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Sociolinguistic Foundations: A Review of Terminology
Sociolinguistics
the study of language in relation to society (R. Wardhaugh,
1998)
the 'scientific' (descriptive, explanatory), 'applied' (to
provision and to planning) study of language (in analytical
and generalized units) in society (with macro- or microlevel focus) (IM)
Society
any group of people who are drawn together for a certain
purpose or purposes (RW)
Language
what members of a particular society speak; language is a
hyponym of code (RW)
Varieties
different manifestations of language; "a set of linguistic
items with similar social distribution" (R Hudson, 1980)
(RW)
"any body of human speech patterns which is sufficiently
homogeneous to be analyzed by available techniques of
synchronic description and which has a sufficiently large
repertory of elements and their arrangements or processes
with broad enough semantic scope to function in all formal
contexts of communication" (C Ferguson) (RW)
Bilingualism
the complete, or less complete, command of at least two
languages, speaking, hearing, speaking and reading them (M
Adler, 1977)
It may be individual (co-ordinate or compound/achieved) or
societal collective)
Diglossia
a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to
the primary dialects of the language (which may include
standard or regional standards) there is a very divergent,
highly codified (often grammatically more complex)
superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body
of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another
speech community, which is learned largely by formal
education and is used for most written and formal spoken
purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for
ordinary conversation (C Ferguson, 1959)
bilingualism that is widespread, stable, functionally
complementary, and societal rather than individual (J
Fishman, 1985)
Lingua franca
a language which is used habitually by people whose mother
tongues are different in order to facilitate communication
between them (RW)
pidgin
a variety resulting from multilingual (usually trilingual)
contact which is a reduced variety of a dominant language
and has no native speakers (RW)
pidgninization
the process of invention of a new language system through
simplification (e.g. reduction in morphology and syntax,
increased phonological variation, reduced functions,
extensive borrowing) (RW)
pidginization derives from the need to communicate across
languages in a situation of asymmetrical power relationships
(RW)
creole
a pidgin that has become the first language of a generation of
speakers and has accordingly expanded structure and
vocabulary (RW)
creolization
expansion of morphology and syntax, regularization of
phonology, deliberate development of a rational and stable
system for increasing vocabulary (RW)
creolization occurs where circumstances cause children to
learn the pidgin in place of a 'full' language (RW)
relexification
the adoption by a creole of an alternative vocabulary by a
creole which has lost contact with its original superstrate
language (RW)
polygenesis
the theory that similarities across pidgins and creoles may be
related to shared circumstances (linguistic and social) of
their origin and possible sharing of a linguistic substrate
(RW)
monogenesis
the theory that all pidgins and creoles ultimately derive from
one variety, variously relexified (RW)
bioprogram
the operation of universal principles of first language
acquisition in the development of pidgins (RW)
creole continuum
the continuum of varieties though basilect, mesolect and
acrolect, which separates a creole from its superstrate
language (RW)
decreolization
progressive movement of a creole towards the superstrate
language in a situation of prolonged contact (RW)
recreolization
progressive movement of a creole-related variety away from
the superstrate language where contact with that language is
interrupted (RW)
code-switching
a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy
group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal
relations with their rights and obligations (RW)
situational code- switching
language change according to the situations in which the
conversants find themselves (RW)
metaphorical code- switching
language change according to topic; metaphorical code
switches redefine the situation (e.g. formal to informal, they
reference to we reference) (RW)
code mixing
switching of codes within an utterance without topic changesomething usually frowned upon by monolinguals (RW)
accommodation
choosing a code which one sees as corresponding to the
expectations of one's interlocutor (RW)
style
linguistic difference according to the formality of the
interaction (which depends on such factors as the social
occasion, the social, age and other differences of the
participants, the emotional involvement, etc.) (RW)
style shifting
all speakers shift between styles according to circumstances
(W Labov) (RW)
attention
style is more formal when more attention is paid to speech
(Labov) (RW)
vernacular
the most linguistically authentic style (Labov) (RW)
a form of speech transmitted from parent to child as a
primary medium of communication (K Petyt) (RW)
observer's paradox
formality increases under systematic observation (Labov)
(RW)
dialect
a language which may be perceived variously as a variety
which is subordinate to a (linguistically or socially) related
variety because it is localised, informal, non-standard, of a
different historical period, religiously distinctive, or
associated with an inferior power base (IM)
standardization
"the process by which a language has been codified in some
way" (RW)
"a sociopolitical process involving the legitimization and
institutionalization of a language variety as a feature of
sanctioning of that variety as socially preferable" (G
Williams, in RW)
standardization of a variety entails four processes: selection,
codification, elaboration of function and acceptance
(R.Hudson)
codification
development of grammars and dictionaries for a language
(RW)
elaboration
extension of a language to enable it to be used with new
domains (e.g., literature, courts, education, administration,
commerce) (RW)
koiné
a common language but not necessarily a standard one (RW)
regional dialects
distinctive varieties of a language associated with its use
over hundreds of years in different geographical areas (RW)
patois
may be used to refer to a spoken or low prestige rural variety
(RW)
Received Pronunciation
the non-localized accent of British English "associated with
higher social and educational background, with the BBC and
the professions" (RW)
network English
the most generalized accent in North America (RW)
social dialects
dialects which originate among social groups in relation to
such factors as social class, religion and ethnicity (RW)
social dialectology
the study of social dialects, especially in cities (RW)
register
sets of language items associated with discrete occupational
or social groups (RW)
address terms
terms which may be used to precede or replace the name of
the addressee by an addresser; in English they may include
(singly or in combination) title, first name, last name,
nickname, or they may be omitted; depending on the
relationship, the address terms may be reciprocally or nonreciprocally used (IM)
T, V
terms standing for more familiar (T) and formal (V)
pronouns of address in some languages which may be
employed reciprocally or non-reciprocally to express
understood relationships of power and solidarity (IM)
face
"the public self-image that every member wants to claim for
himself" Brown and Levinson (RW)
positive face
the desire to gain the approval of others; its maintenance is
supported by the use of compliments and informal language
(RW)
negative face
the desire to be unimpeded by others in one's actions; its
maintenance (in others) motivates a desire not to give
offence (RW)
gender
(in linguistics) a technical term relating to principles of
linguistic structure (more generally) a social construct,
heavily grounded in sex (RW)
inner circle
term used by Kachru to refer to those societies with a
traditional linguistic and cultural base in English (e.g.
U.S.A., U.K., Australia, New Zealand)
outer circle
term used by Kachru to refer to those societies which,
following colonization, have developed and institutionalized
non-native varieties of English (e.g. Ghana, India, Malaysia,
Philippines)
expanding circle
term used by Kachru to refer to those societies in which
performance (non-official) varieties of English are used
essentially in EFL contexts (e.g. China, Egypt, Indonesia,
Korea)
diatypic variety
varieties defined according to use and typically described
according to field, tenor and mode (c.f. Register) (IM)
acceptability studies
surveys of language attitudes in relation to disputed features
of usage (e.g. use of obligational and possessive got) (IM)
linguistic imperialism
a view of the loss of linguistic diversity which attributes it to
the effect of policies pursued by politically dominant powers
(IM)
semantic differential
a scale of polar opposites (e.g. intelligent/unintelligent)
between which, in language attitude studies, a subject is
offered a number of (usually 7) positions among which to
choose, showing their response to a linguistic stimulus (e.g.
a record of speech in a given variety) (IM)
matched guise
a methodology for the study of language attitudes in which
subjects are invited to express their responses to hearing
different varieties spoken (without their knowing it) by the
same speaker (IM)
components
term used by Halliday to refer to functional components of
the semantic system, viz: ideational, interpersonal and
textual term used by Hymes to refer to components of a
speech event, viz: setting, ends, participants, key,
instrumentalities, genre, norms of interaction and
interpretation
speech community
a group of speakers with at least one language in common,
who share knowledge of the communicative constraints and
options governing a significant number of social situations
(Gumperz)
"participation in a set of shared norms" (Labov, in RW)
"An individual … belongs to various speech communities at
the same time, but on any particular occasion will identify
with only one of them, the particular identification
depending on what is especially important or contrastive in
the circumstances" (Brown and Levinson in RW)
speech event
the basic unit for the analysis of verbal interaction in speech
communities; it covers stretches of utterances and focuses on
the exchange between speakers; it is characterized
syntagmatically by the temporal ordering of subunits and
paradigmatically by selection among alternates within a
contextual frame; speech events are cognitive phenomena
that play an essential part in managing and interpreting
everyday communications (Gumperz)
sociolinguistic variables
elements or strings of elements at any component or level of
linguistic structure (e.g., phonology, syntax, lexicon) which
are different yet referentially equivalent in a given speech
event (Gumperz)
linguistic repertoire
the totality of linguistic resources (i.e., including both
invariant forms and variables) available to members of
particular communities; the variables will be selected by
speakers in co-occurrent clusters, on the basis of
sociolinguistic rules (Gumperz)
speech act
the minimal term of the speech event (Hymes) utterances
considered in terms of what they do and how we use them in
conversation (RW)
speech situation
situations associated with (or marked by the absence of)
speech (Hymes)
ways of speaking
rule-governed patterns of communicative behaviour within a
speech community (Hymes)
rules of speaking
ways in which speakers associate particular modes of
speaking, topics or message forms with particular settings
and activities (Hymes)
strategies
negotiations of purpose by participants in a speech event
(Hymes)
strategic competence
ability to use strategies to compensate for imperfect
knowledge of rules, or limiting factors in their application
(e.g. fatigue, inattention, distraction) (Canale and Swain)
linguistic routines
fixed utterances or sequences of utterances which must be
considered as single units because meaning cannot be
derived from consideration of any segment apart from the
whole; the routine itself fulfils the communicative function
and in this respect is performative in nature (Hymes)
communicative competence
shared knowledge related to the speech event which
participants must have in order to communicate
appropriately (Saville-Troike)
communicative competence comprises four components:
grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic
competence (Canale and Swain)
communicative interference
transfer of the rules of speaking from one speech community
to performance in another (IM)
linguistic community
"a social group which may be either monolingual or
multilingual, held together by frequency of social interaction
patterns and set off from the surrounding areas by
weaknesses in the lines of communication" (Gumperz, in
RW)
network
a way of viewing how an individual relates to other
individuals in society; a dense network is one in which the
people all know and interact with one another; a loose
network is one in which the people do not all know and
interact with one another; a multiplex network is one in
which people are tied together in more than one way (e.g.,
work, social activities) (RW)
ethnomethodology
a branch of sociology concerned with how people use
techniques to interpret the world and interact in it (RW)
phatic utterances
utterances which sustain conversation but do not
communicate anything (RW)
illocutionary force
the function of an utterance, which may not correspond to its
verbal (locutionary) meaning (RW)
perlocutionary force
the function of an utterance in getting someone to do
something (RW)
cooperative principle
a principle of conversation proposed by Grice: "Make your
conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage
at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of
the talk exchange in which you are engaged" (RW)
four maxims are derived from the cooperative
principle: Quantity: make your contribution neither
more nor less than required Quality: be genuine
Relation: be appropriate to immediate needs Manner:
make it clear what contribution you are making and do
it promptly (RW)
adjacency pair
utterances in a paired relationship with their responses (e.g.
question- answer) (RW)
exchange
a basic unit of conversation (e.g initiation-responsefeedback) (RW)
turn-taking
principles which govern who gets to speak and prevent
overlap (RW)
transition relevance
a place in a conversation where a speaker may conclude and
a listener enter the conversation (RW)
insertion sequence
an interruption to conversation, which requires proper
insertion and repair (RW)
side sequence
an inserted AB sequence in a conversation providing
clarification or correction (RW)
pre-closing
signals used to negotiate the impending end of a
conversation (RW)
domain
a constellation of factors affecting speech, including the
location, topic and participants (Fasold)
linguistic variable
a linguistic form which has identifiable variants, e.g.
fishin/fishing (RW) (see also sociolinguistic variable)
sociolects
varieties incorporating speech characteristics of members of
social groups (Trudgill, in RW) (c.f. social dialects)
idiolect
the speech characteristics and linguistic behaviour of an
individual (RW)
hypercorrection
the use, by speakers of one social class, of variants perceived
to be those of a more prestigious class (to a greater extent
than such variants are used by the more prestigious class)
(IM)
stratification
style differences corresponding to social class (RW)
covert prestige
prestige associated with the use of the non-standard variety,
which conveys group solidarity (RW)
marker
speech variants which show stylistic variation (RW)
stereotype
speech variants used to stigmatize the speech patterns of a
group (RW)
diachronic
study (e.g., of a language) over a period of time (IM)
synchronic
study (e.g., of a language) at a point in time (IM)
language shift
where "a community gives up a language completely in
favour of another one" (Fasold 1984)
language maintenance
where "the community collectively decides to continue using
the language or languages it has traditionally used" (Fasold)
language death
"when a community shifts to a new language totally so that
the old language is no longer used" (Fasold)
intergenerational switching
where "one generation is bilingual, but only passes on one of
the two languages to the next" (Fasold)
Whorfian hypothesis
strong view: the structure of a language determines the way
in which speakers of that language view the world weak
view: the structure of the language does not determine the
world view but is extremely influential in predisposing
speakers of a language towards adopting a particular world
view (RW)
folk taxonomies
language-based classifications of the world which are not
necessarily scientific (IM)
prototype theory
the view that concepts are identified by reference to typical
instances, rather than by sets of features (from Rosch, in
RW)
associative networks
chains of concepts to which people often assign a single term
(based on the use of prototypes) (Palmer)
restricted codes
linguistic realizations which are associated with
communalized roles, context-tied meanings and positional
family patterns (Bernstein)
elaborated codes
linguistic realizations which are associated with
individualized roles, universalistic meanings and personcentred family patterns (Bernstein)
taboo
things not talked about (RW)
euphemism
things talked about in round about ways (RW)
imagery
conceptual representations of the world, derived from direct
experience and constitutive of both world view and language
(Palmer 1996, via IM)
virtually all imagery is structured by culture and personal
history (Palmer)
linguistic imagery entails conceptual organization of
elements in with respect to such relations as profile (i.e.,
what is focused on) and base (i.e., domain); level of
specificity, scope, perspective, etc. (Langacker, 1990)
schemas
expectations about people, objects, events and settings in the
world (Tannen and Wallat, in Palmer)
"It is likely that all native knowledge of language and culture
belongs to cultural schemas and that the living of culture and
the speaking of language consist of schemas in action"
(Palmer)
an event schema is "generalized knowledge about 'what will
happen in a given situation and often the order in which the
individual events will take place'" (Palmer)
metaphor
"the process by which a concept (model or schema) from one
conceptual domain is mapped to a concept from another
domain" (Palmer)
language planning
"an attempt to interfere deliberately with a language or one
of its varieties. That attempt may focus on either its status
with regard to some other language or variety or its internal
condition with a view to changing that condition, or on both
of these…" (RW)
corpus planning
language planning concerned with changing the language by
means of standardization (involving establishing
pronunciation, orthography, grammar, vocabulary) and
modernization, in relation to policy (Kaplan, via IM)
status planning
language planning concerned with persuading the community to accept
the status required by policy for languages and dialects and to implement
language shift where required (Kaplan, via IM)
(The ordering of the terms in this list roughly follows that of their
introduction in LST4285)