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Sumerian Civilization
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Sumer (or Šumer) was one of the early civilizations of the Ancient Near East, located in
the southern part of Mesopotamia (southeastern Iraq) from the time of the earliest
records in the mid-fourth millennium B.C.E. until the rise of Babylonia in the late third
millennium B.C.E. The term "Sumerian" applies to all speakers of the Sumerian language.
Sumer together with Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilization is considered the first
settled society in the world to have manifested all the features needed to qualify fully as a
"civilization." The development of the City State as an organized social and political
settlement enabled art and commerce, writing and architectures, including the building of
Temples (ziggurats) to flourish. The history of Sumeria dates back to the beginning of
writing and also of law, which the Sumerian are credited with inventing. and was essential
for maintaining order within the City-States. City-States for centuries used variations of
Sumerian Law, which established set penalties for particular offenses. This represents
recognition that societies can not function without respect for life and property and
shared values. More and more people became aware of belonging to the same world as a
result of Sumeria's contribution to the human story. Treaties from Sumeria indicate a
preference for trade and commerce.
Ethnonym
The term "Sumerian" is an exonym first applied by the Akkadians. The Sumerians called
themselves "the black-headed people" (sag-gi-ga) and their land "land of the civilized
lords" (ki-en-gir). The Akkadian word Shumer may represent this name in dialect, but we
actually do not know why the Akkadians called the southern land Shumeru. Biblical Shinar,
Egyptian Sngr and Hittite Šanhar(a) could be western variants of Šumer.
Background
The Sumerians were a non-Semitic people and were at one time believed to have been
invaders, as a number of linguists believed they could detect a substrate language
beneath Sumerian. However, the archaeological record shows clear uninterrupted cultural
continuity from the time of the Early Ubaid period (5200-4500 B.C.E. C-14, 6090-5429
B.C.E.
calBC) settlements in southern Mesopotamia. The Sumerian people who settled
here farmed the lands in this region that were made fertile by silt deposited by the Tigris
and the Euphrates rivers.
The challenge for any population attempting to dwell in Iraq's arid southern floodplain,
where rainfall is currently less than 5 inches a year, was to manage the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers to supply year-round water for farming and drinking. The Sumerian
language has many terms for canals, dikes, and reservoirs. Sumerian speakers were
farmers who moved down from the north after perfecting irrigation agriculture there. The
Ubaid pottery of southern Mesopotamia has been connected via Choga Mami Transitional
ware to the pottery of the Samarra period culture (c. 5700-4900 B.C.E. C-14, 6640-5816
B.C.E.
in the north, who were the first to practice a primitive form of irrigation agriculture
along the middle Tigris River and its tributaries. The connection is most clearly seen at
Tell Awayli (Oueilli, Oueili) near Larsa, excavated by the French in the 1980s, where 8
levels yielded pre-Ubaid pottery resembling Samarran ware. Farming peoples spread
down into southern Mesopotamia because they had developed a temple-centered social
organization for mobilizing labor and technology for water control, enabling them to
survive and prosper in a difficult environment.
City states
By the late fourth millennium B.C.E., Sumer was divided into about a dozen independent
city-states, whose limits were defined by canals and boundary stones. Each was centered
on a temple dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city and ruled over
by a priest (ensi) or king (lugal), who was intimately tied to the city's religious rites.
The principal Sumerian sites (from North to South) were the cities of:
Mari—34°27′N 40°55′E
Agade—33°06′N 44°06′E
Kish (Tell Uheimir & Ingharra)—32°33′N 44°39′E
Borsippa (Birs Nimrud)—{{#invoke:Coordinates|coord}}
{{#coordinates:32|23|30|N|44|20|30|E|
| |name= }}
Nippur (Nuffar)—32°10′N 45°11′E
Isin (Ishan al-Bahriyat)—31°56′N 45°17′E
Adab (Tell Bismaya)—31°57′N 45°58′E
Shuruppak (Fara)—31°46′N 45°30′E
Girsu (Tello)—31°37′N 46°09′E
Lagash (Al-Hiba)—31°26′N 46°32′E
Bad-Tibira (Al Medina)—31°46′N 46°00′E
Uruk (Warka)—31°18′N 45°40′E
Larsa (Tell as-Senkereh)—31°14′N 45°51′E
Ur (al Muqayyar)—{{#invoke:Coordinates|coord}}
{{#coordinates:30|57|45|N|46|06|11|E|region:IQ_scale:30000
| |name= }}
Eridu (Abu Shahrain)—{{#invoke:Coordinates|coord}}
{{#coordinates:30|48|57.02|N|45|59|45.85|E|
| |name= }} minor cities:
Sippar (Abu Habba)—33°03′N 44°18′E
Kutha (Tell Ibrahim)—32°44′N 44°40′E
Dilbat (Tell ed-Duleim)—32°09′N 44°30′E
Marad ((Wanna es-) Sadun)—32°04′N 44°47′E
Kisurra (Abu Hatab)—31°50′N 45°26′E
Zabala (Tell Ibzeikh)—31°44′N 45°52′E
Umma (Tell Jokha)—31°38′N 45°52′E
Kisiga (Tell el-Lahm)—30°50′N 46°20′E
Awan
Hamazi
Eshnunna
Akshak
Zimbir
Apart from Mari, which lies full 330 km northwest of Agade, but which is credited in the
king list to have "exercised kingship" in the Early Dynastic II period, these cities are all in
the Euphrates-Tigris alluvial plain, south of Baghdad in what are now the Bābil, Wāsit, Dhi
Qar, Al-Muthannā and Al-Qādisiyyah governorates of Iraq.
History
The Sumerian city states rise to power during the prehistorical Ubaid and Uruk periods.
The historical record gradually opens with the Early Dynastic period from ca. the 29th
century B.C.E., but remains scarce until the Lagash period begins in the 26th century.
Classical Sumer ends with the Akkadian Empire in the 24th century. Following the Gutian
period, there is a brief "Sumerian renaissance" in the 22nd century, cut short in ca. 2000
B.C.E. by Amorite invasions. The Amorite "dynasty of Isin" persists until ca. 1730 B.C.E.
when Mesopotamia is united under Babylonian rule.
Ubaid period 5300-3900 B.C.E.
Uruk IV period 3900-3200 B.C.E.
Uruk III period 3200-2900 B.C.E.
Early Dynastic I period 2900-2800 B.C.E.
Early Dynastic II period 2800-2600 B.C.E.
Early Dynastic IIIa period 2600-2500 B.C.E.
Early Dynastic IIIb period 2500-2334 B.C.E.
Lagash dynasty period 2550-2380 B.C.E.
Akkad dynasty period 2450-2250 B.C.E.
Gutian period 2250-2150 B.C.E.
Ur III period 2150-2000 B.C.E.
Ubaid period
A distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery spread throughout Mesopotamia and the
Persian Gulf region in the Ubaid period, when the ancient Sumerian religious center of
Eridu was gradually surpassed in size by the nearby city of Uruk. The archaeological
transition from the Ubaid period to the Uruk period is marked by a gradual shift from
painted pottery domestically produced on a slow wheel, to a great variety of unpainted
pottery mass-produced by specialists on fast wheels. The date of this transition, from
Ubaid 4 to Early Uruk, is in dispute, but calibrated radiocarbon dates from Tell Awayli
would place it as early as 4500 B.C.E.
Uruk period
By the time of the Uruk period (4500-3100 B.C.E. calibrated), the volume of trade goods
transported along the canals and rivers of southern Mesopotamia facilitated the rise of
many large temple-centered cities where centralized administrations employed
specialized workers. It is fairly certain that it was during the Uruk period that Sumerian
cities began to make use of slave labor (Subartu) captured from the hill country, and there
is ample evidence for captured slaves as workers in the earliest texts. Artifacts, and even
colonies of this Uruk civilization have been found over a wide area - from the Taurus
Mountains in Turkey, to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and as far east as Central Iran.
The Uruk period civilization, exported by Sumerian traders and colonists (like that found
at Tell Brak), had an effect on all surrounding peoples, who gradually evolved their own
comparable, competing economies and cultures. The cities of Sumer could not maintain
remote, long-distance colonies by military force.
The end of the Uruk period coincided with the Priora oscillation, a dry period from c.
3200-2900 B.C.E. that marked the end of a long wetter, warmer climate period from about
9,000 to 5,000 years ago, called the Holocene climatic optimum. When the historical
record opens, the Sumerians appear to be limited to southern Mesopotamia—although
very early rulers such as Lugal-Anne-Mundu are indeed recorded as expanding to
neighboring areas as far as the Mediterranean, Taurus and Zagros, and not long after
legendary figures like Enmerkar and Gilgamesh, who are associated in mythology with the
historical transfer of culture from Eridu to Uruk, were supposed to have reigned.
Early Dynastic
The ancient Sumerian king list recounts the early dynasties. Like many other archaic lists
of rulers, it may include legendary names. The first king on the list whose name is known
from any other source is Etana, 13th king of the first Dynasty of Kish. The first king
authenticated through archaeological evidence is that of Enmebaragesi of Kish, the 22nd
and penultimate king of that Dynasty, whose name is also mentioned in the Gilgamesh
epic, and who may have been king at the time hegemony passed from Kish to Uruk once
again. This has led to the suggestion that Gilgamesh himself really was a historical king of
Uruk.
Lugal-Zage-Si, the priest-king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty,
took Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to
the Mediterranean. He is the last ethnically Sumerian king before the arrival of the Semitic
named king, Sargon of Akkad.
Lagash dynasty
The dynasty of Lagash is well known through important monuments, and one of the first
empires in recorded history was that of Eannatum of Lagash, who annexed practically all
of Sumer, including Kish, Uruk, Ur, and Larsa, and reduced to tribute the city-state of
Umma, arch-rival of Lagash. In addition, his realm extended to parts of Elam and along
the Persian Gulf. He seems to have used terror as a matter of policy - his stele of the
vultures has been found, showing violent treatment of enemies.
Akkadian dynasty
The Semitic Akkadian language is first attested in proper names around 2800 B.C.E. From
about 2500 B.C.E. one finds texts written entirely in Old Akkadian. The Old Akkadian
language period was at its height during the rule of Sargon the Great (2350 - 2330), but
most administrative tablets even during that period are still written in Sumerian, as that
was the language used by the scribes. Gelb and Westenholz differentiate between three
dialects of Old Akkadian - from the pre-Sargonic period, the period of rule by king Sargon
and the city of Agade, and the Ur III period. Speakers of Akkadian and Sumerian coexisted
for about one thousand years, from 2800 to 1800, at the end of which Sumerian ceased
to be spoken. Thorkild Jacobsen has argued that there is little break in historical
continuity between the pre- and post-Sargon periods, and that too much emphasis has
been placed on the perception of a "Semitic vs. Sumerian" conflict However, it is certain
that Akkadian was also briefly imposed on neighboring parts of Elam that were conquered
by Sargon.
Gutian period
Following the downfall of the Akkadian Empire at the hands of Gutians, another native
Sumerian ruler, Gudea of Lagash, rose to local prominence, promoting artistic
development and continuing the practices of the Sargonid kings' claims to divinity.
Sumerian renaissance
Later, the third dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu and Shulgi, whose power extended as far
as northern Mesopotamia, was the last great "Sumerian renaissance," but already the
region was becoming more Semitic than Sumerian, with the influx of waves of Martu
(Amorites) who were later to found the Babylonian Empire. Sumerian, however, remained a
sacerdotal language taught in schools, in the same way that Latin was used in the
Medieval period, for as long as cuneiform was utilized.
Ecologically, the agricultural productivity of the Sumerian lands was being compromised
as a result of rising salinity. The evaporation of irrigated waters left dissolved salts in the
soil, making it increasingly difficult to sustain agriculture. There was a major depopulation
of southern Mesopotamia, affecting many of the smaller sites, from about 2000 B.C.E.,
leading to the collapse of Sumerian culture.
Downfall
Following an Elamite invasion and sack of Ur during the rule of Ibbi-Sin (ca. 2004 B.C.E.),
Sumer came under Amorite rule (taken to introduce the Middle Bronze Age). The
independent Amorite states of the twentieth to eighteenth centuries are summarized as
the "Dynasty of Isin" in the Sumerian king list, ending with the rise of Babylonia under
Hammurabi in ca. 1730 B.C.E..
This period is generally taken to coincide with a major shift in population from southern
Iraq toward the north, as a result of the increase in soil salinity. Soil salinity in this region
had been long recognized as a major problem. Poorly drained irrigated soils, in an arid
climate with high levels of evaporation, led to the deposit of crystalline salt in the soil,
eventually reducing agricultural yields severely. During the Akkadian and Ur III phases,
there was a shift from the cultivation of wheat to the more salt-tolerant barley, but this
was insufficient, and during the period from 2100 B.C.E. to 1700 B.C.E., it is estimated that
the population in this area declined by nearly three fifths . This greatly weakened the
balance of power within the region, weakening the areas where Sumerian was spoken,
and comparatively strengthening those where Akkadian was the major language.
Henceforth Sumerian would remain only a literate, sacerdotal or sacred language, similar
to the position occupied by Latin in Middle Ages Europe.
Agriculture and hunting
The Sumerians adopted the agricultural mode of life which had been introduced into
Lower Mesopotamia and practiced the same irrigation techniques as those used in Egypt.
Adams says that irrigation development was associated with urbanization , and that 89
percent of the population lived in the cities
They grew barley, chickpeas, lentils, wheat, dates, onions, garlic, lettuce, leeks and
mustard. They also raised cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. They used oxen as their primary
beasts of burden and donkeys or equids as their primary transport animal. Sumerians
caught many fish and hunted fowl and gazelle.
Sumerian agriculture depended heavily on irrigation. The irrigation was accomplished by
the use of shadufs, canals, channels, dikes, weirs, and reservoirs. The frequent violent
floods of the Tigris, and less so, of the Euphrates, meant that canals required frequent
repair and continual removal of silt, and survey markers and boundary stones continually
replaced. The government required individuals to work on the canals in a corvee, although
the rich were able to exempt themselves.
After the flood season and after the Spring Equinox and the Akitu or New Year Festival,
using the canals, farmers would flood their fields and then drain the water. Next they let
oxen stomp the ground and kill weeds. They then dragged the fields with pickaxes. After
drying, they plowed, harrowed, raked the ground three times, and pulverized it with a
mattock, before planting seed. Unfortunately the high evaporation rate resulted in gradual
salinity of the fields. By the Ur III period, farmers had converted from wheat to the more
salt-tolerant barley as their principle crop.
Sumerians harvested during the dry fall season in three-person teams consisting of a
reaper, a binder, and a sheaf arranger. The farmers would use threshing wagons to
separate the cereal heads from the stalks and then use threshing sleds to disengage the
grain. They then winnowed the grain/chaff mixture.
Architecture
The Tigris-Euphrates plain lacked minerals and trees. Sumerian structures were made of
plano-convex mudbrick, not fixed with mortar or cement. Mud-brick buildings eventually
deteriorate, and so they were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same
spot. This constant rebuilding gradually raised the level of cities, so that they came to be
elevated above the surrounding plain. The resultant hills are known as tells, and are found
throughout the ancient Near East.
The most impressive and famous of Sumerian buildings are the ziggurats, large layered
platforms which supported temples. Some scholars have theorized that these structures
might have been the basis of the Tower of Babel described in the Book of Genesis.
Sumerian cylinder seals also depict houses built from reeds not unlike those built by the
seminomadic Marsh Arabs (Ma'dan) of Southern Iraq until as recently as C.E. 400. The
Sumerians also developed the arch. With this structure, they were able to develop a
strong type of roof called a dome. They built this by constructing several arches.
Sumerian temples and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques,
such as buttresses, recesses, half columns, and clay nails.
Culture
Sumerian culture may be traced to two main centers, Eridu in the south and Nippur in the
north. Eridu and Nippur may be regarded as contrasting poles of Sumerian religion.
The deity Enlil, around whose sanctuary Nippur had grown up, was considered lord of the
ghost-land, and his gifts to mankind were said to be the spells and incantations that the
spirits of good or evil were compelled to obey. The world he governed was a mountain (Ekur from E= house and Kur= Mountain); the creatures that he had made lived
underground.
Eridu, on the other hand, was the home of the culture god Enki (absorbed into Babylonian
mythology as the god Ea), the god of beneficence, ruler of the freshwater depths beneath
the earth (the Abzu from Ab= water and Zu= far), a healer and friend to humanity who was
thought to have given us the arts and sciences, the industries and manners of civilization;
the first law-book was considered his creation. Eridu had once been a seaport, and it was
doubtless its foreign trade and intercourse with other lands that influenced the
development of its culture. Its cosmology was the result of its geographical position: the
earth, it was believed, had grown out of the waters of the deep, like the ever widening
coast at the mouth of the Euphrates. Long before history is recorded, however, the
cultures of Eridu and Nippur had coalesced. While Babylon seems to have been a colony
of Eridu, Eridu's immediate neighbor, Ur, may have been a colony of Nippur, since its
moon god was said to be the son of Enlil of Nippur. However, in the admixture of the two
cultures, the influence of Eridu was predominant. The Code of Hammurabi was based on
Sumerian Law. The ancient Sumerian flood myth, similar to the Epic of Gilgamesh
suggests that the development of City-States was thought to be a way to ensure that
peace would prevail. Treaties from ancient Sumeria indicate a preference for solving
disputes through negotiation. For the Sumerians, commerce and trade was better than
conflict.
Though women were protected by late Sumerian law and were able to achieve a higher
status in Sumer than in other contemporary civilizations, the culture was male-dominated.
There is much evidence that the Sumerians loved music. It seemed to be an important
part of religious and civic life in Sumer. Lyres were popular in Sumer.
Economy and trade
Discoveries of obsidian from far-away locations in Anatolia and lapis lazuli from
northeastern Afghanistan, beads from Dilmun (modern Bahrain), and several seals
inscribed with the Indus Valley script suggest a remarkably wide-ranging network of
ancient trade centered around the Persian Gulf.
The Epic of Gilgamesh refers to trade with far lands for goods such as wood that were
scarce in Mesopotamia. In particular, cedar from Lebanon was prized.
The Sumerians used slaves, although they were not a major part of the economy. Slave
women worked as weavers, pressers, millers, and porters.
Sumerian potters decorated pots with cedar oil paints. The potters used a bow drill to
produce the fire needed for baking the pottery. Sumerian masons and jewelers knew and
made use of alabaster (calcite), ivory, gold, silver, carnelian and lapis lazuli.
Military
Early chariots on the Standard of Ur, ca. 2600 B.C.E.
The almost constant wars among the Sumerian city-states for 2000 years helped to
develop the military technology and techniques of Sumer to a high level. The first war
recorded was between Lagash and Umma in 2525 B.C.E. on a stele called the Stele of
Vultures. It shows the king of Lagash leading a Sumerian army consisting mostly of
infantry. The infantrymen carried spears, equipped with copper helmets and leather
shields. The spearmen are shown arranged in a phalanx formation, which required training
and discipline, and so implies they were professional soldiers.
The Sumerian military used carts harnessed to onagers. These early chariots functioned
less effectively in combat than did later designs, and some have suggested that these
chariots served primarily as transports, though the crew carried battle-axes and lances.
The Sumerian chariot comprised a four or two-wheeled device manned by a crew of two
and harnessed to four onagers. The cart was composed of a woven basket and the
wheels had a solid three-piece design.
Sumerian cities were surrounded by defensive walls. The Sumerians engaged in siege
warfare between their cities, but the mudbrick walls failed to deter some foes.
Religion
Like other cities of Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, Sumer was a polytheistic, or
henotheistic, society. There was no organized set of gods, with each city-state having its
own patrons, temples, and priest-kings; but the Sumerians were probably the first to write
down their beliefs. Sumerian beliefs were also the inspiration for much of later
Mesopotamian mythology, religion, and astrology.
The Sumerians worshipped Anu as the primary god, equivalent to "heaven"—indeed, the
word "an" in Sumerian means "sky," and his consort Ki, meaning "earth." Collectively the
Gods were known as Anunnaki ((d)a-nun-na-ke4-ne = "offspring of the lord"). An's
closest cohorts were Enki in the south at the Abzu temple in Eridu, Enlil in the north at the
Ekur temple of Nippur and Inana, the deification of Venus, the morning (eastern) and
evening (western) star, at the Eanna temple (shared with An) at Uruk. The sun was Utu,
was worshipped at Sippar, the moon was Nanna, worshipped at Ur and Nammu or Namma
was one of the names of the Mother Goddess, probably considered to be the original
matrix; there were hundreds of minor deities. The Sumerian gods (Sumerian dingir, plural
dingir-dingir or dingir-a-ne-ne) thus had associations with different cities, and their
religious importance often waxed and waned with the political power of the associated
cities. The gods were said to have created human beings from clay for the purpose of
serving them. The gods often expressed their anger and frustration through earthquakes
and storms: the gist of Sumerian religion was that humanity was at the mercy of the gods.
Sumerians believed that the universe consisted of a flat disk enclosed by a tin dome. The
Sumerian afterlife involved a descent into a gloomy netherworld to spend eternity in a
wretched existence as a Gidim (ghost).
Sumerian temples consisted of a forecourt, with a central pond for purification (the Abzu).
The temple itself had a central nave with aisles along either side. Flanking the aisles would
be rooms for the priests. At one end would stand the podium and a mudbrick table for
animal and vegetable sacrifices. Granaries and storehouses were usually located near the
temples. After a time the Sumerians began to place the temples on top of multi-layered
square constructions built as a series of rising terraces: the ziggurats.
Technology
Examples of Sumerian technology include: the wheel, cuneiform, arithmetic and
geometry, irrigation systems, sumerian boats, lunisolar calendar, bronze, leather, saws,
chisels, hammers, braces, bits, nails, pins, rings, hoes, axes, knives, lancepoints,
arrowheads, swords, glue, daggers, waterskins, bags, harnesses, armor, quivers,
scabbards, boots, sandal (footwear), harpoons, and beer.
The Sumerians had three main types of boats:
skin boats comprising of animal skins and reeds
clinker-built sailboats stitched together with hair, featuring bitumen waterproofing
wooden-oared ships, sometimes pulled upstream by people and animals walking
along the nearby banks
Language and writing
The most important archaeological discoveries in Sumer are a large number of tablets
written in Sumerian. Sumerian pre-cuneiform script has been discovered on tablets dating
to around 3500 B.C.E.
The Sumerian language is generally regarded as a language isolate in linguistics because
it belongs to no known language family; Akkadian belongs to the Afro-Asiatic languages.
There have been many failed attempts to connect Sumerian to other language groups. It
is an agglutinative language; in other words, morphemes ("units of meaning") are added
together to create words.
Sumerians invented picture-hieroglyphs that developed into later cuneiform, and their
language vies with Ancient Egyptian for credit as the oldest known written human
language. An extremely large body of hundreds of thousands of texts in the Sumerian
language has survived, the great majority of these on clay tablets. Known Sumerian texts
include personal and business letters and transactions, receipts, lexical lists, laws, hymns
and prayers, magical incantations, and scientific texts including mathematics, astronomy,
and medicine. Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects like statues or
bricks are also very common. Many texts survive in multiple copies because they were
repeatedly transcribed by scribes-in-training. Sumerian continued to be the language of
religion and law in Mesopotamia long after Semitic speakers had become the ruling race.
Understanding Sumerian texts today can be problematic even for experts. Most difficult
are the earliest texts, which in many cases don't give the full grammatical structure of the
language.
Legacy
Most authorities credit the Sumerians with the invention of the wheel, initially in the form
of the potter's wheel. The new concept quickly led to wheeled vehicles and mill wheels.
The Sumerians' cuneiform writing system is the oldest there is evidence of (with the
possible exception of the highly controversial Old European Script), pre-dating Egyptian
hieroglyphics by at least 75 years. The Sumerians were among the first formal
astronomers, correctly formulating a heliocentric view of the solar system, to which they
assigned five planets (all that can be seen with the naked eye).
They invented and developed arithmetic using several different number systems including
a Mixed radix system with an alternating base 10 and base 6. This sexagesimal system
became the standard number system in Sumer and Babylonia. Using this sexagesimal
system they invented the clock with its 60 seconds, 60 minutes, and 12 hours, and the 12
month calendar which is still in use. They may have invented military formations and
introduced the basic divisions between infantry, cavalry and archers. They developed the
first known codified legal and administrative systems, complete with courts, jails, and
government records. The first true city states arose in Sumer, roughly contemporaneously
with similar entities in what is now Syria and Israel. Several centuries after their invention
of cuneiform, the practice of writing expanded beyond debt/payment certificates and
inventory lists and was applied for the first time about 2600 B.C.E. to written messages
and mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records and other pursuits
generally corresponding to the fields occupying teachers and students ever since.
Accordingly, the first formal schools were established, usually under the auspices of a
city-state's primary temple.
Finally, the Sumerians ushered in the age of intensive agriculture and irrigation. Emmer
wheat, barley, sheep (starting as moufflon) and cattle (starting as aurochs) were foremost
among the species cultivated and raised for the first time on a grand scale. These
inventions and innovations easily place the Sumerians among the most creative cultures in
human pre-history and history.
However, the Sumerians' misuse of their land ultimately led to their own downfall. The
river that they used for irrigation flooded their fields of wheat with water. Over time,
salination—the build of salt—occurred in their soils, thus decreasing productivity. Less
and less wheat could be harvested. The Sumerians tried switching to barley, a more salttolerant crop. This worked for a while, but salt continued to accumulate, ultimately leading
to loss of yields and the starvation of their people.
See also
Epic of Gilgamesh
Sargon I
Notes
1. ↑ "Sumerian Legal System" Sumerian Legal System.crystalinks.com. Retrieved
August 13, 2007
2. ↑ John Alan Halloran, "Sumerian Questions and Answers," online Sumerian
Questions and Answers sumerian.org. Retrieved August 13, 2007.
3. ↑ "Sumeria: Background and History" from Encyclopedia Britannica, 1911 Sumeria:
background and history Retrieved August 13, 2007.
4. ↑ Thorkild Jacobsen. Toward the Image of Tammuz and Other Essays on
Mesopotamian History and Culture. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971.
ISBN 0674898109)
5. ↑ William R. Thompson, "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns and Serial
Mesopotamian Fragmentation," Journal of World Systems Research X (Fall 2004):
613-652. ISSN 1076-156X Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns and Serial
Mesopotamian Fragmentation. Retrieved August 13, 2007
6. ↑ Donald Alexander Mackenzie. (original 1909) Footprints of Early Man. reprint ed.
Obscure Press, 2006. ISBN 1846644186)
7. ↑ Robert McCormick Adams. Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and
Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates. (Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press, 1981. 9780226005447)
8. ↑ Azar Gat, "Why City-States Existed?" 125-138, in Mogens H. Hansen, (ed) A
Comparative Study of 6 City-States. (Copenhagen: The Danish Royal Academy,
2002) Why City-States Existed? Retrieved August 13, 2007
9. ↑ "The Sumerian Flood Story." online text for World Mythology course at Grand
Valley State University Sumerian Flood Story Grand Valley State University.
Retrieved August 13, 2007
Further reading
Adams, Robert McCormick. Heartland of Cities: Surveys of Ancient Settlement and
Land Use on the Central Floodplain of the Euphrates. Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press, 1981. 9780226005447
Ascalone, Enrico. Mesopotamia: Assyrians, Sumerians, Babylonians (Dictionaries of
Civilizations; 1). Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007. ISBN 0520252667.
Bottéro, Jean. Everyday Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins
University Press, 2001 ISBN 9780801868627
Crawford, Harriet. Sumer and the Sumerians. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1991. ISBN 9780521381758
Gelb, Ignace Jay. Old Akkadian Writing and Grammar, Second editon. Materials for
the Assyrian Dictionary 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961.
Halloran, John Alan. Sumerian Lexicon. A Dictionary Guide to the Ancient Sumerian
Language. Logogram Publishing, Los Angeles 2006. ISBN 0978642902
Jacobsen, Thorkild. Toward the Image of Tammuz and Other Essays on
Mesopotamian History and Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971.
ISBN 0674898109
Kramer, Samuel Noah. Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary
Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C.E. Philadelphia, PA: University of
Pennsylvania Press, 1997. ISBN 9780585126975
Kramer, Samuel Noah. History Begins at Sumer. Garden City, NY: Doubleday /
Anchor, 1959.
Kramer, Samuel Noah. The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963
Leick, Gwendolyn. Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City. London: Penguin, 2002
ISBN 9780140265743
Lloyd, Seton. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the
Persian Conquest. London: Thames and Hudson, 1978. ISBN 9780500780077
Mackenzie, Donald Alexander. (original 1909) Footprints of Early Man. reprint ed.
Obscure Press, 2006. ISBN 1846644186
Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea. Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 1998. ISBN 9780313294976
Postgate, J. Nicholas. Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of
History. London: Routledge, 1994.
Roux, Georges. Ancient Iraq, Third ed. reprint Penguin, [1965] 1993. ISBN
014012523X
Schomp, Virginia. Ancient Mesopotamia: The Sumerians, Babylonians, And
Assyrians. NY: Franklin Watts, 2004. ISBN 9780531118184
Sumer: Cities of Eden (Timelife: Lost Civilizations). Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books,
1993. ISBN 0809498871
Westenholz, Aage. "Old Sumerian and Old Akkadian Texts in Philadelphia Chiefly
from Nippur. Pt. 1. Literary and Lexical Texts and the Earliest Administrative
Documents from Nippur." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 36 (4) (Oct., 1977): 299-
302
Woolley, C. Leonard. The Sumerians. NY: W. W Norton, 1965. ISBN 9780393002928
External links
All links retrieved October 27, 2015.
The History of the Ancient Near East
Sumerian Language Page, perhaps the oldest Sumerian website on the web (it dates
back to 1996), features compiled lexicon, detailed FAQ, extensive links, and so on.
ETCSL: The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature has complete translations
of more than 400 Sumerian literary texts.
PSD: The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary, while still in its initial stages, can be
searched on-line, from August 2004.
CDLI: Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative a large corpus of Sumerian texts in
transliteration, largely from the Early Dynastic and Ur III periods, accessible with
images.
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