Download Dr.Kaan Yücel http://yeditepeanatomy1.org Introduction to anatomy

INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY
&
TERMINOLOGY IN ANATOMY
18. 09.2012
Kaan Yücel
M.D., Ph.D.
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
Introduction to anatomy
Definition of anatomy
etymology: “cutting through” in Ancient Greek and Latin. Anatomy deals with parts of the human body and
investigates the body by the naked eye.
Types of anatomy
1. Regional (topographical) anatomy 2. Systematic anatomy 3. Clinical (applied) anatomy
In systematic anatomy, various structures may be separately considered. On the other hand, in topographical or
regional anatomy, the organs and tissues may be studied in relation to one another. Surface anatomy is an essential
part of the study of regional anatomy. Clinical (applied) anatomy emphasizes aspects of bodily structure and
function important in the practice of medicine, dentistry, and the allied health sciences. It incorporates the regional
and systemic approaches to studying anatomy and stresses clinical application.
The importance of learning anatomy as a futue medical doctor:
-To understandbodily function and how both structure and function are modified by disease.
-To interpret the images that are produced by the sophisticated imaging techniques, such as CT, MRI, DTI.
-To understand the pathway for targeting therapy to a specific site
-To examine the patient properly
-To communicate with the colleagues properlyThe ways of learning anatomy
Cadaver
Dissection
Prosection
Other materials of learning human anatomy: anatomy models, anatomy atlases, videos, textbooks, charts, medical
dictionaries, etc.
The field of Human Anatomy has a prestigious history, and is considered to be the most prominent of the biological
sciences of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The final major anatomist of ancient times was Galen (of Bergama),
active in the 2nd century. His collection of drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became the anatomy textbook
for 1500 years. Andreas Vesalius is the first modern anatomist who wrote the first anatomy textbook of the modern
times; De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body.
Anatomical position
All anatomical descriptions are expressed in relation to one consistent position, ensuring that descriptions are not
ambiguous.
head, gaze (eyes), and toes directed anteriorly (forward), arms adjacent to the sides with the palms facing anteriorly,
and lower limbs close together with the feet parallel
Variations: Occasionally a particular structure demonstrates so much variation within the normal range that the
most common pattern is found less than half the time!
Terminology in anatomy
Anatomical planes
median, sagittal, frontal-coronal, and transverse-axial) that intersect the body in the anatomical position.
The sagittal plane, like an arrow, divides the body into right and left, coronal anterior to posterior, and axial superior
to inferior parts.
With reference to the anatomical planes
Superior inferior anterior posterior medial lateral
Relating primarily to the body's surface
Superficial, intermediate, and deep (Lat. profundus, profunda) external internal proximal distal
Terms of laterality
Unilateral and bilateral, ipsilateral and contralateral
Terms of movemement
Flexion extension abduction adduction circumduction (medial and lateral) rotation
Pronation, supination, eversion, inversion, opposition, reposition, elevation, depression
Positions of the body
The supine position of the body is lying on the back. The prone position is lying face downward
http://www.youtube.com/yeditepeanatomy
2
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
1. INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY
1. 1. DEFINITION OF ANATOMY
The following two years, you will have your anatomy class. I think starting these two years with a definition
of anatomy would be wise. Besides, I love etymology (the science dealing with the origins of the words). In the
exams, however, you will not be responsible on my etymology interest. But you should know the origin of the
word anatomy. If you are like me; enjoy etymology; here is a neat online source: www.etymonline.com.
The word “anatomy” is derived from “anatomia, anatome” which has a Latin and Ancient Greek origin. The
prefix “ana-“means “up", where “temnein, tome” means "to cut." As a result, anatomy means “cutting up,
cutting through”. The name of the technique became the name of the discipline throughout the history.
The term human anatomy comprises a consideration of the various structures which make up the human
organism. In a restricted sense it deals merely with the parts which form the fully developed individual and which
can be rendered evident to the naked eye by various methods of dissection. As you see, the difference between
two major parts of morphology (morph- Ancient Greek, shape, figure) histology and anatomy is the way you
investigate the human body. In histology (the world of tissues and cells), the human body is investigated under a
microscope, but in anatomy by the naked eye.
1.2. TYPES OF ANATOMY
The three main approaches to studying anatomy are regional, systemic, and clinical (or applied),
reflecting the body's organization and the priorities and purposes for studying it. Be careful! In medicine, you
should also know the synoynms of the words: in this example clinical anatomy and applied anatomy are the
same (The same story for regional anatomy and topographical anatomy).
In systematic anatomy, various structures may be separately considered. On the other hand, in
topographical or regional anatomy, the organs and tissues may be studied in relation to one another.
1.2.1. Regional Anatomy
Regional anatomy (topographical anatomy) considers the organization of the human body as major parts
or segments: a main body, consisting of the head, neck, and trunk (subdivided into thorax, abdomen, back, and
pelvis/perineum), and paired upper limbs and lower limbs. All the major parts may be further subdivided into
areas and regions.
Regional anatomy is the method of studying the body's structure by focusing attention on a specific part
(e.g., the head), area (the face), or region (the orbital or eye region); examining the arrangement and
relationships of the various systemic structures (muscles, nerves, arteries, etc.) within it; and then usually
continuing to study adjacent regions in an ordered sequence.
http://twitter.com/yeditepeanatomy
3
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
Surface anatomy is an essential part of the study of regional anatomy. Surface anatomy provides
knowledge of what lies under the skin and what structures are perceptible to touch (palpable) in the living body
at rest and in action. The aim of this method is to visualize (recall distinct mental images of) structures that
confer contour to the surface or are palpable beneath it and, in clinical practice, to distinguish any unusual or
abnormal findings. In short, surface anatomy requires a thorough understanding of the anatomy of the
structures beneath the surface.
1.2.2. Systematic Anatomy
Systematic Anatomy.—The various systems of which the human body is composed are grouped under the
following headings:
Osteology—the bony system or skeleton.
Syndesmology—the articulations or joints.
Myology—the muscles. With the description of the muscles it is convenient to include that of the fasciæ which
are so intimately connected with them.
Angiology—the vascular system, comprising the heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and lymph glands.
Neurology—the nervous system. The organs of sense may be included in this system.
Splanchnology—the visceral system.
Topographically the viscera form two groups, viz., the thoracic viscera and the abdomino-pelvic viscera. The
heart, a thoracic viscus, is best considered with the vascular system. The rest of the viscera may be grouped
according to their functions: (a) the respiratory apparatus; (b) the digestive apparatus; and (c) the urogenital
apparatus.
1.2.3. Clinical Anatomy
Clinical (applied) anatomy emphasizes aspects of bodily structure and function important in the practice of
medicine, dentistry, and the allied health sciences. It incorporates the regional and systemic approaches to
studying anatomy and stresses clinical application.
Clinical anatomy often involves inverting or reversing the thought process typically followed when studying
regional or systemic anatomy. For example, instead of thinking, “The action of this muscle is to … ,” clinical
anatomy asks, “How would the absence of this muscle's activity be manifest?” Instead of noting, “The … nerve
provides innervation to this area of skin,” clinical anatomy asks, “Numbness in this area indicates a lesion of
which nerve?”
Clinical anatomy is exciting to learn because of its role in solving clinical problems.
1.3. THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING ANATOMY AS A FUTURE MEDICAL DOCTOR

To understandbodily function and how both structure and function are modified by disease.

To interpret the images that are produced by the sophisticated imaging techniques, such as CT, MRI, DTI.
http://www.youtube.com/yeditepeanatomy
4
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy

To understand the pathway for targeting therapy to a specific site

To examine the patient properly

To communicate with the colleagues properly
1.4. WAYS OF LEARNING ANATOMY
Cadaver: (Merriam Webster dictionary) from Latin, from cadere 'to fall'.A dead body; especially : one intended
for dissection.
Dissection: (Oxford dictionary) from Latin dissectus, past participle of dissecare to cut apart, from dis- + secare
to cut. The action of dissecting a body or plant to study its internal parts.
Prosection: (Wikipedia) A prosection is the dissection of a cadaver (human or animal) or part of a cadaver by an
experienced anatomist in order to demonstrate for students anatomic structure. In a dissection, students learn by
doing; in a prosection, students learn by either observing a dissection being performed by an experienced
anatomist or examining a specimen that has already been dissected by an experienced anatomist (etymology: Latin
pro- "before" + sectio "a cutting
Other materials of learning human anatomy:
 Anatomy models
 Anatomy atlases (Pictures, drawings)
 Videos
 Textbooks
 Charts & diagrams
 Medical dictionaries, etc.
1.6. HISTORY OF ANATOMY IN THE WORLD
The development of anatomy as a science extends from the earliest examinations of sacrificial victims to
the sophisticated analyses of the body performed by modern scientists. It has been characterized, over time, by a
continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. The field of Human
Anatomy has a prestigious history, and is considered to be the most prominent of the biological sciences of the
19th and early 20th centuries. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from examination of animals
through dissection of cadavers to technologically complex techniques developed in the 20th century.
1.6.1. Ancient anatomy
Egypt
The study of anatomy begins at least as early as 1600 BCE, the date of the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus.
This treatise shows that the heart, its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus and bladder were
recognized, and that the blood vessels were known to emanate from the heart.
Greece
http://twitter.com/yeditepeanatomy
5
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
The earliest medical scientist of whose works any great part survives today is Hippocrates, a Greek
physician active in the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE (460 - 377 BCE). His work demonstrates a basic
understanding of musculoskeletal structure, and the beginnings of understanding of the function of certain
organs, such as the kidneys. Much of his work, however, and much of that of his students and followers later,
relies on speculation rather than empirical observation of the body.
In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle and several contemporaries produced a more empirically founded
system, based animal dissection. The first use of human cadavers for anatomical research occurred later in the
4th century BCE when Herophilos and Erasistratus gained permission to perform live dissections, or vivisection,
on criminals in Alexandria under the auspices of the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Galen
The final major anatomist of ancient times was Galen (of Berga, active in the 2nd century. He compiled
much of the knowledge obtained by previous writers, and furthered the inquiry into the function of organs by
performing vivisection on animals. Due to a lack of readily available human specimens, discoveries through
animal dissection were broadly applied to human anatomy as well. His collection of drawings, based mostly on
dog anatomy, became the anatomy textbook for 1500 years.
1.6.2. Early modern anatomy
The works of Galen and Avicenna (Ibn-I Sina), especially The Canon of Medicine which incorporated the
teachings of both, were translated into Latin, and the Canon remained the most authoritative text on anatomy in
European medical education until the 16th century. The first major development in anatomy in Christian Europe,
since the fall of Rome, occurred at Bologna in the 14th to 16th centuries, where a series of authors dissected
cadavers and contributed to the accurate description of organs and the identification of their functions. A
succession of researchers proceeded to refine the body of anatomical knowledge, giving their names to a
number of anatomical structures along the way. Andreas Vesalius is the first modern anatomist who wrote the
first anatomy textbook of the modern times; De humani corporis fabrica (On the Fabric of the Human Body).
1.6.3. 17th and 18th centuries
The study of anatomy flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries. The advent of the printing press
facilitated the exchange of ideas. Because the study of anatomy concerned observation and drawings, the
popularity of the anatomist was equal to the quality of his drawing talents, and one need not be an expert in
Latin to take part. Many famous artists studied anatomy, attended dissections, and published drawings for
money, from Michelangelo to Rembrandt. For the first time, prominent universities could teach something about
anatomy through drawings, rather than relying on knowledge of Latin.
1.6.4. 19th century anatomy
http://www.youtube.com/yeditepeanatomy
6
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
During the 19th century, anatomists anatomists largely finalized and systematized the descriptive human
anatomy of the previous century. The discipline also progressed to establish growing sources of knowledge in
histology and developmental biology, not only of humans but also of animals. Extensive research was conducted
in more areas of anatomy.
1.7. HISTORY OF ANATOMY EDUCATION IN TURKEY
Anatomy education commenced as a distinct course at “Tıbhane-i Cerrahhane-i Amire”, the first medical school
founded by Sultan Mahmut II in March 14th, 1827. It is possible to explain anatomy education in three periods:
1. Pre-dissection period (1827-1841):
In this period, anatomy education was given theoretically. Anatomy contitutions except bones were being
displayed on charts and models which were brought from Europe.
2. Unmedicated cadaver period (1841-1908):
Anatomy experts were appointed from abroad in this period. First one was Dr. Charles Ambroise Bernard from
Vienna (1808-1844). After Sultan Abdülmecid has signed the imperical decree allowing dissections with the
purpose of education; practical applications on cadavers began initially. Corpses of slaves and captives were used
as cadavers for dissection. These corpses had no relations and dissections were made until they began to decay.
For this reason, large scale of anatomy education was still given theoretically.
3. Medicated cadaver period (1908-present):
In anatomy education by using the method of giving chemical substance through vein, cadavers began to
be used initally without decaying in this period. As a result, scale of practice in anatomy education increased
considerably.
In this period anatomy education gained new dimensions.Some students were sent to the European
countries. These students had the opportunity of studying with the famous anatomists of the time. They not only
returned to their homeland with the anatomy knowledge but with investigation and education methods as well.
Mazhar Pasha, Prof. Dr. Nurettin Ali Berkol, and Prof. Dr. Zeki Zeren can be considered as the founders of modern
anatomy in Turkey. After 1945, the anatomy education demonstrated a rapid development considerably. Today,
tens of anatomy departments continue their activities.
Ulucam E, Gokce N, Mesut R. Turkish Anatomy Education From the Foundation of The First Modern School to
Today. Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine (ISHIM), 2003,2
The full article @ http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/4/09.pdf
1.8. ANATOMICAL POSITION
All anatomical descriptions are expressed in relation to one consistent position, ensuring that descriptions are
not ambiguous. One must visualize this position in the mind when describing patients (or cadavers), whether
http://twitter.com/yeditepeanatomy
7
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
they are lying on their sides, supine (recumbent, lying on the back, face upward), or prone (lying on the
abdomen, face downward).
Figure 1. Anatomical position
http://www.tpub.com/content/armymedical/MD0956/MD09560009.htm
The anatomical position refers to the body position as if the
person were standing upright with the:
 head, gaze (eyes), and toes directed anteriorly
(forward),
 arms adjacent to the sides with the palms facing
anteriorly, and
 lower limbs close together with the feet parallel.
1.9. ANATOMICAL VARIATIONS
Anatomy books describe (initially, at least) the structure of the body as it is usually observed in people—
that is, the most common pattern. However, occasionally a particular structure demonstrates so much variation
within the normal range that the most common pattern is found less than half the time!
In a random group of people, individuals differ from each other in physical appearance. The bones of the
skeleton vary not only in their basic shape but also in lesser details of surface structure. A wide variation is found
in the size, shape, and form of the attachments of muscles. Similarly, considerable variation exists in the patterns
of branching of veins, arteries, and nerves. Veins vary the most and nerves the least. Individual variation must be
considered in physical examination, diagnosis, and treatment.
2. TERMINOLOGY IN ANATOMY
It is important for medical personnel to have a sound knowledge and understanding of the basic anatomic
terms. With the aid of a medical dictionary, you will find that understanding anatomic terminology greatly assists
you in the learning process.
The accurate use of anatomic terms by medical personnel enables them to communicate with their
colleagues both nationally and internationally. Without anatomic terms, one cannot accurately discuss or record
http://www.youtube.com/yeditepeanatomy
8
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
the abnormal functions of joints, the actions of muscles, the alteration of position of organs, or the exact location
of swellings or tumors.
Anatomical terms are descriptive terms standardized in an international reference guide, Terminologia
Anatomica (TA). These terms, in English or Latin, are used worldwide. Colloquial terminology is used by—and to
communicate with—lay people. Eponyms are often used in clinical settings but are not recommended because
they do not provide anatomical context and are not standardized.
Many anatomical terms have both Latin and Greek equivalents, although some of these are used in
English only as roots. Thus the tongue is lingua (L.) and glossa (Gk), and these are the basis of such terms as
lingual artery and glossopharyngeal nerve.
Various adjectives, arranged as pairs of opposites, describe the relationship of parts of the body or
compare the position of two structures relative to each other. Anatomical directional terms are based on the
body in the anatomical position. Four anatomical planes divide the body, and sections divide the planes into
visually useful and descriptive parts.
2.1. TERMS RELATED TO POSITION
All descriptions of the human body are based on the assumption that the person is standing erect, with the
upper limbs by the sides and the face and palms of the hands directed forward. This is the so-called anatomic
position. The various parts of the body are then described in relation to certain imaginary planes.
2.1.1. Anatomical Planes
Anatomical descriptions are based on four imaginary planes (median, sagittal, frontal-coronal, and
transverse-axial) that intersect the body in the anatomical position:
The median plane, the vertical plane passing longitudinally through the body, divides the body into right and left
halves. The plane defines the midline of the head, neck, and trunk where it intersects the surface of the body.
Midline is often erroneously used as a synonym for the median plane.
Sagittal planes are vertical planes passing through the body parallel to the median plane. Parasagittal is
commonly used but is unnecessary because any plane parallel to and on either side of the median plane is
sagittal by definition. However, a plane parallel and near to the median plane may be referred to as a
paramedian plane.
Frontal (coronal) planes are vertical planes passing through the body at right angles to the median plane,
dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
Transverse planes are horizontal planes passing through the body at right angles to the median and frontal
planes, dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. Radiologists refer to transverse planes
as transaxial, which is commonly shortened to axial planes.
http://twitter.com/yeditepeanatomy
9
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
Since the number of sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes is unlimited, a reference point (usually a
visible or palpable landmark or vertebral level) is necessary to identify the location or level of the plane, such as a
“transverse plane through the umbilicus”.
Anatomists create sections of the body and its parts anatomically, and clinicians create them by planar imaging
technologies, such as computerized tomography (CT), to describe and display internal structures.
Figure 2. Anatomical planes
http://biology.about.com/od/anatomy/a/aa072007a.htm
2.1.2. Anatomical terms specific for comparisons made in the anatomical position,
or with reference to the anatomical planes:
 Superior refers to a structure that is nearer the vertex, the topmost point of the cranium (Mediev. L., skull).
 Cranial relates to the cranium and is a useful directional term, meaning toward the head or cranium.
 Inferior refers to a structure that is situated nearer the sole of the foot.
 Caudal (L. cauda, tail) is a useful directional term that means toward the feet or tail region, represented in
humans by the coccyx (tail bone), the small bone at the inferior (caudal) end of the vertebral column.
 Posterior (dorsal) denotes the back surface of the body or nearer to the back.
Anterior (ventral) denotes the front surface of the body.
 Rostral is often used instead of anterior when describing parts of the brain; it means toward the rostrum (L.
for beak); however, in humans it denotes nearer the anterior part of the head (e.g., the frontal lobe of the brain
is rostral to the cerebellum). To describe the relationship of two structures, one is said to be anterior or posterior
to the other insofar as it is closer to the anterior or posterior body surface.
Figure 3. Rostal and caudal
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location
http://www.youtube.com/yeditepeanatomy
10
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
 Medial is used to indicate that a structure is nearer to the median plane of the body. For example, the 5th
digit of the hand (little finger) is medial to the other digits.
 Conversely, lateral stipulates that a structure is farther away from the median plane. The 1st digit of the
hand (thumb) is lateral to the other digits.
 Dorsum usually refers to the superior aspect of any part that protrudes anteriorly from the body, such as the
dorsum of the tongue, nose, penis, or foot.
Combined terms describe intermediate positional arrangements: inferomedial means nearer to the feet and
median plane—for example, the anterior parts of the ribs run inferomedially; superolateral means nearer to the
head and farther from the median plane.
2.1.3. Terms, independent of the anatomical position or the anatomical planes,
relating primarily to the body's surface or its central core:
 Superficial, intermediate, and deep (Lat. Profundus, profunda) describe the position of structures relative
to the surface of the body or the relationship of one structure to another underlying or overlying structure.
 External means outside of or farther from the center of an organ or cavity, while internal means inside or
closer to the center, independent of direction.
 Proximal and distal are used when contrasting positions nearer to or farther from the attachment of a limb
or the central aspect of a linear structure (origin in general), respectively. For example, the arm is proximal to the
forearm and the hand is distal to the forearm.
http://twitter.com/yeditepeanatomy
11
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
Figure 4. Terms related to position
http://www.imaios.com/Media/Images/e-anatomy/Anatomical-terms-of-location-position-motion/Standard-anatomical-position-Anatomical-terms-of-location-en
2.2. TERMS OF LATERALITY
Paired structures having right and left members (e.g., the kidneys) are bilateral, whereas those occurring
on one side only (e.g., the spleen) are unilateral. Something occurring on the same side of the body as another
structure is ipsilateral; the right thumb and right great (big) toe are ipsilateral, for example. Contralateral means
occurring on the opposite side of the body relative to another structure; the right hand is contralateral to the left
hand.
2.3. TERMS OF MOVEMENT
Various terms describe movements of the limbs and other parts of the body. Most movements are
defined in relationship to the anatomical position, with movements occurring within, and around axes aligned
with, specific anatomical planes. While most movements occur at joints where two or more bones or cartilages
articulate with one another, several non-skeletal structures exhibit movement (e.g., tongue, lips, eyelids). Terms
of movement may also be considered in pairs of oppositing movements:
Flexion and extension movements generally occur in sagittal planes around a transverse axis.

Flexion indicates bending or decreasing the angle between the bones or parts of the body. For most joints
(e.g., elbow), flexion involves movement in an anterior direction, but it is occasionally posterior, as in the case of
the knee joint. Lateral flexion is a movement of the trunk in the coronal plane.

Extension indicates straightening or increasing the angle between the bones or parts of the body. Extension
usually occurs in a posterior direction. The knee joint, rotated 180° to other joints, is exceptional in that flexion of
the knee involves posterior movement and extension involves anterior movement.
http://www.youtube.com/yeditepeanatomy
12
Dr.Kaan Yücel
http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
Figure 5. Flexion and extension
http://learn-anatomy.blogspot.com/2009/06/terms-of-movement.html

Dorsiflexion describes flexion at the ankle joint, as occurs when walking uphill or lifting the front of the foot
and toes off the ground.

Plantarflexion bends the foot and toes toward the ground, as when standing on your toes. Extension of a
limb or part beyond the normal limit—hyperextension (overextension)—can cause injury, such as “whiplash”
(i.e., hyperextension of the neck during a rear-end automobile collision).

Abduction and adduction movements generally occur in a frontal plane around an anteroposterior axis.
Except for the digits, abduction means moving away from the median plane (e.g., when moving an upper limb
laterally away from the side of the body) and adduction means moving toward it.
In abduction of the digits (fingers or toes), the term means spreading them apart—moving the other fingers
away from the neutrally positioned 3rd (middle) finger or moving the other toes away from the neutrally
positioned 2nd toe. The 3rd finger and 2nd toe medially or laterally abduct away from the neutral position.
Adduction of the digits is the opposite—bringing the spread fingers or toes together, toward the neutrally
positioned 3rd finger or 2nd toe.
Figure 6. Abduction and adduction
http://www.imaios.com/Media/Images/e-anatomy/Anatomical-terms-of-location-position-motion/abduction-adduction
http://twitter.com/yeditepeanatomy
13
Dr.Kaan Yücel

http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
Circumduction is a circular movement that involves sequential flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction
(or in the opposite order) in such a way that the distal end of the part moves in a circle. Circumduction can occur
at any joint at which all the above-mentioned movements are possible (e.g., the shoulder and hip joints).
Figure 7. Circumduction
http://www.imaios.com/Media/Images/e-anatomy/Anatomical-terms-of-location-position-motion/circumduction-illustration-diagram-movements-anatomy

Rotation involves turning or revolving a part of the body around its longitudinal axis, such as turning one's
head to face sideways.

Medial rotation (internal rotation) brings the anterior surface of a limb closer to the median plane, whereas
lateral rotation (external rotation) takes the anterior surface away from the median plane.

Pronation rotates the forearm medially so that the palm of the hand faces posteriorly and its dorsum faces
anteriorly. When the elbow joint is flexed, pronation moves the hand so that the palm faces inferiorly (e.g.,
placing the palms flat on a table).

Supination is the opposite rotational movement, rotating the forearm laterally, returning the pronated
forearm to the anatomical position. When the elbow joint is flexed, supination moves the hand so that the palm
faces superiorly.
Figure 8. Supination and pronation
http://www.imaios.com/Media/Images/e-anatomy/Anatomical-terms-of-location-position-motion/supination-pronation

Eversion moves the sole of the foot away from the median plane, turning the sole laterally. When the foot is
fully everted it is also dorsiflexed.
http://www.youtube.com/yeditepeanatomy
14
Dr.Kaan Yücel

http://yeditepeanatomy1.org
Introduction to anatomy & Terminology in anatomy
Inversion moves the sole of the foot toward the median plane (facing the sole medially). When the foot is
fully inverted it is also plantarflexed.
Figure 9. Inversion and eversion
http://www.imaios.com/Media/Images/e-anatomy/Anatomical-terms-of-location-position-motion/inversion-eversion

Opposition is the movement by which the pad of the 1st digit (thumb) is brought to another digit pad. This
movement is used to pinch, button a shirt, and lift a teacup by the handle.

Reposition describes the movement of the 1st digit from the position of opposition back to its anatomical
position.
Figure 10. Opposition and reposition
http://teleanatomy.com/introductiontoanatomy-TermsRelatedtoMovements.html

Protrusion is a movement anteriorly (forward) as in protruding the mandible (chin), lips, or tongue.

Retrusion is a movement posteriorly (backward), as in retruding the mandible, lips, or tongue.

The similar terms protraction and retraction are used most commonly for anterolateral and posteromedial
movements of the scapula on the thoracic wall, causing the shoulder region to move anteriorly and posteriorly.

Elevation raises or moves a part superiorly, as in elevating the shoulders when shrugging, the upper eyelid
when opening the eye, or the tongue when pushing it up against the palate (roof of mouth).

Depression lowers or moves a part inferiorly, as in depressing the shoulders when standing at ease, the
upper eyelid when closing the eye, or pulling the tongue away from the palate.
2.4. POSITIONS OF THE BODY
The supine position of the body is lying on the back. The prone position is lying face downward.
http://twitter.com/yeditepeanatomy
15