Download Final Study Guide 8th Grade

Final Exam Study Guide 8th Grade Social Studies
U.S. History
Compiled by Mr. Woodward
IN THE BEGINNING – Geography
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Geography is the study of people, their environments, & their resources
Geographers help historians understand the past by showing how people & land are related
The main purpose of latitude & longitude is to show a region’s location on a map
The US is border to the North by the nation of Canada & to the South by Mexico
The US is border to the east by the Atlantic Ocean & to the West by the Pacific Ocean
There are many important river systems in the US examples being the Mississippi River, the Missouri
River, the Ohio River, the Colorado River, & the Hudson River
The US also contains 5 Great Lakes, which received their name due to their large size. They include
Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, & Ontario (last 2 in New York)
The US also possesses 2 major mountain ranges the Appalachians in the east & the Rocky mountains in
the West
The US capital is located in Washington D.C. New York state’s capital city is located at Albany
Three major mountain ranges are located in New York the Adhirondacks, the Catskills, & the Allegheny
Mountains – all are part of the Appalachian chain
The major rivers in the state of New York are the Hudson, Mohawk, & the St. Lawrence
NATIVE AMERICANS – America’s First Inhabitants
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Geographers study the interaction between people, their environments, and their resources
Historians study what has happened in the lives of different people in our past
The five themes of geography help to illustrate the relationship between geography and history
Political science is a field in which researches study how people set up and maintain governments
Archeologists are individuals who study the past by examining artifacts
Some examples of artifacts which archeologists study are arrowheads, pottery, tools, and buried
animal bones
Longitude and latitude help to determine absolute or exact location of places on the earth.
Latitude lines measure North and South distances from the equator
The equator is an imaginary line at 0 degrees latitude
Longitude lines measure East and West distances from the Prime Meridian
The Prime Meridian lies at 0 degrees longitude
A people’s way of life can be defined as their culture
The Incan civilization was located high in the Andes Mountains in South America
The Aztec people were located in central Mexico with their capital city of Tenochtitlan
Many scientists believe that the first people arrived in the Americas by crossing a land bridge from
Siberia in Asia
Native Americans developed different cultures based upon where the settled in the Americas
Native Americans kept their history alive by storytelling to future generations, this is known as an oral
tradition
The buffalo provided the food, shelter, and clothing for the plain’s hunters
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Native-Americans were polytheistic, which means that they believed in many gods
The Iroquois of New York were perhaps the strongest of the Eastern Woodland tribes
Native Americans had a strong respect for nature and for land, which they believed cold not be sold
or owned
The Iroquois formed a league, which they believed would end wars amongst its members and provide
a defense against potential
Many Native American societies were matriarchal, which meant that women were the head of the
household, and participated in some important tribal decisions
Examples of how Native Americans adapted to their environment include the foods they hate, the
homes in which they lived, and the clothes they wore
THE AGE OF EXPLORATION – “The Americas, who put that there?”
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Europeans became interested in trade for many reasons including new inventions, spices, exotic goods,
and earlier exploration voyages
In order to increase trade profits Europeans looked for new sea routes to Asia
Prince Henry the Navigator helped to increase European interest in exploration by establishing a school
of navigation
Vasco da Gama became the 1st Portuguese sailor to reach India/Asia by sailing around the tip of Africa
Although Columbus is widely believed to be the first European to discover the Americas, it is now
proven that the Vikings arrived centuries earlier
The Columbian Exchange is the name given to the transfer of good, ideas, animals, and disease between
the Old World and the New World
Millions of Native Americans would die as a result of the disease brought to the New World by the
Columbian Exchange
Millions more Native Americans would die from being forced to labor for the Spanish in mines and on
plantations. These plantations were called encomiendas.
The Spanish came to the New World seeking the 3 G’s: Gold, G_d, and Glory
Spanish Conquistadors conquered the Native-Americans of the New World, including the Incas (Pizarro)
and the Aztecs (Cortes)
Bartholome de Las Casas was called the “Protector of the Indians” for speaking on behalf of Indians and
Indian rights in the New World
The Spanish created the empire of New Spain which was locate predominantly in Central and Southern
America
The Middle Passage was the horrific journey where Africans were brought across the Atlantic to the
Americas as slaves
Samuel de Champlain explored the St. Lawrence River and set up Quebec as a fur trading post.
The colony of New France was established along the St. Lawrence River in present day Canada (eh?) and
focused on the trapping and trading of furs with Native Americans
Coureurs de Bois (Runners of the Woods) was another name given to the French Fur Traders
A Northwest Passage was important to Europeans because it would supposedly provided a quick all water
route to Asia through the North American Continent
The Dutch became the first major European group to settle in New York (New Amsterdam) and around
our present state capital of Albany (Fort Orange)
AMERICAN COLONIZATION – A New Land
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The colony on Roanoke Island (present day North Carolina) was England’s first attempt at colonization
in the Americas, which was along the Atlantic Coast of North America
Jamestown was England’s first permanent colony in the Americas, but was plagued by disease, hunger,
hostile Indians, and lazy workers
Jamestown grew because of John Rolfe’s success planting tobacco as a cash crop.
The House of Burgesses was the colony’s first representative body in the New World, and helped pave
the way for representative government in all the colonies.
The New England colonies (Plymouth  Pilgrims & Massachusetts Bay  Puritans) were founded for
RELIGIOUS FREEDOM
The Mayflower Compact was a document signed by the Pilgrims, which promised to set up a
government, which received its power from the people.
The Puritans left England to build a religious society in America so they could practice their religion freely
Thomas Hooker (a Puritan dissenter) founded Connecticut because he feared that the Massachusetts
government was too powerful
Roger Williams founded Rhode Island because he fled Massachusetts due to religious differences with
Puritans
New Englanders fought King Phillip’s War against Native Americans (Metacom) who were fearful of the
growth of the colonies, and the lose of tribal land
The colonists at Plymouth were helped to survive and adapt to the Americas, because Native Americans
taught them to plant corn and fish
Despite this, the soil of New England was rocky, and was hampered by a short growing season.
The Middle Colonies (Breadbasket Colonies) were known for both their farming and their trading success
New Netherland, which was controlled by the Dutch, became New York after it was taken over by the
English
The Triangular Trade was a informal trading route between North America, Europe, and Africa, which
involved such items as sugar, rum, molasses, slaves, manufactured goods, and iron
The triangular trade was a colonial shipping route between New England, the West Indies, and Africa
The backcountry was an inland area at the base of the Appalachian Mountains
Many British settlers moved to the backcountry because of the free land which was available for farming
and settlement
This westward movement caused increased tension between white settlers and Native-Americans, which
led to Bacon’s Rebellion
In the colonies only white Christian males, who owned land, and were 21 years of age, could vote.
The colony of Georgia was established for debtors who were jailed in England
William Penn was the founder of Pennsylvania, a religious haven for Quakers
John Winthrop helped to found the Massachusetts Bay colony for the Puritans
Cecilius Calvert, (Lord Baltimore) helped establish Maryland as a safe haven for Catholics
Roger Williams established Rhode Island to escaper religious persecution as the hands of the Puritans
Indentured servants were those who agreed to work without wages for a length of time in exchange for
passage on a ship to the Americas
A plantation was a large self-sufficient farm and estate, which utilized slave labor to produce cash crops
such as tobacco, rice, indigo, or cotton
Mercantilism is an economic theory, which stated that a nation becomes strong by building up its supply
of gold, and by expanding its trade, at the expense of its colonies. “mother” England
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The Great Awakening was a religious movement, which spread throughout the English colonies
The Salem Witch Trials caused the unwarranted death of many of Salem’s citizens, and illustrated how
religious fanaticism can be harmful
The Peter Zenger case helped to establish the idea of Freedom of the Press in the English colonies, by
allowing the press to criticize colonial governments
THE ROAD TO & THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION – A New Nation Emerges
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The conflict over land led to the French and Indian War in colonial North America
The Albany Plan of Union was the idea of Ben Franklin, in which he called for the colonies to unite to
defend themselves against French and Indian attacks
The British military and the colonists won the French and Indian war, and as a result, gained all the
French lands in North America
The British government was left with a huge monetary debt following the French and Indian War, which
they wanted the colonists in America to shrink by paying taxes
The Proclamation of 1763 forbade the colonists from settling on land west of the Appalachian
Mountains, in an effort to avoid the settlers conflict with Native Americans
“Salutatory Neglect” is the term given to the time period when Britain largely left the colonies to govern
themselves, and where the colonists ignored British mercantilism laws (smuggling & trading with other
European powers)
Colonists reacted differently to Parliamentary practices, some protested peacefully (boycotting), while
some resorted to mob violence (tar and feathering)
A boycott was a non-violent form of protest where colonists refused to buy British trade goods
The British Parliament passed the Stamp Act to help raise money to repay the debt left from fighting the
French and Indian War
Colonists in Massachusetts staged the Boston Tea Party to protest the British tax on tea
Colonists began to debate if it was fair for the British Parliament to tax them since the colonists did not
have elected representatives in the English Parliament
The Sons of Liberty were colonists who staged protests against British colonial policies
“No Taxation without Representation” was a colonial response to British economic policies toward the
economy
The Boston Massacre resulted in the unfortunate death of 5 colonists after an altercation with British
Troops
The Olive Branch Petition was a colonial effort to restore peace between the British government and the
colonies; however, it was ignored by King George III
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense made many colonists support the idea of independence from Britain
John Locke was a British political theorist who stated that the power to govern came from the people
Thomas Jefferson was the author of the Declaration of Independence in July of 1776
The Declaration of Independence was based on the idea of natural rights, or rights that belong to all
human beings (these rights are acquired at birth)
The colonists viewed the idea of unity (oneness) as a strong defense against Great Britain
The Revolutionary War began with the Battles at Lexington (Shot Heard Round the World) and Concord
Supporters of Great Britain were known as Loyalists or Tories
Supporters of independence were known as Patriots
George Washington of Virginia was granted control of the Continental Army
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The Americans had the advantage of knowledge of the American terrain, and leadership of George
Washington
In the winter of 1777, the Continental Army spent a long harsh winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.
The Battle of Saratoga was a colonial victory, and proved to be the turning point of the war because the
victory helped to secure France as an ally (Scary thought, I know!)
France aided the colonies by providing money, supplies, and military assistance
The Revolution came to an end with the surrender of General Cornwallis and his British forces at
Yorktown, Virginia
The Treaty of Paris (1783) established the United States of America as a free and independent nation
THE CONSTITUTION – We the PEOPLE
1. The constitution is a bundle of compromises and a living document.
Great Compromise
Representation
Virginia Plan
James Madison
NJ Plan
William Patterson
Bicameral
House
Senate
3/5 Compromise
Slave Population
Slave Trade
Slave Trade Compromise
Fugitive Slave Law
Ratification
Federalist
Anti-Federalist
Bill of Rights
Amend
Amendment
2. The constitution is broken down into 7 parts called Articles and an introduction called the
Preamble.
3. The constitution limits the power of the federal government through the principles of
popular sovereignty, separation of powers, and checks & balances.
***Main Principles of the Constitution***
1. Popular Sovereignty (through indirect democracy)
2. Separation of Powers
3. Checks & Balances
4. Federalism (division of power into state and federal with federal power being
supreme)
5. Flexibility (ability to amend)
Separation of
Powers
Legislative
Congress
Make laws
Bill
Approve/Reject
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Impeach
Secretary
Interpret
Indirect democracy
Override
Executive
President
Vice Pres.
Cabinet
Veto
Pocket
Appoint
Judicial
Supreme Court
Constitutional
Unconstitutional
Popular Sovereignty
John Locke
Social Contract
Electoral College
Checks & Balances
State Powers
Federal Powers
Term/Term Limits
Shays’ Rebellion was one of many factors which illustrated the weaknesses and ineffectiveness of the
nation’s first constitution, the Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation gave too much power to the state governments because Americans
feared a tyrant (strong ruler) following their experiences with King George III of England
The initial purpose of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 was to revise the Articles
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One of the main beliefs of the framers of the Constitution is that the government should have limited
powers, so an not become tyrannical
James Madison is known as the “Father of the Constitution” for his role in helping to create the
document
The goals of the nation’s Constitution are listed in the Preamble
At the convention in Philadelphia many debates about representation arose, and were settled by several
compromises
The Great Compromise created a 2 house (BICAMERAL)legislature: one based on population, the
other gave each state 2 officials
The Great compromise was a blend of both the New Jersey (small state) and Virginia (large state) plans
The 3/5 Compromise helped to answer how slaves would be counted in a state’s population for
governmental representation
The Constitution created 3 branches of government (the legislative, the executive, and the judicial), which
is also known as the separation of powers
The legislative branch writes laws, the executive branch enforces laws, and the judicial branch interprets
the law.
The executive branch is headed by the President of the United States
The division of power between the national, state, and local government is known as federalism
Under the system of federalism, delegated powers are left to the national government, reserved powers
are left to the states, while concurrent powers are shared between both levels
The Constitution also created a system of checks and balances, which allows one branch to check the
power of the other two braches to make sure they do not become too powerful
Be sure to understand some of the governmental checks (veto, override, impeachment, judicial review,
etc.)
Judicial Review is the idea that the Supreme Court can decide whether a law violates the Constitution
Federalists are those individuals who wanted to support the ratification (pass) of the Constitution
Federalists believed in a strong central government, which would provide stability and order.
The Federalist Papers were a series of essays written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John
Jay, which helped to give support for the cause for the ratification of the Constitution.
Antifederalists were those individuals who were against the ratification of the Constitution
Antifederalists believed that the national government was too strong, and that the Constitution needed a
Bill of Rights added to protect the basic rights (natural or unalienable rights) of the nation’s citizens
The Elastic Clause gives Congress the right to make all laws it deems “necessary and proper”, which
allows the Constitution to adjust to situations that the framers were not anticipating when the
Constitution was written
The Constitution, is a “living document” which can be changed either by the amendment process, or
through its interpretation by the Supreme Court
The first ten amendments to the Constitution are known as the Bill of Rights, which protect the basic
rights of all Americans
The Bill of Rights protects such things as freedom of speech, religion, the right to bear arms, the right to
trial, and the right of due process of law.
The Constitution is based on the principle of Popular Sovereignty, which means that “The People” have
the final say in government.
The ultimate authority from our form of government comes from the people (We the People …)
The government of the U.S. is a representative democracy, which means that citizens elect representatives
to serve office for them.
WAR of 1812, JACKSONIAN AGE, & MANIFEST DESTINY - Life in the New Nation
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The supreme court received the right of judicial review in the Marbury vs. Madison case (1803), which
allowed them to decide the Constitutionality of laws
The United States doubled the size of the nation when President Jefferson purchased Louisiana from
France in 1803, and expanded the United States west of the Mississippi River
The U.S. purchased Louisiana from Napoleon for 15 million dollars because France needed money to
fight Great Britain and Spain in a war in Europe
President Jefferson sent Lewis and Clark to Louisiana to gather information about resources available,
and also to explore and map the region
Sacajawea, a Shoshone Indian, helped Lewis and Clark on their expedition to Louisiana
Impressment is the act of forcing foreign sailors to work on warships of the British Navy
President Jefferson’s Embargo Act weakened the U.S. economy by hurting both American merchants
and sailors
War Hawks were Congressmen who wanted to wage war with Britain to seize Canada, take Spanish
Florida, stop Britain from impressing our sailors, and stop Native American attacks on the Frontier
The U.S. fought the War of 1812 (nicknamed the Second War for Independence) against Great Britain
The U.S. and Native Americans came into conflict because white settlers threatened the Native
Americans way of life (culture)
The War of 1812 ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent in 1814, which basically returned things
to the way they were before the war was fought
The war ended in a tie, but helped increase U.S. nationalism, or pride in one’s nation
Following his lopsided victory at the Battle of New Orleans Andrew Jackson became a national hero
Following the War of 1812 sectional differences began to emerge in the nation
Sectionalism is the idea that one favors the needs of one's area of the country over the needs of the entire
country
The invention of the Cotton Gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 helped industrialization because it allowed
cotton to be cleaned quicker making it more profitable; however, this would mean southern plantation
owners would expand the slave system to keep up with the demand for cotton
Early industrialization began in the textile mills of New England in the due to the abundance of
waterpower. These mills employed mostly young women and children
Steamboats helped to revolutionize travel on waterways in the early 19th century
The development and construction of the Erie Canal allowed western farmers to ship goods cheaply
and quickly to New York City, which became a center of commerce (trade)
The Erie Canal allowed farmers to ship and sell their goods to many markets along the east coast
The Monroe Doctrine (1823) warned European powers to not colonize the Americas
The Monroe Doctrine reinforced George Washington’s idea of American neutrality by attempting to
avoid armed conflict with Europe
John Quincy Adams defeated Andrew Jackson in the election of 1824. The election was nicknamed the
“Corrupt Bargain” because the election had to be settled by the House of Representatives
When elected to the Presidency in 1828 Andrew Jackson gave his supporters and loyal party member’s
jobs in the government. This was known as the Spoils System.
Nullification is the idea that a state can veto (abolish) or cancel a law of the federal government. The
Nullification Crisis results from Southern hatred of a tariff passed by the U.S. government.
President Jackson passed the Indian Removal Act, which forced the relocation of the 5 civilized tribes
of Native Americans from the Southeastern U.S. to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)
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President Jackson was the hero of the common man, and helped increase democracy in the United States
by extending the right to vote to many Americans (not females, African-Americans, Native-Americans –
well you get the idea)
THE PATH LEADS TO CIVIL WAR – Brother fights brother
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As the nation grew due to expansion & manifest destiny many Americans feared the expansion of
slavery
A series of compromises attempted to cure the slavery vs. free state issue
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 tried to keep the balance of free & slave states in the Union
The Compromise of 1850 left the issue of slavery up to residents in the newly settled territories
This idea was called popular sovereignty, where territory citizens voted for or against slavery
The book Uncle Tom’s Cabin was important because illustrated to many Americans the evil of slavery
The Dred Scott decision of 1857 decided that slaves were property & not citizens of the US
The Republican Party was founded to rid the US of slavery & became the party of Abe Lincoln
John Brown led a raid to Harper’s Ferry, Virginia to seize weapons to start a slave rebellion
The election of Abraham Lincoln led many southern states to decided to leave the Union
Sectionalism, states’ rights, & slavery caused the US to fight a civil war between north (free) vs. the
south (slave-owning)
The secession of many southern states from the Union & the attack on Fort Sumter in Charleston,
South Carolina started the war
The Confederacy was created & Jefferson Davis became its president
The primary goal for Lincoln in fighting the war was to preserve the Union
Initially, the Union planned on capturing Richmond, blockading southern ports, and controlling the
Mississippi River
The South planned on winning the war by fighting a defensive war and wearing down the Union desire to
fight the war
For the south, the Civil War was a fight to keep their traditional ways of life & secede from the Union.
For the north, it was a fight to preserve the Union & rid the nation of slavery
The North had the advantages of its large industrial centers, large railroad network, natural resources,
& money. The south had the advantage of knowing the land, fighting a defensive war, & the great
military leadership of Robert E. Lee
Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation following the Battle of Antietam, which broadened the
purpose of the war, which would now be to free or emancipate southern slaves
The Emancipation Proclamation freed all the slaves in the Confederacy, which really freed no slaves
because the Union did not control the Confederate states
Gettysburg and Vicksburg (1863) were both Northern victories, and marked the turning point of the Civil
War in the North
In the Gettysburg Address, President Lincoln stated that the purpose of the Civil War was to defend
democracy and spread freedom
President Lincoln appointed as his chief general Ulysses S. Grant, who planned to fight a total war with
the South by destroying their ability to fight
As a result of the war, slavery was abolished, the south had to rejoin the Union, more Americans died
than in any other American war since then American fought Americans
America would struggle to rebuild the nation after the destruction of so much property
RECONSTRUCTION – The Nation Heals its Wounds
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Total war is the idea of destroying your enemy’s economy by destroying all of their food and equipment
Following the Civil War the South was destroyed both physically and economically
Reconstruction was the period in which the South was rebuilt, and restored to the Union
Carpetbaggers were northerners who moved south during Reconstruction to gain wealth or power
Scalawags were southerners who supported the Radical Republicans who were viewed as traitors by fellow
southerners
A positive effect of Reconstruction was that new constitutional amendments expanded the political and
civil rights of African-Americans
Black Codes were laws which restricted the rights of African-Americans in the South
Poll Taxes, Literacy Tests, Grandfather Clauses, and Jim Crow Laws were all tools used by Southern
governments following Reconstruction to deny rights to African-Americans
The Ku Klux Klan was a group, which terrorized African-Americans in the South and attempted to
maintain segregation in the South, as well as preventing African-Americans from exercising their right to
vote.
Segregation is the process of separating the races in society (keeping whites and blacks separated)
African-Americans in the South (freedmen) were extremely poor following the war, and many became
sharecroppers
Sharecropping was virtually a new form of slavery where freedmen were taken advantage of by rich
landowners
The Freedmen’s Bureau was established to help former slaves by providing food, job training, and an
education
Black Codes and Jim Crow Laws were both southern attempts to deny African-Americans their political
and civil rights
Segregation became legalized in 1896 following the Plessy vs. Ferguson decision, which stated that
segregation was legal if “separate but equal” facilities were provided to both whites and blacks. The
facilities were rarely if ever “equal.”
Impeachment is when a public official is accused of committing a crime or some other wrongdoing
Carpetbaggers were northerners who moved south during Reconstruction to gain wealth or power
Scalawags were southerners who supported the Radical Republicans who were viewed as traitors by fellow
southerners