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AQR/QRCA Conference Barcelona Rosie Campbell 2008
Are We Confusing New Qual ‘Data’ Sources with Analysis?
I can see now that this is a very unsexy paper title. And, what’s
more, this paper’s proposition is that stories, how they are told and
the words that are used to tell them are highly important; in fact
they are the very lifeblood of qualitative enquiry.
So, an early apology is due; I have privileged precision over
expression. In an ideal world we create lucidity and elegance in
both regards…
So, this paper, then, intends to muse on language - the way and
how of consumer expression, and the how and why of our own
industry’s discourses around language.
I intend - or hope, at least - to be inspiring and celebratory rather
than didactic. (No doubt there will be didacticism enough over
these two conference days…)
What Quallies Love
I know I am not alone in my love of language and words; most
quallies I encounter are equally delighted by the apt metaphor, the
recurrent phrase, the telling line, the recounted tale….in fact I am
reasonably convinced that an aesthetic interest in language is an
essential for any qualitative practitioner, or any who see virtue and
value in deepening their analysis.
(It may be why the English graduate often gets it faster than the
marketing graduate…)
If you doubt the importance of language – of words – just lets ‘look’
at some for a moment. Each of these is something to do with
(hopeless) love….and probably familiar:
‘…Let us go, through half deserted streets,
The muttering retreats
Of nights in one-night cheap hotels
And sawdust restaurants with oyster-shells…’
T.S.Eliot
“My heart aches and a drowsy numbness pains
My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk…’
John Keats
‘T’was in another lifetime, one of toil and blood
When blackness was a virtue and the road was full of mud
I came in from the wilderness, a creature without form
“Come in” she said,
“I’ll give you
Shelter from the storm”…’
Bob Dylan
‘And when there’s nothing
left to buy
It’s only love that gets you high’
Seal
How extraordinary that in four so different expressions such a
wealth of meaning and emotion can be conjured by the sheer
crafting of language!
You may not hear – or read – anything so elegiac in a focus group,
(then again, you might) but in many ways our approach to
analysing, getting inside and making sense of the personal dramas
of our respondents’ lives, and the stories they tell, should be every
bit as open to the intuitive and the forensic as the ways in which
we might approach these lines of poetry.
(In fact the practice of analysing and critiquing poetry would be a
helpful grounding for starting out in the qualitative world)
Where Words Meet Psychology
What people say and what is created in conversation (or written
discourse) creates realities. Wittgenstein, oft-quoted in the context
of language, said that ‘language is fateful’. What he meant was
that we ‘create’ our account and at the same time ‘create’ our
reality through the words (and expressions) we use. Language is
not ‘transparent’, a mere vehicle for specific, finite or literal data
delivery; it is often slippery and complex, and always contextual.
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And it is my sense that in some quarters of the qual world we have
become rather impoverished in our relationship with words, in
favour of an increasingly frantic search for ‘data’ ( – and we often
treat the two as if they were one and the same). We ignore the
specificity of words and too often fail to deepen, get ‘inside’
language, in favour of a kind of anxious ‘cutting to the chase’. We
behave as if, questioned heavily enough, a consumer, (a
respondent) will finally relent and disgorge the ‘truth’, the ‘insight’,
the answer.
I will talk a little about why – to my mind – these are emerging
concerns, in a moment….
First, it repays the effort to glance at what the academic,
(particularly academic psychology) canon has to say about words,
language and communication
Psychological frames which shed light on language are various –
but crudely, in the last half century, there has been increasing
emphasis on ideas which stress the ‘social construction’ of
language (and indeed, much human psychology). How we use
words contains the code for our beliefs and motivations – but, as
the old adage goes, the map is not always the territory…
Steven Pinker, who has been rather newsworthy in the last year
(with a new and qual-friendly book ‘The Stuff of Thought’) has
spent a good part of his academic career exploring human
language, and among other things, concludes that language is an
‘instinct’ and that it inherently develops richness associated with
the social and cultural context into which it both ‘speaks’ and is
‘spoken’. We, and the words we use and choose, are influenced by
our context, just as we in turn help shape the social fabric through
what we say.
‘…our words connect to our thoughts, our communities, our
emotions, our relationships, and to reality itself. It isn’t surprising
that language supplies so many of the hot potatoes of our public
and private life. We are verbivores, a species that lives on words,
and the meaning and use of language are bound to be among the
major things we ponder, share, dispute..’
(Steven Pinker, 2007)
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Language is a natural, abiding fascination at the root of powerful
and useful qualitative analysis, and qualitative researchers are
likely to have a love of language because they are – or should be –
dealing in the business of analysis. And by analysis, I don’t mean
‘findings’…..or even ‘data’
One Simple Example of Language Analysis
As part of a piece of research for my MSc a few years ago, I
explored the world of ‘Youth Research’, because it had become so
fashionable, (and, indeed, because, at the time I specialised in
child and youth markets). I chose to look particularly at the
language and discourse surrounding the world of youth research.
And the fact that language is socially constructed was brought
home particularly vividly by conversations about, and around, what
constituted (- and how you ‘get’ -) insight. In fact another
Wittgensteinian sound bite serves well here; ‘meaning as use’.
For a contingent of the qualitative practitioner community there
was a distinct take on the world of ‘youth’ whereby there was an
inherent belief that insight was ‘manufactured’ by the skilled
application of the specialist, as expert – preferably someone who
had (academic) knowledge of developmental theory, experience of
working with children and teenagers etc. For these people perhaps one might say the ‘old school’ - their clients appreciated
the researcher’s psychological understanding of youngsters and
wanted ‘insight’ to be in the form of a digested or ‘translated’
account of youngsters’ attitudes and beliefs - the ‘black box’ model
where analysis was more about Piaget than the marketing context.
But, (almost) antithetically - and often in the newer, ‘hotter’ qual
shops - there was a different take on the notion of insight; it was
described (in the ‘meaning-as-use’ sense) as something inherent
in the ‘experience’ of young people’s worlds, the qual researcher
acting more as a conduit than an ‘expert’. For these consultants,
insight was often a reel of film, a vox pop or an ethnographic diary
tract from which a client might experience an ‘ah-ha’ moment or
two…In a sense behaviour itself became insight.
Discovering these different ‘meanings-as-use’ of the word and idea
of insight illustrates how we all express our worlds ‘contextually’ –
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and, indeed, started me thinking about how qualitative practice
appeared to be developing more generally….
Linguistic Armageddon
Our qualitative world, in my observation and opinion, is polarising
towards, on the one hand, the ‘conduit’ model of practice where,
notionally, the ‘found materials’ - because they are seen as
exciting and funky (videos, filmed diaries, blogs, texts etc) - are
sometimes, dangerously, assumed to be the work (the data, the
findings……the ‘insight’). This is, perhaps, the ultimate
egalitarianism; the psychological as collaborative and self-evident.
And never a written report or document in sight…..
There is nothing wrong with this, it’s just that it isn’t everything. In a
recent ‘International Journal of Market Research’ focusing on
ethnography, it was striking how, across eight accounts of
ethnographic approaches and projects, there was one blindingly
consistent conclusion. Though often very enriching and, indeed,
facilitating, ‘ethnographic’ data were, always, in the final analysis
‘reported’ via recourse to (often quite sophisticated) verbal
discussion as a way of explaining, building, contextualising data
such as film, photos, diary material, ‘naturalistic’ taped
conversations etc. In other words, what the – good – researcher
has to do is analysis which involves an exploration of
language, whatever materials are in the mid-stage melting pot.
On the other hand is the ‘instant communication’ model, where
simple time pressures and a ‘live-in-the-moment’ culture inclines
the belief that what you see and hear is all you get. ‘Analysis’ is left
out because, for example “we all saw the groups so we know what
to do”…You know how these projects go – we have 2 hours to
over-stimulate eight respondents with sixteen concepts and ten
different ‘advertising ideas’ and absolutely no time to listen, never
mind interrogate consumers’ own worlds….
We, as qualitative practitioners, have ourselves to blame for some
of this. We have, historically, ‘languaged’ our work as if the ‘black
box’ were, indeed, a mysterious, outside and objective presence
able to create instant analysis. Consider the kinds of phrases we
routinely use: ‘on balance the brand can be seen to…’, ‘it was
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found’, ‘a pattern emerges’, ‘what can be taken out from…’ etc, etc.
Even, when forced to ‘people’ our account we often allow
respondents to take the glory… ‘what respondents noticed ..’, ‘as
one respondent remarked…’ (yes, who hasn’t done this – given
their best line to a chap from Crewe.!.) We fail to ‘own’ or even
admit to the notion that it is our experienced, psychologically-tuned
brain that has reached conclusions, out of a kind of
squeamishness, or, perhaps because we mistakenly think it goes
against the tide of so-called ‘co-creation’ and transparency.
No wonder clients often expect to ‘see’ the answer instantly when
they view or listen to a focus group….
And at the heart of both these - I would suggest, maladjusted, or at
least impoverished - qualitative models, is a disregard for words
and language. In a sense both are mutated versions of the ‘only
data-gathering’ virus which the qualitative industry was sharp and
smart enough to transcend through intellectual rigour, maturity
and, arguably, some harsh lessons from the types of consultant
who snapped at our feet, in the late eighties (management
consultants, chiefly, but also the armies of futurologists, think
tankers, brand consultants and so on…) And, of course, because
the era of the brand, in all its vanity, had begun…
So, enough of a rant about the malaise; if this is a plea for a considered, partial - return to the old school craft skills of language
analysis, I need to make a practical case for the advantages of
such rigour – for all concerned parties…
Words, Words, Words
I have explored a wide range of approaches to analysis of text,
words and language – and I recognise that ‘words’ are not the
whole content of qualitative enquiry, nor, indeed are they ‘merely
what they represent’. Our work into and under the skin of words
and language must take account of the emotional load, the context
as well as mechanical issues relating to utterance.
On balance, as a practical approach to analysis, I favour a kind of
home-made bricollage which nods respect to many, even all the
theoretical frames outlined below.
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These are the frames you may encounter in the academic canon,
and/or which I have found useful – and which I have personally
plundered, (here reductively defined, I admit):
Grounded Theory – which broadly speaking suggests you should
‘follow your ears’ where consumer language is concerned until you
start to ‘hear patterns’ (but that might take a wee while longer than
the average qual project)
Narrative Analysis – which is all about the (cultural) meanings,
order of divulging, and narrative style of people’s ‘story-telling’. In
some quarters the chosen stories are considered highly important;
others consider ‘lack of theory’ the narrative enquirer’s purest
starting point…
‘rather than from a template…(for us) narrative enquirers tend to
begin with experience as expressed in lived and told stories’
(Clandinin and Connelly, 2000)
Textual Analysis – not just appropriate for actual text, this focuses
on the ‘politics’ of accounts, noting, for example, implied subject
positions, phraseology etc
Naum Chomsky on 9/11, for example, has written about the
‘assumed power position’ expressed by America, often through the
‘mouthpiece’ of the New York Times…
‘If an enemy can be accused of violating International law, it’s a
huge outrage. But when the United States does something, it’s as
if it didn’t happen….. in the seventy editorials on Iraq…..the words
UN Charter and international law never appeared. That’s typical of
a paper that believes the United States should be an outlaw state’
(Naum Chomsky, 2007)
Speech Act Theory – which is about how utterances within
conversation ‘work’ (and how much and how accurately we guess
about a fellow speaker). In practice this way of thinking explores
‘what is being made’ in discourse. For example, in a married
couple’s exchange of a few sentences, even perfunctory ‘analysis’
reveals something beyond the words themselves….!
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A ‘ Is there any more butter in the fridge…?
B ‘I didn’t get home till seven…!’
A ‘I am not accusing you of anything…!!!!’
Systemic Therapeutic thinking – well, you are less likely to
encounter this social constructionist branch of psychological
thinking in relation to language, but it does contain one great,
liberating language-searching motto for the qual analyst; ‘stay
curious’ (Gianfranco Cecchin)
How Might Any of this Help?
So, getting highly practical about the issue of language, and to
illustrate how valuable I believe a more informed, experienced,
curious and – how rare these days – slower, more reflective
exploration of language can be, I propose a case example, where
my ‘bricollage of language analysis’ can be highlighted.
I do not suggest that this is the only way to ‘analyse’ qualitative
material, nor that every project of qualitative enquiry requires the
same measure of attention to language – it so depends on what
the question is, what work has gone before, what purpose the
project serves (highly ‘investigative’, intended as a creative spark,
essentially an ‘evaluation’ and so on….).
So, let me show some examples of ‘language listening’ in two
markets – financial services (saving and insurance products) and
laundry products and at each of the 3 levels…(and encountered in
recent work)
Firstly, at the ‘Cultural Discourse’ Level….
Looking for the cultural mores and influencing beliefs in particular
groups, at particular points in time. At this level descriptions tend to
be ‘big picture’ societal comments, often sounding like ‘truisms’ or
phrases from the media…
….for example, in recent financial service work…
(Applauding entrepreneurial activity)
“…a true self-made man”
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“…we live in a society where we believe in taking risks...”
“…I think we’ve always respected people who have a vision and
take risks”
“…If it’s something you believe in…”
In these discourse illustrations, note words like ‘belief’, ‘respect’,
‘vision’ ‘true’ as elevating descriptors.
And..
(Property Fetishism)
“…the security of bricks and mortar”
“…you can’t go wrong with property”
“…I felt I could relax a bit…sleep more easy…when I’d got my
first buy-to-let”
‘Sleep…easy’, ‘can’t go wrong’ and ‘security’ are significant
descriptors. tending to connect property-ownership with maturity
and seriousness.
And in laundry…
(Escalating Expectations/Standards)
“…you can’t feel good if you’re not on top of the washing…”
“…there’s an expectation that you can have clean things every
day..”
“…our standards are getting higher – I expect to have things
washed every day”
“It's like dirt is something we’ve evolved beyond – something
we’ve conquered”
Here, note the equation of contemporaneity and ‘mastery’ of
washing; ideas which equate personal well-being with
cleanliness, and the use of terms such as ‘standards’,
‘expectations’, ‘higher’, ‘evolved’ is telling.
Secondly - the ‘Story Told’ Level of language listening is
where we ‘hear’ individuals’ and groups of individuals’ more
personal, and local, beliefs – and sometimes the constraining or
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habituated patterns of self-description which limit change… At
this level ‘I’ and ‘we’ are likely to be heard
So looking at examples in these two markets again:
(Finance)
“ In my family debt was always frowned upon”
“I’m a spender at heart…my wife’s the one who keeps it in
check..”
Personal stories are frequently languaged in ways which
highlight underlying belief systems – and begin to suggest how
you might talk, through marketing and advertising…
People often have very well-developed self-rationalisations
which involve using well-worn words and phrases to tell their
stories…
(Laundry)
“I’m afraid I’m the one who has the obsessively tidy house; I
plump my cushions at night, I have to put clean clothes away...”
“I wash stuff because I’m too lazy to sort it out – I’m very busy
and probably a bit extravagant...”
These last two – self-descriptions – contain justifications as well
as explanations for behaviour, and are likely to be well-worn
‘stories told’ about each individual. (‘Obsessively tidy’ and ‘too
lazy’ are, undoubtedly, personal ‘themes’ for these women
which, when expressed, are used to ‘excuse’ and contextualise
much else)
Lastly, at the ‘Words Used’ Level, it can be a good idea to look
for specific words that are often repeated. For example (in
financial markets) ‘comfortable’, ‘confident’, ‘secure’ might be
important – and it’s often a good idea to enquire into an
individual’s use of a ‘favourite’ word; it may have a very specific
slant (for example ‘bonny’ as a description of well-being was, in
fact a condemnatory word for one individual I interviewed –
connected with her mother and meaning ‘fat’ and ‘childish’..!) …
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Transcripts can often throw out frequently-used words which
you may not have noticed in the midst of an interview or group
and allow you to notice ‘agency’ through how descriptions are
put together…
“Money just slipped through my fingers…”
“I worry about letting my husband see what I’ve bought…he’s
better off not knowing till afterwards…”
Here words indicate very different senses of own role; in the
first case the ‘slipped through’ and ‘my fingers’ are very close
up, ‘worried’ descriptions in which the teller feels things ‘happen
to’ him. In the second, arguably the respondent feels in much
greater control, (maybe too much control!?) and the telling word
‘letting’ indicates a parental role.
And in washing products..
“I’ve got so many sheets to wash, I don’t think people always
realise. My washing seems to go on and on….”
“The washing gets done by mid morning and it should all be
away that day”
Again there are ‘tell tale’ words as well as relational information
here. In the first example ‘people’ suggests anxiety about how
others see the respondent – and who are these shadowy folk
who – possibly – disrespect, ignore, bully her?. (This would be a
great point to press her on…) And clearly she feels
overburdened, if not overwhelmed.
By contrast the second quote doesn’t even employ a transitive
verb – and there is no first person. Her washing is distant,
sorted; maybe her relationship to it is also more calm,
impersonal, unemotional?
Weight Watchers
So, to Weight Watchers. We are fortunate to have worked with
the brand through the process which led up to the development
of recent UK TV, press and radio advertising…(with a couple of
agency switches along the way!) At the heart of the process,
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there was, firstly, a preparedness to step back and take a fresh
look at women and weight loss.
Weight – this has, unsurprisingly, enormous cultural baggage,
and is, for women wanting to lose it, highly emotive as a ‘market
area’.
So, around two years ago we conducted a lot of qual research –
various methodologies, various types of conversation, various
and many different categories of people – of all sizes. Initially
there was a clear intention to (re) visit the ‘Cultural Discourse’
of the weight loss area…
Some of what emerged through ‘listening’ for the grand themes,
the phrases and descriptions which indicated the parameters of
the culture, were bizarrely contradictory…until we began to see
that paradox was, itself, a characteristic of this particular
‘cultural soup’…
Slim and beautiful
Overweight is
is the answer __________________ increasingly normal
Highly visible celeb _____________ But in Sainsbury’s there’s
culture adulates slimness
SOOO much tempting food
Fatness causes ___________________ Feminism teaches us
low self-esteem
to feel good about our
bodies
LOSE IT …………………………… KEEP IT
DIET
………………………….. EAT
TECHNOLOGY ………………….. NATURE
So, let’s listen to some of the kinds of comments which highlight
the paradoxical ‘Cultural Discourse’ that surrounds this area…..
“Women feel better about themselves – more confident when
they lose weight”
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“…and there’s no better feeling. It’s mainly a confidence boost”
And now, consider the ‘polar’ – or paradoxical – constructs…
“I don’t see why we should conform to some magazine’s idea
of slimness”
“Being thin won’t make you feel better, won’t make you happy”
And what about at the level of ‘Stories Told’. Well, mining
these turned out to be highly significant as far as basing ideas
in the ‘right language’… Going back to ‘listening to language’
demonstrated that stories were especially important and
significant as ideas, as self-description, and – literally – as the
stuff of women’s own languaging
Interestingly, the totemic ‘before and after’ construct which is
magnetically luring for many women in the weight loss arena, is,
essentially a ‘happy ending’ story.
And, just listening to women, it became apparent that their
weight was – often – an issue that had become ‘stylised’
through story-telling - especially for those who felt that weight
had been a concern for many, many years, in some cases since
childhood.
Look at this verbatim:
“When I had a thin summer in my mid twenties I wasn’t actually
all that happy…I felt like I was waiting all the time, feeling
anxious that the weight would come back….and of course, it
did…Sometimes I wonder why I’m obsessed by losing
weight…..”
This ‘story’ has considerable richness. In terms of content it
highlights a personal experience of the – common – dichotomy
about own weight; slimness is a perennial goal, yet achieving it
might not make you happier…so promising ‘slimness’ is never a
satisfactory ‘end benefit’ (and, moreover, it’s highly generic)
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It also contains a key weight construct, one frequently
encountered, and which is helpful to explore in terms of
developing advertising – and that is the extent to which weight
becomes a ‘third party’, something ‘beyond the control’ of an
individual. (‘the weight’)
When you run weight loss groups you hear a lot about abstract,
almost disembodied, weight….
“It was the car that put the weight on me…”
“I only have to look at a cake for the weight to pile on”
“I look and think what are these rolls, why have they decided to
settle on me?”
You will have heard – and possibly recognise - many of these!
Along with another – rhetorical and much-noted, ‘told story’ about fighting and battles…
“I’ve basically battled with my weight all my life”
“It’s a constant struggle for me”
“War on chocolate! – no, the enemy is wine for me, and then I
watch it all go and I give up the fight in the Indian on a Friday”
So, ‘Stories Told’ about weight exist in something of a complex
and paradox-laden ‘Cultural Discourse’ and, at the Stories
Told level, include a variety of self-decriptions, many of which
ascribe agency ‘out there’ as far as weight – gain or loss – is
concerned. (Listen to this description about Weight Watchers
Online offering as far as agency is concerned…”How will they
make sure I don’t cheat on the weighing, then…?)
As we explored concepts, and in time began to research the
seeds of executional ideas, we found that employing ‘own
constructs’ about weight as a third party, or, indeed the
‘battleground’ might be in the right language zone but both were
essentially focussed on the near distance rather than a more
‘ultimate’ end benefit…. something beyond the weight loss
‘journey’ issues…
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We kept returning to the idea of ‘women’s stories’ – as a
construct which offered an immediate, logical and recognisable,
way in for the audience. In particular, there was a powerful and
positive experience and description around the ‘new start’, the
fresh page, a chance anew – the early stage of weight losing
often being described as a kind of “high”, a “roll’, being “in the
zone”. Careful language listening was giving us the clues
again…
“I’m actually looking forward to it…to getting started, I love it
when I get going…”
The issue then became how to tell a happy ending story to
which women could relate and which would avoid cliché, be
credible and have brand logic. After all, there are a lot of things
Weight Watchers cannot promise…..
In terms of the ‘motivating hit’ where weight loss was
concerned, one articulation proved especially powerful – if,
potentially, slightly risky. This was the drawing board idea of
‘Start Your Story’ as evolved by Euro and in which the ‘happy
ending’ was revealed, not in the conventional ‘before and after’
way, but had a twist. The ‘story’ was told by family and friends
with affection and humour – the ‘success’ was witnessed rather
than shown.
Now, the approbation of others is a complex issue as far as
women and weight is concerned as you may know, or can
guess….
However, if you ‘listen’ carefully to the stories told by women
seeking weight loss and you dig beyond some of the rhetoric
about ‘doing it for me’ there is a key under-layer of longing and
which is about feeling good, (rather than – merely – slimmer)
within a wider context of life experience (rather than –
merely – my body and what I eat, today) This is the social
benefit milieu….
“I know when I get down a bit, I know when I’ve lost just that bit
that makes a difference because I feel more popular….I’m the
one staying on at parties…”
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“The confidence thing is absolutely it…I would like to bump into
an ex and have him look full of regret!”
“Your family notice, but mainly it’s better for them because I’m a
nicer person..!”
So, an invisible protagonist might allow a viewer/listener to
‘insert’ themselves, while the affirmative and ‘pleased’
comments of loved ones was likely to prove to be ‘secure
motivation’……
And lastly – and by no means least – was the issue of brand…
how to create advertising which spoke absolutely clearly about
Weight Watchers as opposed to any other diet system or
brand.
Some of the thinking here needs to be kept under wraps, not
least because re-exploration of brand is also underway at the
moment…but there are some key aspects which relate to
listening carefully to language, that provided significant
steers…
Listen to these comments about Weight Watchers
“I’m a real Weight Watchers girl…”
“Because I know it works for me I come home to Weight
Watchers”
“…when I start to see it working….I love feeling I’m a Weight
Watcher..”
“…It’s like the mother, isn’t it…”
“…basically no bullshit or deceit or gimmicks…. It’s totally
straight down the line…”
These kinds of descriptions signal potential for the brand
because they speak of feelings and relationships not with
weight but with Weight Watchers particularly
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Concluding…
So, you may say, well, all quallies worth their salt do ‘analysis’
and have a look at language, and, in fact you’d probably be
right…but maybe too, it behoves us to be cautious in our
runaway love affair with both speed and the technological and
access possibilities of the internet and ‘stealthy’ recording – if
we use either in a way that obviates quality thinking….
And, of course, I reiterate, playing with the language and words
intelligently - ideally in the experienced, savvy, educated
qualitative mind - is what we always have and hopefully always
will have to do, no matter what our material looks like
Bibliography and References
Burr, V (1995) An Introduction to Social Constructionism (Routledge)
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Bloomer, A, Trott, K, Wray, A (1998) Projects in Linguistics (Arnold for Hodder
Headline)
Campbell, R (2003) How Does Insight Emerge Through the Process of Conducting
Qualitative Research Amongst Teenagers (MSc dissertation)
Cecchin, G, Lane, G and Ray, W (1992) Irreverence (Karnac Books)
Chomsky, N (2007) What We Say Goes: Interviews with David Barsamian (Hamish
Hamilton)
Clandinin, D.J and Connelly, F.M (2000) Narrative Inquiry (Jossey-Bass)
Feldwick, P (2007) Notes on Poetry and Planning (talk at M &C Saatchi)
Goulding, C (2002) Grounded Theory (Sage)
Heaton, J.M (2000) Wittgenstein and Psychoanalysis (Icon Books)
Holloway, W and Jefferson,T (2000) Doing Qualitative Research Differently (Sage)
Lidstone, R (2005) The Need for Brand Humility (MRS Conference)
Mouncey,P (editor, 2007) International Journal of Market Research,volume 49, Issue
6 (WARC)
Pinker, S (1994) The Language Instinct (Penguin Books)
Pinker, S (2007) The Stuff of Thought (Allen Lane for Penguin)
Strathern, P (1996) Wittgenstein in 90 Minutes (Constable, London)
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