and has decided to pursue strategies aimed at improving the management of urban centres. Simultaneously, many reforms are being instituted in the Prime Minister‟s Office - Regional Administration and Local Government. A new department dealing with urban planning and development has already been established in that Ministry. Strengthening Governance, institutional and legal issues further require that: 119 i. Mechanisms to facilitate openness and participation of urban residents in local government affairs should be enhanced and new ones created. Building capacity of the local council staff, which is part of the local government reform program, need to be emphasized; ii. Technical services offered by local authorities and other actors should be available at the local level; iii. There is a need to enhance the capacity of informal groups and CBOs in terms of facilitating more transparency, members‟ participation and exposure to best practices; iv. Training programmes to build capacity of private sector should be enhanced. 4.2 Adopting the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) Process Within the planning and management of human settlements practice, it is now widely recognized that exclusive reliance on formal planning and regulatory measures is not enough to realize sustainable management of growing cities, the urban environment and to make infrastructure and facilities accessible or affordable to the inhabitants of formal and informal settlements. Thus, a larger number of diverse groups of stakeholders in managing human settlements need to be identified. Examples of such stakeholders include local communities, CBOs as well as other agents involved, such as affected landowners, NGOs, central and local government agencies, financial institutions, aid organizations and other development partners, etc. Within the country‟s planning system, a shift is inevitably occurring from the traditional urban planning and management model to one that recognizes involvement of more stakeholders in the private and community or civil society sectors. The Government of Tanzania through the support of the UN-Habitat, UNDP and DANIDA have been executing the Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP) using the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) process as a tool in implementing local Agenda 21 and the Habitat Agenda. Several cities and urban centres have adopted the EPM process in Tanzania. In order to improve on the traditional master planning approaches, and in addressing the continuously complex urban development processes, the EPM approach adopts a more dynamic, continuous and consensual vision building and policy-making process (UNCHS-Habitat, 2000). The output of the strategic planning process is not just a physical development plan for the city but a set of interrelated strategies aimed at enabling all public, private and community initiatives to promote economic growth, provide basic infrastructure services and enhance the quality of the environment. These and other new approaches have thus attempted to move away from the rigid formality of blue print urban master plans. 120 PART III: ENERGY SECTOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1.0 Energy resources Tanzania is endowed with diverse energy sources including biomass, natural gas, hydropower, coal, geothermal, solar and wind power, much of which is untapped. Coal reserves have been estimated at 1.6 billion tonnes of which 304 million tonnes are considered proven (Kassenga, 1997). Natural gas exists in Tanzania with proven reserves of about 45 billion cubic meters from Songo-songo and Mnazi Bay (Kassenga, 1997). The gas is transported through 232 km pipeline to Dar es Salaam where natural gas is used to generate up to 115MW of electricity for the national grid. Tanzania also possesses some geothermal resources with an estimated potential of about 650 MW (Salvasen, 1994). 1.1 Energy Balance The total annual energy used in Tanzania is estimated at 22 million tones of oil equivalent (toe), 92% of which is biomass-based and 8% is commercial energy, mainly electricity and petroleum-based fuel (MEM, 2003). This means energy use is characterized by very low per capita consumption of commercial energy and high dependence on biomass (Kassenga 1997, MEM, 2003). Consumption of commercial primary energy is estimated to be 457 kg oil equivalent per capita which is lower than those of most of the other Sub-Saharan countries (for example, Zimbabwe 809; Zambia 619 and Kenya 515 kg of oil equivalent per capita) (UNFPA, 2001). The different energy sources contribution to the total energy balance at the end-use level is shown in Table 4. 1 (MEM, 2003). The main energy consumption sectors and their share in total consumption are presented in Figure 4.4. Table 4.1: energy sources contribution to the total energy balance at the end-use level Energy Source Biomass energy Petroleum products Electricity Coal Solar, wind, biogas (Source: MEM, 2003) Contribution (%) 92 7 1 Insignificant Insignificant 121 4% 3% 5% Households 12% Industry Services Agriculture Transport 76% Figure 4.4: Main energy consumption sectors and their share in total consumption 1.2 1.2.1 Energy Sources Biomass About 92% of the total energy consumption is based on biomass, of which 80% is consumed in rural areas (Kjellström, 1992; Karekezi et al., 2002). The high dependence on wood is attributed to the fact that fuel wood is for free (in terms of money) and readily available from one‟s own land or communal areas and requires only a simple technology to utilise. Unfortunately, the present demand for biomass-based energy cannot be met on a sustainable basis (Kassenga, 1997). Deforestation rate between 1990 and 1995 was estimated to be 322,600 ha/year whereas afforestation rate was about 9,000 ha/year (Karekezi et al., 2002). Some critical environmental problems as a result of irrational exploitation of woodfuel sources are deforestation, soil erosion, desertification and loss of biodiversity. It is most likely that woodfuel will continue to be the major source of energy. Therefore, it seems that the most effective measure towards helping the acute energy problem in rural areas and to arrest land degradation problem is introduction of more efficient cooking stoves for better utilization of the available resources. There is no immediate renewable energy substitute for cooking apart from biogas whose technology dissemination rate is still unsatisfactory. There are more than 4,000 domesticsize biogas plants built country-wide during 1984 to 2001 period, making Tanzania the pioneer of this technology in Africa. The costs, socio-cultural habits and traditions may halt the dissemination of this technology. 122 Currently, bagasse is used as boiler fuel for process steam production in sugar factories and in some cases electricity production for own consumption but also for export to the national electricity grid like the case of Kilombero Sugar Company where TANESCO has a power purchase agreement. Depending on economic feasibility, bagasse can be used as a raw material for ethanol production for blending with gasoline. 1.2.2 Electricity Electricity generation, transmission and distribution in Tanzania are the monopoly of TANESCO. The company is 100% government owned and is responsible for 98% of the country‟s electricity supply. i) Hydropower Hydropower is the main primary source for generation of electricity. The present total installed electricity generating capacity is about 890 MW. 584 MW (65.6%) of the capacity is hydropower-based while thermal plants generate the remaining 306 MW (34.4%). The thermal power plants are driven by combustion turbines or diesel engines. The country‟s hydropower potential capacity is estimated to be more than 4,500 MW (Kassenga, 1997) therefore only about 13% has been exploited so far. Tanzania imports electricity in bulk from Uganda and Zambia. Government policy aims to reduce dependence on hydro sources and increase utilization of indigenous resources such as natural gas and coal in the medium to long term. Environmental implications of hydropower development have been the inundation of the land upstream, displacement of people and desiccation of agricultural land down stream and loss of biodiversity. For instance an endemic spray toad was found downstream the gorge at Kihansi hydropower plant and to save the rare toad from extinction, water at a flow rate of 2m³/s was diverged from the dam as an environmental flow. Due to flow diversion, generation of electricity has been reduced by 8%. ii) Thermal Power Electricity generated at thermal power plants is currently 306 MW, out of which the interconnected grid plants comprise of 80%, the rest is generated at isolated mini-grids (Table 23). With exception of about 180 MW, which are now running on natural gas, the rest run on imported diesel and an insignificant portion by coal and biomass. For the non-diesel power plants, coal contribution is limited to 6 MW at Kiwira Coal Mine. Efforts are under way to utilize coal at MchuchumaKatewaka for the generation of up to 400 MW of electricity. One of the challenges is how to develop this resource with minimum impact to the environment. Thermal generation of power is associated with air pollution due to production of oxides of sulfur and nitrogen from fuel combustion, noise and vibration pollution from generators as well as water and soil pollution due to improper disposal of waste oil. 123 Electricity consumption demand is expected to continue rising as Tanzania strives to strengthen her economy in pursuit of the poverty reduction goal. Power consumption is expected to triple in the next 20 years (Table 4.2). Table 4.2: Demand and consumption projections YEAR 2000 2010 2030 Consumption, GWh 1,913 4,720 11,298 Net generation, GWh 2,413 5,262 12,595 922 2,251 Peak demand, MW 426 Source: Power Systems Master Plan, 2001 iii) Rural Electrification Rural electrification is a case of long-term national interest, as availability of electricity in rural areas and commercial centres would stimulate much needed social and economic development. Tanzania‟s power grid reaches the main urban centres and only about 1% of the rural population (Karekezi et al., 2002). However, high costs of electricity distribution are a major limiting factor given the vast area of Tanzania. Power utility TANESCO is facing the problem of vandalism of electrical wires on transmission lines and transformer oil theft. In addition, leaking of transformer oil has been observed. Improper storage and disposal of used transformer oil cause pollution of the environment. It is worth noting that transformer oil is known to contain PCBs, which are proven carcinogens. 1.2.3 Petroleum Products Petroleum exploration activities in Tanzania started in 1950s and about 33 wells have been drilled so far. Though oil exploration programmes are yet to result into an economically exploitable oil reserve as of to-date, the Rift Valley and the Coastal Sedimentary Basin are among the promising areas of petroleum potential. Under this situation, Tanzania is a net importer of petroleum products. (see Table 4.3). Transport sector is the single largest consumer of petroleum products 124 Table 4.3: Fuel Consumption (in metric tones) in Tanzania PRODUCT YEAR LPG AVGAS MSP GO FO JET-A1 IK IDO TOTAL 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 3,728 97,630 300,323 114,225 37,645 87,024 20,929 662,554 3,719 1,463 102,522 341,255 119,010 51,185 84,362 19,847 723,363 2,903 99,244 327,144 95,908 49,470 93,178 21,360 689,207 4,903 2,391 164,883 539,071 103,872 23,831 140,433 17,416 996,800 4,964 2,287 200,634 626,567 136,018 120,758 131,873 19,479 1,242,589 5,587 2,461 198,785 652,549 150,514 143,921 122,621 19,414 1,295,852 1.2.4 Renewable Sources of Energy Due to its geographical position (stretching between latitudes 1º S and 12º S), Tanzania receives high-intensity sun radiation throughout the year which can be harnessed for energy and whose effect produces a variety of salient features that are suitable for the regeneration of biomass, wind and water cycle (Kassenga 1997). If efficiently harnessed and utilized, these renewable would reduce to a considerable extent Tanzania's heavy reliance on traditional energy systems as well as reverse the resulting ecological imbalances. i) Solar Energy Solar energy in Tanzania has been in use for several past generations for drying crops, clothes, wood, salt, etc. From the available data, the average daily solar radiation intensity is about 4.5 kWh/m2 (Kassenga, 1993). Some efforts have been made to harness solar energy using modern technologies like solar photovoltaic (PV) systems and solar thermal. Solar Thermal Systems On the area of solar thermal, solar water heating, crop and salt drying and direct cooking technologies are being practiced albeit in a small scale. Solar water heating is the bestproven and most cost effective thermal use of solar energy. By 1999, there were more that 600 operational solar water heater systems in Tanzania. Most of the installations are operating very well and majority of them were fabricated locally using the locally available materials. Solar PV Systems Under solar PV systems, the electricity generated has been used mainly for telecommunications, medical refrigeration, lighting and water pumping. The rapid reduction in the cost of PV systems (US$ 35/Wp in 1975 to less than US$ 5/Wp at present) realized in the last three decades, innovative financing schemes and improvement in the reliability of PV systems among other reasons are beginning to make PV systems to a certain extent affordable to many rural households and communities 125 (Karekezi and Ranja, 2002). In view of this, Tanzania like many other African countries gives priority to the dissemination of PV technology as one of the potential renewable energies for solving rural energy problems and reduction of heavy dependence on biomass-based fuels. The limitation of solar PV is that it can only be used for lighting and powering lowvoltage appliances. As opposed to diesel engines, solar PV technology is unsuitable for powering energy intensive rural enterprises especially agro-processing activities, which are the most attractive options for generating incomes in rural areas. Agro-processing activities (such as flour, cotton gin, oil and saw milling) require equipment with a minimum power output of well above 1000 Wp. Environmental challenge of solar PV technology is the disposal of used panels and batteries. ii) Wind Energy In Tanzania wind energy has been mostly used to pump water for irrigation, domestic and livestock watering purposes. More than 120 windmills have been installed to provide mechanical power for water pumping. Electricity generation from wind has been insignificant. Most of the installations in operation have been imported, while few are locally fabricated and installed. There have been several attempts to design wind mills locally, but none of them has been successfully introduced in the market. Assessment indicated a good potential at some of the sites but further measurements are recommended before a demonstration plant is installed, the aim being to look for better sites for locating wind farms. Indications are that the wind regimes in Tanzania could be sufficient for wind turbines. Besides having a high initial costs, wind energy is a very environmentally friendly when harnessed, the only negative impact part of it is that of visual impact, sound pollution and threat to the migratory birds caused by rotating blades. 1.2.5 Coal Raw coal has been used for many years in many countries for domestic as well as for industrial uses with environmental consequences of pollution and health hazards. Coal is the least used indigenous energy source accounting for only 0.6% of the total energy used in Tanzania, though proven reserves are plentiful. One of the hindering factors in using coal for domestic purposes are the lack of appropriate technology to make it a clean energy source i.e. free from toxic emissions. In recent years, some attempts have been made to promote coal stoves but because of the air pollution problem this effort has yet to bear fruit. Coal mined at Kiwira in Kyela District is mainly used for the generation of electricity and for thermal use at some factories. Even at such a low production rate, there are considerable environmental hazards caused by raw coal burning. Moreover, the heaps of coal dust outside the mine have been a source of nuisance and pollution to the nearby Songwe River causing a lot of problems to the people using its water downstream. The briquette technology using coal dust as the 126 main raw material is anticipated to solve environmental problems associated with coal dust. 2.0 Challenges related to promotion of environmentally and socially sound Energy Technologies i. High initial cost associated with environmentally sound energy technologies (ESETs); ii. Inadequate human and institutional capacities (limited professional capability to design, build, operate, manage and maintain ; iii. Inadequacies or non-comprehensive technology transfer policy, legislation and incentives; iv. Environmental, social, political/security concerns associated with some technologies. 3.0 Policy, Institution and technological Initiatives in the Energy Sector The Ministry of Energy and Minerals (MEM) is mandated to ensure sustainable, reliable, adequate and environmentally friendly supplies of energy at least cost to the economy and the consumers (MEM 2003). Among others, the energy policy stresses the need to i. ii. iii. iv. enhance the development and utilization of indigenous and renewable energy sources and technologies; adequately take into account environmental considerations for all energy activities; increase energy efficiency and conservation in all sectors; and, increase energy education and build gender-balanced capacity in energy planning, implementation and monitoring. All companies involved in oil and gas exploration activities are licensed by the Tanzania Petroleum Development Corporation, (TPDC) under the Model Production Sharing Agreement. According to the Agreement, companies are obliged to take necessary and adequate steps to prevent pollution and protect the environment and the living resources of the sea and lakes. 4.0 Way forward In view of the fact that the country has several significant energy related environmental problems, there is a dire need to promote renewable energy sources and to utilise fossil fuels in an environmentally sustainable manner. Utilization of renewable energy is environmentally friendly and has a positive impact on the emission of CO2. To this effect the following recommendations are given: i. ii. Some technologies in harnessing RET are new and therefore often pose problems due to deficient technological capacities or capabilities. Deliberate efforts should be made to develop these technologies. In case of the non-availability of personnel to conduct research and training programmes, strategies should focus on the cooperation and help from various organizations, both national and regional as well as international. 127 iii. iv. v. On diffusion of appropriate RET, the government and allied bodies are expected to initiate large-scale publicity programmes to encourage manufacturers, marketers and customers. Where feasible, the government should enhance incentives, such as removal or reduction of tax from RET, currently implemented in Tanzania, and also provision for subsidies in the diffusion process. Tanzania needs a careful research and analysis to realize investments in clean energy. PART IV: POLLUTION SOURCES 1.0 Water Pollution The state of water pollution in Tanzania may be described as follows: i. The deterioration of quality of ground and surface water sources especially lakes and rivers flowing through the cities of Dar es Salaam, Mwanza, Arusha and Mbeya and the municipalities of Moshi and Morogoro. ii. Pollution of both surface and ground water resources due to excessive and irrational use of agrochemicals in catchment areas. 1.1 Sources of water pollution In Tanzania, water pollution emanates from a number of point and diffuse sources including untreated or partially treated sewage, chemical discharges, petroleum leaks and spills, dumping in old mines and pits, agricultural chemicals that are washed off or seep underground from farm fields, and atmospheric deposition. Pollution can render large quantities of water unsuitable for use, or which can be used for restricted purposes only. Unfortunately, data on water pollution are fragmented and scarce. Most of the information on water quality and pollution in Tanzania comes from areas in or around major towns and cities and mostly covers pollution emanating from sewage waste. Fewer studies have looked at other sources of water quality degradation and their impacts on the natural environment and on human health. i) Industrial water pollution Probably the most serious source of water pollution in urban areas in Tanzania can result from industrial activities. About 80% of industries in Tanzania are located in urban areas and over 50% of these are found in large towns, mainly Dar es Salaam. However, many of these industries were established without adequate environmental attention, as a result they have been operating without waste treatment facilities, some for more than 40 years (Mato, 2002). The wastes from the industries are disposed of in inland rivers, depressions, pits, or on land. Industrial effluents have been reported to pollute rivers like Msimbazi in Dar es Salaam, Karanga in Moshi, Mwirongo in Mwanza, and Themi in Arusha (Mato, 2002). 128 More than 122 industrial establishments in Dar es Salaam produce about 127 tonnes/day of hazardous waste, which is about 40% of the total industrial solid waste production (Mato 2002). Most of industries have no waste treatment and holding facilities other than open ground, which results into pollution of both surface and ground water resources. In Pangani basin raw and partially treated effluents from industries in Arusha, Moshi and Tanga are causing pollution of water bodies in the basin. Mwanuzi (2000) estimated BOD5 loads released in Pangani River from Arusha and Kilimanjaro industries to be 3,281 and 7,489 tonnes per year. The Sigi River, in this basin, has a BOD5 of more than 135 mg/L due largely to discharge of raw or partially treated wastewater from sisal processing industries. In Lake Victoria basin, some areas of the rivers feeding the lake and the shoreline are polluted by municipal and industrial discharges. Municipal pollution loads in the Lake Victoria Basin has shown an incremental trend between the year 2002 and 2005 as clearly shown in Table 4.4. This can be explained by the normal population increase and the increase due to rapid growth of the mining and fish industries in the basin and the minimal investment on new installations and/or improvement of wastewater treatment facilities. Table 4.4: Municipal Pollution loads Trend from urban centres in Lake Victoria Basin in Tanzania (2002-2005) Year Population of Urban Centres Resulting Load (kg/day) No. FC/day BOD5 Total-N Total-P TSS 2002 875511 8769 1556 623 5817 5.6E+14 2003 913958 9158 1628 651 6086 5.9E+14 2004 954131 9568 1701 680 6368 6.2E+14 2005 996108 9998 Modified from Mnyanga et al. (2006) 1778 711 6664 6.3E+14 Serious threats also arise from rapidly mushrooming small-scale industries, which generate large amounts of waste. Small-scale industries normally are less monitored and to a larger extent they are believed to cause less pollution, although their collective impacts may be enormous. Filling stations dispensing petroleum products are potentially threatening groundwater sources. In Dar es Salaam alone, the number of filling stations has doubled during the past five years and more than 25% of them might be having leaking tanks (Mato 2002). Leaking oil storage and selling facilities are potentially threatening the water quality integrity of the aquifers because some of the hydrocarbons are toxic (Kassenga et al 2006). 129 Although, there are specific laws on the control of pollution, their enforcement has been inadequate. Therefore, industries have been disposing of untreated effluents to land or surface watercourses for more than 35 years. The major threat is from chemical industries, which may be discharging wastewater containing high levels of persistent substances. Cleaner industrial production initiatives may contribute significantly to reduction of pollution. In recognition of the role of cleaner production approach in solving industrial pollution problems the Government has established the Cleaner Production Unit under the Department of Environment in the Office of the Vice President to promote the rational use of energy and raw materials and minimise waste generation from industries. ii) Municipal Water Pollution In Tanzania, wastewater emanating from the residential areas is crudely disposed of to land, streams, lakes, or sea without prior treatment. Nine municipalities have sewerage systems, serving only about 12% of the urban population (Chaggu, 2004). In most municipalities, the collected sewage is treated in waste stabilization ponds (WSP) before being discharged into inland rivers. Malfunctioning of WSP means that raw sewage is discharged to the surface and groundwater resources. Also non-working WSP means more sewage will be disposed of into the ground, as less septic tank and pit latrine sludge will be brought to the ponds. In Dar es Salaam, domestic wastewater is the most serious source of pollution. Msimbazi River and Creek are among the most polluted water bodies in Dar es Salaam. The river and creek receives large quantities of untreated domestic wastes from the city‟s residents in addition to industrial wastes from various industries. The river is polluted in terms of high organic (27 to 340 mg BOD5/L) and nutrient concentrations, low dissolved oxygen (<0.9 mg O2/L), and high counts of indicator organisms (Mbuligwe and Kaseva 2005). The main source of groundwater pollution in Tanzania, is sewage handling (treatment and/or disposal) since over 90% of the population use pit latrines and septic tanks for sanitation with walls which are not water tight and so, groundwater can flow freely in and out of the pit (Chaggu, 2004). Another potential source of water pollution arises from the indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes. Due to increased urban population, the quantities of solid wastes to be collected and transported for disposal have also increased tremendously in recent years. About 5-10% of the urban population receive regular solid waste collection services in most cases confined to few areas, usually the urban centres and high-income neighbourhoods (Mato, 2002). The uncollected waste (90-95%) is burned, creating air pollution, left on the streets, collected and recycled by scavengers, or eaten by animals, dumped into storm drains, creeks, canals and buried in pits (which are usually less than 1.0m below ground level) hence becoming a diffuse source of pollution. A crisis of this waste is pollution of 130 ground and surface water sources by leachate from unmanaged and illegal solid waste dumps, and unhealthy living conditions. Dumpsites like Njiro in Arusha, Duga in Tanga, Vingunguti in Dar es Salaam are posing serious groundwater pollution. It is worth noting that, no urban centre in Tanzania has an environmentally sound solid waste disposal facility. iii) Agricultural water pollution Use of agrochemicals in Tanzania has been heaviest in major river basins and watersheds, especially in Rufiji basin. Intensive and somewhat indiscriminate use of agrochemicals in the Rufiji and neighbouring basins is causing deterioration of water quality and soil pollution. These are apart from more direct health problems evidenced by an increase in cases of cancer and susceptibility to other previously uncommon diseases. What makes the situation of greater concern is the fact that pesticides are applied extensively and indiscriminately by ill-informed users, and even banned pesticides like DDT are in use even to date, though somewhat clandestinely (Mbuligwe, 2005). Furthermore, storage of huge amounts of obsolete as well as viable pesticides is haphazard. Importation of the chemicals is unregulated, and this has led to importation of chemicals in excess of actual needs, apart from facilitating importation of banned pesticides. A lack of proper facilities for storage and disposal of the pesticides further exacerbates the problems. Appendix 1 lists pesticides that are used in large amounts in Tanzania and presumably constituted a portion of the obsolete pesticides found in Tanzania. The presence of such dangerous pesticides as DDT and the fact that in most storage lots active ingredients of the pesticides are unidentifiable, worsens the situation. It is worth noting that most organic pesticides (such as organochlorine and organophosphorus insecticides) tend to persist in the environment and as such may accumulate in the food chain, consequently causing long-term public health risks. In the Pangani River Basin, which is to the north east of the country, concentrations of soluble salts in water have been found to be as high as 750mg/L, presumably due to use of fertilisers (Mbuligwe, 2005). The concentration of nitrate, another notorious nutrient, was found to be comparably high. In Sigi River in the Pangani River Basin, the water hyacinth is rapidly becoming a serious problem, threatening to choke off the river. Furthermore, in the Ruvu – Wami River basin fertilisers: Sulphate of Ammonia (SA), Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN), Urea, and Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) are used in substantial amounts. Water quality in Lake Victoria has declined greatly in the past few decades, owing chiefly to eutrophication arising from increased inflow of nutrients into the lake, which has resulted into domination by blue-green algae. Blue-green algae is causing deoxygenation of the water, increased sickness for humans and animals drawing water from the lake, clogging of water intake filters, and increased chemical treatment costs for urban centers. Atmospheric deposition has been 131 identified as the predominant source of nutrient loading to Lake Victoria with loads of 137,001 and 21,754 kg/day for total nitrogen and phosphorus, respectively. (Myanza et al, 2006). Other significant sources are river loads possibly due to poor agronomic practices including extensive and shifting farming which are persistent in the basin (Myanza et al, 2006). Total annual nutrient inputs to the lake including industrial and municipal sources are currently estimated at 162,224 and 28,949 tonnes of N and P, respectively (Myanza et al, 2006). 1.2 Costs of water pollution to the National Economy In the absence of sustainable use of water resources, Tanzania is likely to face ever growing water pollution problems from unsustainable use of its water resources in the quest for poverty reduction. The cost of treatment of ailments associated with water pollution and the resultant productive time lost due to illness is most likely to be enormous. About 68 percent and 45 percent of the urban and rural population, respectively have access to piped and safe water. The cost of providing clean water amounts to USD 290 million per annum. This is based on an estimated per capita use of 20 litres per day in rural areas and 50 litres per day in urban areas at a ratio of 3:1 for rural-urban population. The cost of water delivery is estimated at 35 US cents per litre (Mariki et al., 2003). It is apparent from this estimate that water pollution is undermining the efforts of the Government to eradicate poverty. 1.3 Research Very little research work has been done on water pollution in Tanzania and this is a matter of concern. The water quality status of major water bodies has not been well investigated. Various academic and research institutions have been conducting researches on water pollution for specific purposes. Except for short-term water quality studies in some water basins such as Pangani River, Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika basins, water quality monitoring and assessment are not undertaken systematically. More research is needed to address water pollution and the many other water-related problems the nation is currently facing. 1.4 Initiatives In order to arrest this situation, several steps have been taken, aimed at combating the problem of pollution in Tanzania. Foremost of these is the adoption of national policies, which set out the country‟s agenda that aims at curbing pollution of waterbodies. These include the National Environmental Policy (1997) that advocates the prevention and control of pollution of the marine and coastal waters, including that from land-based sources. This policy statement is supported by the Environmental Management Act (EMA-2004). However, there has been weak enforcement of this and other regulations resulting in continued pollution of water bodies. International and regional initiatives to curb water pollution include the Nile Basin Initiative and the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme. 132 The National Water Policy (2005) stipulates that water quality monitoring and assessment should be undertaken systematically so as to identify extent and status of the quality of the water resources so that problems are detected early and remedial actions employed timely. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have also been involved in natural resources issues including water pollution control. However, most of them are poorly staffed have few physical resources and irregular access to funding. Examples, of NGOs active in water pollution control include AGENDA, ENATA, EEPCO, PECCO and CONCERN. 1.5 Way forward As a way forward, effective integrated watershed management plans to protect the water sources from pollution and general degradation should be prepared. In addition, a water quality monitoring programme for all major water sources should be formulated. Environmental legislation for water pollution prevention should be enforced and public education campaigns to educate and urge people to protect water sources should be conducted. 2.0 Air and Noise Pollution 2.1 Air Pollution The various air pollution sources in Tanzania are transport activities, burning of agricultural wastes, manufacturing activities, residential burning of fossil fuels and wood, and open field solid waste burning. Air pollution emanating from transport activities is covered in a separate section. Although little quantitative data exist, industrial air pollution in Tanzania is considered not very serious but it is expected to grow with time as the country is striving to develop its manufacturing sector. The problem is more pronounced in urban areas where more than 80% of industries are located. In the past, the most notable source of industrial air pollution was cement manufacturing. At the moment all cement factories have significantly solved the dust pollution problem by installing dust-arresting equipments. Offensive odours are mostly emitted from food industries, chemical and allied industries, sewage treatment plants, solid waste disposal sites, malfunctioning sea outfalls, sea shores and even public sanitation facilities. The Dar Brew factory in Dar es Salaam, for example, which produces Chibuku brew from grains emits offensive smells, which can be detected as far away as 1.5 km. Most sewage treatment plants tend to produce pungent smell in their neighbourhood. So do broken down and leaking sewers as well as sea outfalls. Since most solid waste disposal sites in Tanzania are poorly managed they produce offensive odours. 2.2 Noise Pollution Studies in Dar es Salaam have established the presence of noise pollution due to industrial and other activities. Exposure to noise from various sources such as social activities (bars, nightclubs, social halls) and small-scale service industries in residential areas with levels above 90dBA, the recommended safe limit of occupational noises 133 exposure for 8 hours have been recorded and resultant health effects have been noted (Mbuligwe 2004). With the current industrial expansion for economic growth noise pollution is anticipated to increase as well, especially in urban areas. Mbuligwe (2004) found that small-scale industries in Dar es Salaam present a serious source of environmental noise pollution in their neighborhoods with noise levels higher than 90.0 dBA, the permissible exposure level limit for occupational noise. 2.3 Research No comprehensive studies have been done on air and noise pollution to quantify the magnitude of the problem, let alone its environmental effects due to inadequate resources and low institutional capacity. 2.4 Policy and Institution Initiatives Since the publication of the National Environmental Policy (1997) and enactment of the Environmental Management Act (EMA-2004), a number of interventions to address environmental pollution problems including air and noise pollution, have been started. One of the objectives of the National Environmental Policy (1997) is to prevent and control degradation of land, water, vegetation, and air, which constitute our life support systems. Establishment of air quality monitoring programme in Dar es Salaam and formulation of air and noise emission standards, which is in process will produce further legal instruments that can assist the regulation and management of the problem. 2.5 Way forward Planning and administrative as well as technical measures must be used to prevent noise and vibration with traffic sources as specific targets. Preferably, the objective should be prevention using planning and administrative measures rather than control. 3.0 Pollution from transport activities 3.1 Automobile Air Pollution The major source of ambient air pollution is from vehicle emissions, the largest emitters being older vehicles and diesel-powered vehicles. In addition, a majority of the roads in Tanzania are unpaved thereby contributing significant amounts of suspended particulate matter. A study conducted in 1996 showed that automobile air pollution is a growing problem in Dar es Salaam City (Kassenga and Mbuligwe, 1997). The study showed that vehicles in Dar es Salaam whose number is increasing at the rate of 6.3% annually contribute to the problem. The study revealed that automobile exhaust gas coefficients for nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide were 10 times those of USA. This was mainly implicated to lowenergy efficiency of engines of most of the cars plying city roads due to old age. Concentrations of nitrogen oxides (for NOx: from < 0.5 to 2000 ppm; for NO2: from < 0.5 to 400 ppm) and carbon monoxide (from 60 to >2000 ppm) in the exhaust gas were also found to be high. A study to assess the contribution of road traffic to air pollution level in Dar-es-Salaam City, conducted in 2002 by Jackson (2005) showed that hourly average measured values of SO2 and SO3 were above the recommended WHO guidelines at 87% of the sampling sites. The unit risk realised was 18.2 × 10–6 for adult population and 2.2 × 134 10–6 for pupils, both scenarios showing risk higher than the United Sates of America Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) acceptable limit of 1× 10–6. Regulation on importation of vehicles in terms of environmental compliance and regular inspection for emission threshold conformity will reduce the air pollution problem. 3.2 Noise and vibration pollution from traffic and construction machinery A survey and analyses of noise and vibration from road traffic activities in Dar es Salaam City reported by Kassenga and Mbuligwe (1999) showed that noise and vibration levels by far surpass European recommended allowable mean values. The mean noise level, L50 from the survey stations, was found to lie between 60 dBA and 70 dBA whereas Recommended Allowable Noise Mean (L50) values for neighbourhoods in the Netherlands range from 30 to 50 dBA (Kassenga and Mbuligwe, 1999). The study revealed that road traffic is the worst source of noise pollution and singled out large vehicles (> 7 tonnes carrying capacity) as the worst polluters. 3.3 Aircraft Noise Pollution Mato and Mufuruki (1998) observed that workers at the Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere International Airport were exposed to noise levels, which are higher than the maximum noise level exposure for working places recommended by WHO. The noise levels (Leq. (60s)) recorded in the residential areas of Kiwalani, Kipawa, Njiapanda and Majumbasita ranged from 50 to 76 dBA. These noise levels exceed the recommended limits for dwellings near noise generating sources of 60 dBA Leq. (60s). Eighty-eight percent (88%) of people interviewed expressed great annoyance arising from exposure to aircraft noise, especially those aircraft arriving early in the morning when most people are asleep. 3.4 Water pollution Mineral oils have become potential surface and groundwater contaminants in Tanzania because of the increasing use of fossil fuels. Similarly, disposal of used oils is currently presenting potential pollution sources to water resources in urban areas of Tanzania. Other potential pathways include leakage from underground storage tanks (like filling stations) and accidental spillages during use or transportation. An increase in the number of service stations in Tanzania puts soil and water resources at risk of pollution by hydrocarbons if appropriate measures are not timely taken. Dar es Salaam City alone has 174 service stations at present and the number is increasing fast. Road development goes together with bulk transportation and storage of oil and establishment of service stations thus increasing chances of pollution of soil and water by petroleum hydrocarbons some of which are carcinogenic such as benzene and xylenes. Oil spillage by defective marine vessels, rail and road transportation, leakages from poorly maintained petroleum products storage tanks, oil spillages due to ineffective loading and unloading facilities have been reported by Mato (2002). 3.5 Policy and Institution Initiatives Besides intervention stipulated in various relevant national policies, the Government is preparing the Sector Environmental Assessment for Transport Sector Support Programme with the main objective of ensuring a sound integration of the environment into decision- 135 making processes at the strategic level. Air quality monitoring stations have been established as part of the ambient air-monitoring program for Dar es Salaam City under the financial sponsorship of USAID. 3.6 Climate Change In 1990, carbon dioxide emissions from Tanzania amounted to 55,208 gigagrams CO2 (CEEST, 1999). A comparison of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions for the major gasses, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide showed that that the contribution of carbon dioxide is the highest (55%), followed by methane (44%) and nitrous oxide (1%). Comparing sectoral contribution of GHGs in 1990 shows that the highest contribution is from Land-use changes and forestry sector (53%), agriculture (33%), energy (13%) and waste management (1%) as Figure 4.5 illustrates. Industrial processes contributed less than 1 % of potential warming (CEEST, 1999). The situation has probably not significantly changed since then. 3.6.1 Initiatives An assessment of the Greenhouse Gas Emissions have been conducted under the following sectors: energy, industrial processes, solvent and other product use, agriculture, forestry and land use change, waste management and air pollution. The National Environmental Action Plan recognises problems associated with climate change and air pollution. However, more emphasis was placed on issues related to climate variability. In relation to climate change the National Environmental Policy recognises the following guiding principles: 1% 1% 13% 52% 33% Landuse/Forestry Agriculture Energy Waste Management Industry Figure 4.5: Sectoral contributions of carbon dioxide emissions in Tanzania in 1990 (Source: CEEST, 1999) i. greenhouse gas emissions must be reduced and greenhouse gas sinks must be enhanced in order to prevent interference with the climate system, 136 ii. 3.7 the climate is a valuable natural resource, which, if not well managed, can become a serious constraint to socio-economic development. Way forward Among others, the following strategies are proposed to cut down green-house gas emissions (GHG) and air pollutants: i. develop a database on air pollution through the establishment of a sound air quality monitoring system; ii. develop and promote alternative new and renewable energy sources to fuelwood and technologies in order to reduce the use of fuelwood and enhance carbon sinks; iii. formulate and promote energy conservation measures to cut down emission; iv. strengthen the existing national climate/ meteorological database and monitoring networks; v. assess and monitor the potential impact of climate change on the functioning of ecosystems, vegetation patterns and net carbon sinks; and, vi. use climate data to help guide land-use and economic development decisions; 4.0 Waste Management Inadequate waste management is considered as one of the problems posing potential risk to public health and the environment in Tanzania particularly in urban areas with proportionately significant population residing in unplanned (squatter) areas. The waste management problem is more pronounced in squatter settlements, where 70-80% of the urban population resides. Consequently, over 70% of diseases attended in health facilities are water and sanitation related (MoH, 2003). 4.1 Industrial Wastes The industrial development strategy in Tanzania was pursued without environmental regulation for a longtime and consequently many industries do not have waste treatment facilities. Untreated or poorly treated effluents are being discharged into water bodies and there is no systematic monitoring or quantification of industrial wastes that has been taking place. As a result of enforcement of environmental laws, some industries have installed waste treatment facilities after operating for quite sometimes without them. For example, cement factories have tremendously cut down their dust pollution discharges after installation of effective dust arresting equipment. 137 4.2 i) Municipal Wastes Municipal Wastewater and excreta Out of 18 cities/municipalities/towns only 8 have sewerage systems. Urban authorities with sewerage systems include Dar es Salaam, Tanga, Morogoro, Dodoma, Arusha, Mwanza, Mbeya, Tabora and Moshi. Only about 10-12% of the urban population have access to the sewerage system. In most municipalities, the collected sewage is treated in waste stabilization ponds (WSP) before being discharged into inland rivers. However, most of the ponds are not working properly. Malfunctioning of WSP means that raw sewage is discharged to the surface and groundwater resources. For example, only about 15% of Dar es Salaam residents are connected to the city sewer network that was build in the late 1950s. The city has 8 waste stabilisation ponds, of which only 4 are in operation. The Zanzibar sewerage system, which dates back to the 1920s, serves only about 18% of the pollution. As in Dar es Salaam, waste from the town‟s residents in dumped untreated in the nearby coastal waters. Lack of financial self sustainability is one of the major problems crippling sewerage and sanitation authorities. Over 90%, of the households in urban and rural areas use pit latrines and septic tanks as Table 4.5 shows (Mato 2002; Chaggu 2004). However, 80% of the pit latrines used by the most urban poor are substandard and offensive (Chaggu 2004). Pit latrines and septic tanks frequently overflow, especially during the rains, contaminating water sources and increasing health risks in the neighborhoods. Table 4.5: National Coverage of Excreta Disposal Facilities in Tanzania Type of facility Pit-Latrines Traditional Pit-latrines Ventilated Improved Pit-Latrine (VIP) Septic Tanks and Soakage pits Sewerage Others (type not indicated) Without access to any excreta disposal facility Source: Chaggu 2004) ii) Urban 92.6 89.3 3.3 3.6 1.4 0.7 1.7 National Coverage (%) Rural Total 82.3 84.6 81.9 83.5 0.4 1.1 0.5 1.2 0.3 0.5 0.9 0.8 16 12.8 Solid wastes About 5-10% of the urban population receive regular solid waste collection services in most cases confined to few areas, usually the urban centres and highincome neighbourhoods (Mato 2002). Table 4.6 shows solid waste generation rates in some municipalities in Tanzania. As much as 80-90% of solid waste generated in urban areas is not collected and most of the domestic waste, which accounts for about 60 % of the total solid waste generated daily is disposed of by 138 burning or burying. Some recycling of wastes is carried out primarily at the generation points like households. The remaining wastes may end up in drains or dumpsites. It is worth noting that, no urban centre in Tanzania has a safe solid waste disposal facility. The main reasons for the failure to collect solid waste are lack of equipment, low priority given to solid waste services by municipalities and inadequate financial resources (Kassim, 2006). Table 4.6: Waste generation rates in some municipalities in Tanzania Municipality/City Arusha Moshi Dar es Salaam Waste generation rate Kg/capita/day 0.19(squatter areas) 0.36 (serviced areas) 0.49 0.17 (squatter 0.33 (serviced areas) Average kg/m3 275 density 330 550 Source: Mato, 2000 Involvement of the private sector, NGOs and CBOs by the Government has improved the delivery of solid waste management (SWM) services in Tanzania and Dar es Salaam in particular. In Dar es Salaam, for example, collection of solid wastes increased from 5 – 10 tonnes per day (0.35 to 0.70% of the total amount generated per day) in 1992 to between 800 and 1,000 tones per day (40 to 50% of the total amount generated per day) in 2005 after initiation of the partnership between public and private sectors in delivering SWM services (Blinker et al, 2006). 4.3 Health care waste Many medical facilities in Tanzania are characterized by inadequate and inappropriate refuse storage facilities, lack of refuse collection services, improper disposal methods and inadequate and inappropriate protective gear for refuse handlers. It is not uncommon to find healthcare waste crudely dumped at municipal waste disposal site thus posing a public health and environmental hazard. Many incinerators for medical wastes have been observed to be wanting with respect to design and performance. Expired drugs are also not properly stored and disposed of. A study conducted by Kassenga and Mato (1996) in Dar es Salaam revealed that medical wastes are not properly managed in most hospitals and dispensaries. Twenty four (24%) of medical facilities dispose their waste in municipal dumpsite in a crude fashion. The same situation most likely prevails in other urban centres in Tanzania. 4.4 Plastic wastes Plastic wastes such as carrier/plastic bags, packaging materials, and plastic bottles are haphazardly disposed of all over the places particularly in urban areas resulting into health risk and reduced aesthetic value of the environment. Uncontrolled burning of plastic wastes may produce gases, which are toxic such as hydrochloric acid. Some plastic wastes especially plastic bottles are recycled. 139 In fast growing cities like Dar es Salaam, Arusha, Mwanza and Mbeya the bags have disrupted the drainage system and are threatening to cause more harm. If buried, plastic materials could block the natural supply of air and water to the soil, affecting plant life directly and indirectly. The Tanzania Government introduced an outright ban on disposable plastic bags in 2006. Manufacturing or import of bags of a thickness between 30 and 65 microns has been forbidden. Thicker and more durable plastic bags are allowed under the new law but industrialists are being strongly encouraged to switch to the production of paper bags. This is a commendable move by the Government to solve the plastic waste disposal problem. 4.5 Agricultural wastes Being an agricultural country, Tanzania produces huge amounts of solid agricultural wastes. The annual amounts of the agricultural wastes produced in metric tonnes include; sisal pulp 100,000mt; robusta coffee pulp 58,860mt, sugar cane bagasse 5.374mt, straws of maize 5.280mt; sorghum 1.089mt; rice 600mt; millet 367mt and wheat straw at (139mt) (Amelia et al., 2002). There is a significant potential of using these wastes as energy sources. For example, rice husks may be briquetted and sugar cane bagasse and sisal pulp may be used for production of biofuels and biogas, respectively. Some initiatives to harness energy from agricultural wastes have been reported. In Tanzania, obsolete pesticides stocks stand at about 356,000 tonnes, while veterinary waste amounts to about 140,000 tonnes. The menace of agrochemicals is accentuated by the fact that their storage is scattered in more than 300 poorly attended stores all over the country (Appendix 2). In the Rufiji and neighbouring basins, fertiliser uses have ranged between 33,000 and 50,000 tonnes per year since the 1970s (Mbuligwe, 2005). An inventory conducted by NEMC and TPRI in 1989 revealed that unused/obsolete pesticides amount to 18 tonnes of DDT and DDT formulations in warehouses of cotton and coffee growing areas. Along with that there are 40,000 liters of expired pesticides (endosulfan, flumetrion, altrazine, malathion and methidation) in the cotton growing regions of Mwanza, and Shinyanga. Poor handling of these expired and outdated chemicals substantially contribute to environmental pollution. Unfortunately local capacity to manage agricultural wastes is limited and as such they are not properly disposed of. 4.6 Other wastes Electrical and electronic wastes include discarded TVs, radio, refrigerators, air conditioners, cell phones, computers, and all electrical and electronic materials. Unfortunately, these wastes are not properly handled and as such they may be sources of heavy metal pollution especially lead. Used/waste oil comprising lubricants, hydraulic, metalworking, insulating and transmission fluids from garages, petrol station and metal industries are causing pollution of water and soil because they are not properly stored and disposed of. Waste oil is sometimes used for wood preservation in an environmentally hostile fashion. 140 4.7 Research and Development Research and development in waste management technology is limited in Tanzania. However, researches are being conducted on treatment of wastewater, recycling and composting of solid wastes and excreta disposal in some academic and research institutions. UCLAS is researching on composting latrines of the type of Ecological Sanitation (ECOSAN) toilets, recycling and composting of domestic solid wastes, treatment of wastewater using Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket technology (UASB) and engineered wetlands. College of Engineering and Technology (CoET) of University of Dar es Salaam has been conducting a research project on treatment of wastewater using wetland systems for more than 7 years now. National Institute of Medical Research (NIMR) has undertaken research and development on low cost on-site sanitation technologies for a longtime now. MAPET technology as an efficient means of cesspit emptying services in unplanned settlement is being promoted by the Dar es Salaam City Council. However, most of these waste management technologies are still in the nascent stage and are yet to be proven in the field. 4.8 Policy and Institution Initiatives To address the problem of waste management, the Tanzanian Government is preparing a National Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan to serve as a framework guide for better management of wastes in the country. The Strategy will take into account elements of the hierarchy of waste management namely, waste prevention and reduction at source; reuse, recovery and recycling; treatment; and, disposal. 4.9 Way forward A way forward to solving waste management problems include, full utilisation of capacities of installed sewerage systems; making waste water management self sustaining through cost recovery; monitoring and proper operation and maintenance of sanitation facilities; use of sanitation facilities according to site conditions; enforcing use of pretreatment facilities for polluting industries and effecting a monitoring and vetting programme; and, involving NGOs, CBOs, and the private sector in the delivery of waste management services. 4.10 Recycling and Resource Recovery Solid wastes are the most recycled type of wastes. Recycling of domestic wastewater for irrigation purposes is done albeit at a small scale (Kassenga. and Mbuligwe, 2005). For this reason, only recycling of solid wastes will be covered in this section. 4.11 Recycling of Solid Wastes The ever increasing tonnage of solid waste generation with consequently increased collection and disposal costs, recycling reuse and composting are the amongst suitable approach to effective manage the solid waste management in Tanzania. For example, Kaseva and Gupta (1996) found that 18% of waste generated in Dar es Salaam can be recycled. Mbuligwe et al. (2002) estimated that potential for recycling could be expanded to about 55% of the total waste generated in the City. Paper is recycled by most scavengers (40.1%) followed by metal (28.5%), plastics (12.8%), glass (17%) and textiles (9.1%). The recycling activities take place informally at point of generation, collection, 141 illegal dumpsites and final disposal sites. In Dar es Salaam, it is estimated that there are fifty-two (52) active franchisees in SWM whom altogether employ more than 2,000 people, and about 60% of these employees are women. These operate their business under poor conditions; most of them have not proper facilities and equipment for sorting the valuable materials from discarded wastes. Additionally, at the moment there is no national policy and legislation on recycling and it is done haphazardly and according to the needs of the market (Kassim 2006). 4.12 Resource Recovery from Solid Wastes A large proportion (over 70%) of solid waste generated in Tanzania is compostable since it is very rich in organic component. If all the organic wastes are to be composted; the reduction in solid waste that would need to be finally disposed would be over 70% (Mbuligwe et al., 2002). However, composting of solid wastes is hardly practiced in Tanzania. It is only in Dar es Salaam where few private organizations have been reported to be involved in composting solid wastes. In order to make composting attractive and profitable, markets for compost have to be identified and promoted. Indeed, this approach has a great potential and might need to be promoted and practiced at municipality and city council levels. Mbuligwe and Kassenga (2004) investigated on the potential of using solid waste for electricity generation in Dar es Salaam and concluded that anaerobic digestion may reduce the amount of waste to be disposed of by at least 50% since vegetable and putrescible matter accounts for between 62 and 70% of the total amount of solid waste generated daily. An assessment of the potential and constraints of composting as a disposal method for market solid wastes in Dar Es Salaam found that although compost produced from solid waste was of satisfactory quality, its acceptability by farmers was jeopardized by the fear of contamination of farm produce (Kassenga 1999). 4.13 Way forward Besides benefiting the environment, recycling and resource recovery are incomegenerating activities, which contribute in poverty reduction in line with MKUKUTA. In view of this, there is a dire need to recognize recycling and resource recovery as appropriate methods for waste management in the preparation of National Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan. A more positive regulatory approach would be to attempt to formalize and rationalize recycling and resource recovery activities within the official waste management system. 5.0 Public Health Problems Related to Sanitation and Pollution Most communicable diseases are caused by defective sanitation. It is estimated that the percentage of households owning a toilet facility in Tanzania fluctuates between 84% and 89%. Unfortunately, most of toilet facilities are substandard as there are infested with flies and provide favorable places for breeding of mosquitoes. Another problem is that often hand washing facilities are not available. It is thus not surprising, that water and excreta related diseases are the most common causes of health centre visits given the backwardness of sanitary facilities coupled with poor drainage and water supply. 142 Women, children and immuno-compromised people are most affected by inadequate water supply and sanitation facilities. Cholera, typhoid, dysentery and other waterborne diseases are responsible for illnesses and deaths to many people in Tanzania especially children. There are some epidemiological indications that these diseases have become endemic in various urban centres like Dar es Salaam, Morogoro and Singida. The child mortality rate, which stands at 15% (Blinker et al, 2006) indicates that the level of environmental sanitation is inadequate. Malaria is ranked as number one killer disease in the country with ~3% deaths, ~15% hospital attendances, and ~10% admission (Chaggu 2004). Incidence rates of malaria are high in areas with inadequate sanitation facilities as mosquitoes breed favourably under poor sanitary conditions. Epidemiological data related to environmental pollution are scarce in Tanzania. Not withstanding that chemical pollution of water sources, which accompany industrial development and intensive agriculture, can introduce new diseases that Tanzania is not yet sufficiently equipped to fight against. Air pollution may cause respiratory ailments and aggravate the existing pulmonary infections. Noise pollution is associated with a number of social and physiological problems, which may impair economic productivity of the affected individuals. Frequent eruptions of communicable diseases are putting a heavy economic burden on the Government, which is forced to allocate its meager resources in fighting them thus jeopardising the pursuit for poverty reduction. Most of the communicable diseases can be controlled by improving environmental sanitation conditions. 5.1 Policy and Programme Initiatives A number of sectoral policies such as National Environmental Policy (1997), National Water Policy (2002), Sustainable Industrial Development Policy (SIDP) (1996), and Health Policy (1990), which address issues pertaining to environmental health and sanitation are in place. The challenge is to implement these policies for improvement of environmental health and sanitation. It is broadly recognized by all actors working in the water sector that, in order to have a real impact on health, water supply programmes should integrate sanitation and hygiene promotion. Initiatives for water supply and sanitation include the transformation of rural water and sanitation projects and programme into harmonized nationwide programme; the National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme in all rural Tanzania Mainland Districts by July 2006. Tanzania has been conducting environmental health and sanitation competition since 1998, which has stimulated challenges and builds morale towards improvement of environmental conditions in respective areas. It is an annual event drawing a wide variety of stakeholders directed to achieve among others, the following objectives: to raise the 143 sanitation standards in the country; to raise community awareness on the importance of maintaining a clean environment; to promote community and private sector participation in the delivery of environmental health and sanitation services stipulated in the government policies; to reduce communicable and non-communicable diseases which are sanitation-related. 6.0 Natural Disasters The natural disasters common in Tanzania include floods, drought and earthquake. The flood prone areas are those located in river basins, especially Rufiji River basin which covers over 20% of Tanzania mainly area. Drought is a common natural disaster especially in semi - arid areas of the country such as Shinyanga, Dodoma, Singida, Tabora and Mwanza region. Indiscriminate cutting of trees for agricultural expansion, building construction, woodpile and crop drying are considered to be major causes for desertification and drought conditions. Tanzania is traversed by both the eastern and western arm of the East African Rift System and the most recount magnetism within the rift system is concentrated in northern Tanzania (Kilimanjaro area) and the Rungwe in the south. The area with high seismicity is the western rift, eastern rift, Pangani rift, and the southern tip of Mtwara. There have been cases of big earthquakes in Rukwa (7.4 on "Ritchei Scale") in 1910; Mbulu, (6.3) in 1964; Kahama (5.2) in 1983; Rukwa (5.9) in 1994. 6.1 Policy and Institution Initiatives Past experiences have shown that the Government is ill prepared and equipped to handle natural disasters when they happen. Now the government has established a special division within the Prime Minister's Office with a goal of dealing with disasters and the Disaster Management Policy is in place. Regarding training, a Disaster Management Training Centre has been established at UCLAS. Not withstanding these initiatives more need to be done to enhance the resilience of people against disaster. 144 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION Tanzania is located in East Africa and is among the Least Developed Countries in the world, with the population size of 34,569,232. In 2005, the GDP of Tanzania amounted to Tshs 13,063,317 million at current prices, while per capita income was Tshs. 61,798. In 2005, the GDP was recorded to grow by 6.8 percent compared to 6.7 in 2004. The natural resources sector contributed an average of about 5.7 percent of GDP, with fisheries showing the highest growth rate and substantial increase in export earnings of combined total of over USD 1.3 billion. An increase in population has always been associated to rapid degradation of the environment particularly deforestation, pollution and soil erosion. Both population growth and environmental degradation have become global problems of concern. To address environmental concerns in the country, various frameworks for environmental management have been put in place. In 1997, the National Environmental Policy was prepared. This was followed by enactment of the Environmental Management Act in 2004. The Act puts in place institutional and legal framework for environmental management in the country. Other sectors address their environmental concerns with reference to this Act. Environment has also been mainstreamed in the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty, in Kiswahili acronomy MKUKUTA which was prepared in 2005. This is a five years strategy which is implemented by all sectors. Moreover, environment being a global agenda, Tanzania is a party to a number of environmental conventions and subscribes to the Millenium Development Goals. Tanzania‟s quest for sustained economic growth, improved welfare and provision for basic human needs to her people continues to rely on a healthy environment to support the natural resources which are the base of economic sustainability. The country continues to rely on agriculture for much of the needed sustainable livelihood particularly in the rural areas and for its continued economic growth and sustainability. The sustained growth of other development sectors such as tourism, wildlife, water and energy will also continue to depend on the state of the environment and the pressure on it. Agriculture is the most important sector in Tanzania‟s economy. It has a significant contribution to the National GDP compared to other sectors with a contribution of 45.6 per cent in 2005. It is the main source of employment and livelihood for more than twothirds of the Tanzanian population. It is an important economic sector in terms of food production, employment generation, production of raw materials for industries and generation of foreign exchange. However according to the Economic Survey Report of 2005, it has been observed that the contribution of the agricultural sector to the GDP has continued to decline gradually while the contribution of other sectors particularly manufacturing, tourism, mining and construction continue to rise. This shows a change in the composition and structure of the economy that does not depend on the contribution of the agriculture sector alone. 145 In 2005 the agriculture sector grew by 5.2 percent compared to 5.8 per cent in 2004. This decrease in the growth rate of the sector was attributed to a decrease in the production of crop and livestock sub-sectors. The main challenge facing the sector is the continued dependence of rainfall for agricultural activities. This has been the main challenge facing the growth of the sector and also leading to food insecurity. This is evidenced by the drought that affected many parts of the country particularly in the last quarter of 2005. Other challenges facing the sector include inadequate availability of improved seeds, inadequate micro-credits to farmers, limited access to agricultural products markets etc. The government is putting up initiatives to promote irrigation farming by using both traditional and modern irrigation technologies. Furthermore the government is promoting and encourages participation of private investments in large-scale agriculture. In 2005 the number of private investors in the sector increased to 169 from 145 in 2004, equivalent to an increase of 16.6 percent The natural resources sector comprises of forestry, beekeeping, wildlife and fisheries subsectors. In 2005, the forestry and hunting-sub-sectors grew by 45 percent compared to 3.8 percent in 2004. The increase in the rate of growth of forestry and hunting sub-sectors was attributed by increased sales of forestry and hunting products in domestic and foreign markets. According to the National Forest Programme (NFP 2001), Tanzania possess about 33.5million ha of natural forests with about 815 Forest Reserves with legal status. The importance of forests to mankind and environment cannot be overemphasized. Management and sustainable utilization of forests is one of the important aspects in order to realize the maximum benefits that can be accrued from these forests. It is in this understanding the government has continued to implement the National Forestry and Beekeeping programme and also continues to encourage community participation in forestry conservation and beekeeping. Other initiatives employed by the government include the National Tree Planting Campaign. In 2005, a total of 141,267,000 trees were planted in all regions compared to 133,271,038 trees in 2004. The increase was due to sensitization on tree planting and its importance on the environment. All these initiatives aim at reducing the rate of forests depletion. Coastal and marine ecosystems and resources have significant economic importance to the local communities and the nation at large. The contribution of the coastal resources particularly fisheries to the economic development has been increasing. In 2005, earning from fish and fish products exports (both marine and freshwater) was about US $ 142 million. Earnings from domestic fish market (both marine and freshwater), in the same year was about Tshs. 10 billion. Although there are economic opportunities, pressure on coastal resources is increasing and resource depletion is already occurring. Coastal communities depend on coastal resources as their source of food and income. This dependence has led to increased competition for the scarce resources and unsustainable utilization of the same. In order to ensure sustainability of coastal resources, so as to improve the people‟s livelihood and increase their contribution to the national economy, the following strategic actions need to be undertaken:- 146 (i) Support environmental planning and integrated management of coastal resources with stakeholder participation both at national and local level; (ii) Promote integrated, sustainable and environmentally friendly approaches to the development of major economic uses of the resources so as to optimize their benefits; (iii) Conserve critical habitats and areas of high biodiversity while ensuring that people continue to benefit from sustainable use of the resources; (iv) Establish an integrated planning and management mechanisms for coastal areas of high economic interest and substantial environmental vulnerability to natural hazards that will allow available scientific and technical information to inform integrated coastal management decisions; and (v) Build both human and institutional capacity for inter-disciplinary and inter-sectoral coastal environment management. The state and trend of fresh water resources has been explained. Water supports diverse ecological systems and there is increased demand for domestic and industrial use; hydropower generation and irrigation. In order to ensure sustainable use of the freshwater resources, there is a need to:(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Rehabilitate and better management water catchment areas and related ecosystems as a whole; Rehabilitate and modernize the basic network of hydrometric and climatologically stations; Formulate and implement programmes to rehabilitate degraded lands within catchments and ecosystems and address the resulting sediment discharges and sedimentation of reservoirs; Put in place well defined water quality and quantity monitoring programme; Sensitize and create awareness among relevant stakeholders at national, district and village levels on the importance and potential of rainwater harvest; and Support efforts and technologies at various levels for rain harvesting, storage and use. Since wetlands provide the essential life support system necessary for the economy, ecology and livelihoods of many communities in Tanzania, it is important to give them recognition as critical resources that need to be utilized sustainably. Poor communities around many wetlands entirely depend on wetlands resources for their survival during the periods of drought. With climate change that is triggering recurrent droughts and population increase, pressure on wetlands is likely to continue. This calls for development of long-term strategies for the management of wetlands that will include raising awareness and creating alternatives sources of income to communities whose livelihood depend on wetlands. Immediate action should be to implement the national strategy for protection of catchments areas and water sources launched in 2006. 147 Mining industry impacts the environment by destroying fauna and flora habitats and changing course of rivers due to siltation and flow modification. The industry also uses large quantities of water as well as cause land degradation and deforestation. One of the effective approaches to minimize environmental degradation caused by the mining industry is to enforce the environmental laws and regulations pertaining to mining activities and to use environmental management tools during all phases of mine development. Since in most cases small scale miners do not adhere to the environmental regulations the concerned authorities should carry out sensitization programmes to small scale miners pertaining to the importance of environmental conservation and use of cleaner and environmentally friendly technologies in mining operations. Ninety two percent (92%) of the energy used in the country is biomass based. Unfortunately, biomass resource is utilized unsustainably resulting into ecological problems notably, deforestation and land degradation. Hydropower development also creates environmental concerns by creating land inundation and desiccations as well as loss of biodiversity among other problems. Thermal power production generates noise and air pollution. To solve energy availability problems and environmental problems associated with energy development and utilisation, the country is striving to diversify energy sources by exploiting alternative new and renewable energy sources. The main features that characterize urbanization in the country include rapid population increase due to natural increase and migration and sprawling urban centres beyond the limits and capacity of local authorities to provide basic infrastructure and social amenities. Of particular concern is the limited capacity of urban authorities, agencies and community groups in addressing issues of land use management and environmental conservation, within the formal and informal urban settlements. Consequently, cities in Tanzania depict features of rapid increase in unemployment and urban poverty, growth and expansion of informal settlements, deterioration of existing infrastructure and social services, proliferation of the informal sector and growth of non-urban activity sectors especially urban farming. These shortcomings are aggravated by inadequate governance. The urban poor are marginalised into hazardous lands (valley bottoms, flood plains, polluted areas, etc.). Urbanization should be controlled by improvement of the governance of urban settlements and adopting the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) process and other measures, which will facilitate creation of employment opportunities and eradication of poverty. The state of water pollution in Tanzania is characterized by the deterioration of quality of ground and surface water sources especially lakes and rivers flowing through major urban centres and pollution of both surface and ground water resources due to excessive and irrational use of agrochemicals in catchment areas. Air and noise pollution are largely caused by transport activities especially road traffic due to old age of most vehicles. Poor environmental sanitation as indicated by high child mortality rate (15%) is responsible for frequent eruptions of water and excreta related diseases such as typhoid, cholera and malaria some of which have become endemic in some urban centres. Lack of waste treatment and emission control facilities coupled with low capacity of pollution control authorities to enforce existing environmental laws and regulation are the main causes of 148 environmental pollution. 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Type of pesticide Chlorpyrifos (Brodan) Endosulfan (Benzoeipin) Profenofos (Curacron) p,p‟-DDT (Agritan, Azotox, etc) Atrazine (Aatrex) Fanthion (Baycid) Uses Insecticide on fruits, forestry, vegetables Insecticide for vegetable crops Insecticide, acaricide Insecticide, but now prohibited in most countries Herbicide for control of annual grasses in maize, fruit crops, etc Insecticide, acaricide Reactions and fate in the Environment Is transformed in soil and water; is subject to photolysis; degenerates into various products Is transformed in soil and water; is subject to photolysis; degenerates into various products Sorbes into soil; reacts when in UV light, emits toxic fumes of SO2, etc, when heated Metabolites in soil are p,p‟-DDD, p,p‟-DDE; biodegrades slowly under special conditions; affected by photolysis, Degrades into Deethylatrazine in alluvial aquifers; hydrolysed to hydroxyatrazine in soil; Desethyl-, desisopropylatrazine form in water In plants oxidises to sulfone and mesulfenfos; affected by photolysis; gives off toxic sulphur and phosphorus fumes on heating Carbofuran (Bay 70143) Systemic Hydrolysed to carbofuran phenol at pH 7.0; in insecticide, plants rapidly metabolised to non-toxic nematocide, products acaricide; applied in soil Proposur Insecticide applied Decomposes at elevated temperatures forming (Aprocarb) on fruits and methyl isocyanate and NOx vegetables Names of pesticide in brackets are synonyms Source: adapted from Mbuligwe (2005) 157 APPENDIX 2: Obsolete Pesticides and Veterinary Wastes Stored In Tanzania Mainland Regions Obsolete Pesticides Region (litres) (kg) Arusha 35654.42 17808.83 Coast 782.50 11313.60 Dar es Salaam 940001.00 127050.00 Dodoma 115.00 402.50 Iringa 22337.00 3735.50 Kagera 12870.00 15307.62 Kigoma 1819.00 974.07 Kilimanjaro 2121.60 54530.25 Lindi 90.00 1814.00 Mara 14323.00 17562.00 Mbeya 16393.50 5270.00 Morogoro 8718.00 21468.00 Mtwara 9470.00 2009.00 Mwanza 3999.90 3266.65 Rukwa 900.00 0.00 Ruvuma 346.00 28.60 Shinyanga 23540.00 935.50 Singida 1009.00 374.00 Tabora 1534.00 16628.00 Tanga 29823.80 55421.00 Source: Mbuligwe (2005) Veterinary Wastes (litres) (kg) 1327.15 3005.30 334.00 69.10 0.00 123014.00 122.50 22.00 20.00 0.00 357.25 128.75 1047.00 5025.00 1256.00 1285.00 1084.60 194.6 1520.00 0.00 0.00 142.00 55.00 165.00 116.10 825.90 1294.00 461.20 10.00 0.00 294.70 76.62 929.00 400.00 2421.00 264.00 283.00 4100.00 1226.55 319.60 158 159
