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Psychol
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‫منهج‬
‫قراءات في علم النفس واالرشاد باإلنجليزية (‪)2‬‬
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Psychology
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves
the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors.[1][2] Psychology
has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both
establishing general principles and researching specific cases,[3][4] and
by many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society.[5][6] In this field, a
professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can
be classified as a social ,behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists
attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual
and social behavior, while also exploring the
physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions
and behaviors.
Psychologists explore concepts such
as perception, cognition, attention,emotion, intelligence, phenomenology,
motivation, brain functioning ,personality, behavior, and interpersonal
relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and
other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider
the unconscious mind.[7] Psychologists employ empirical methods to
infer causal and correlational relationships between
psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to
employing empirical and deductive methods, some—
especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely
upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology
has been described as a "hub science",[8] with psychological findings
linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural
sciences, medicine, and the humanities, such as philosophy.
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While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and
treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards
understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human
activity. The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of
therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings.
Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental
processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology
departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools,
hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings,
or in other areas[9] such as human development and
aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation
and other aspects of law.
Behaviorism
In the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of
thought during the 1950s. Behaviorism is a discipline that was
established in the early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced
and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman,
and later B.F. Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the ways in
which people might be predisposed, or conditioned, by their
environments to behave in certain ways.
Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that
behavioral tendencies are determined by immediate associations
between various environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure or
pain that follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consist
of organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment.
The stimuli were held to exert influence in proportion to their prior
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repetition or to the previous intensity of their
associated pain or pleasure. Much research consisted of laboratorybased animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity
as physiology grew more sophisticated.
Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical
inclination toward positivism and determinism.[28] He believed that the
contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that
scientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable
behavior. He focused on behavior–environment relations and analyzed
overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism
interacting with its environment.[29] Behaviorists usually rejected or
deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness";
and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies
unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in
which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[28]
Notable incidents in the history of behaviorism are John B.
Watson's Little Albert experiment which applied classical conditioning to
the developing human child, and the clarification of the difference
between classical conditioning and operant (or instrumental)
conditioning, first by Miller and Kanorski and then by
Skinner.[30][31] Skinner's version of behaviorism emphasized operant
conditioning, through which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by
their consequences.
Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language
acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the decline of
behaviorism's prominence.[32] Martin Seligman and colleagues
discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to outcomes ("learned
helplessness") that opposed the predictions of behaviorism.[33][34] But
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Skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in part because it generated
successful practical applications.[32] The fall of behaviorism as an
overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant
paradigm: cognitive approaches.
Humanistic
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both
behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[37] By using phenomenology, inter
subjectivity, and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought
to glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the
personality or cognitive functioning.[38] Humanism focused on
fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as individual free will,
personal growth, self-actualization, self-
identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic
approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning,
rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than
pathology.[citation needed] Some of the founders of the humanistic school of
thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated
a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and
developed client-centered therapy. Later, positive psychology opened
up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.
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Gestalt
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the
school of Gestalt psychology. This approach is based upon the idea that
individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to
psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century
in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather
than breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the
Gestalt position maintains that the whole of experience is important, and
the whole is different from the sum of its parts.
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt
therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt
psychology.
Cognitive Psycholoy
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental
processes including problem solving, perception, memory, and learning.
As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology
is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and
linguistics.
Noam Chomsky helped to launch a "cognitive revolution" in psychology
when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "stimulus", "response", and
"reinforcement". Chomsky argued that such ideas—which Skinner had
borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory—could be applied to
complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a
superficial and vague manner. The postulation that humans are born
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with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a
challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior, including
language, is contingent upon learning and reinforcement.[44] Social
learning theorists, such as Albert Bandura, argued that the child's
environment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an
observant subject
Meanwhile, advances in technology helped to renew interest and belief
in the mental states and representations—i.e., the cognition—that had
fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles
Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used
experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the
structure and function of the brain. With the rise of computer
science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the
processing of information by humans and information processing by
machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since World War
II, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation.[46] By the
late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become the
dominant paradigm of psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as
a popular branch.
Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied, and that the
scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set
such concepts as subliminal processing and implicit memory in place of
the psychoanalytic unconscious mind or the behavioristic contingency-
shaped behaviors. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology
were synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a
form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American
psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck.
Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such
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as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the
cover discipline of cognitive science.
Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for
the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically
based distress ordys function and to promote subjective well-being and
personal development. Central to its practice are psychological
assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also
engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and
program development and administration.[48] Some clinical psychologists
may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury—this
area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical
psychology is a regulated mental health profession.
The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by
various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship
between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or
small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices are
associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different
procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of
psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or
behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are
psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and
systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to
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integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an
increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality,
and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings
regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major
therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common
element being a strong therapeutic alliance. Because of this, more
training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic
therapeutic orientation.
Memory
In psychology, memory is the process in which information is encoded,
stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information from the outside
world to reach the five senses in the forms of chemical and physical
stimuli. In this first stage the information must be changed so that it may
be put into the encoding process. Storage is the second memory stage
or process. This entails that information is maintained over periods of
time. Finally the third process is the retrieval of information that has
been stored. Such information must be located and returned to
the consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the
type of information, and other attempts to remember stored information
may be more demanding for various reasons.
From an information processing perspective there are three main stages
in the formation and retrieval of memory:

Encoding or registration: receiving, processing and combining of
received information
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
Storage: creation of a permanent record of the encoded
information

Retrieval, recall or recollection: calling back the stored information
in response to some cue for use in a process or activity
The loss of memory is described as forgetfulness or, as a medical
disorder, amnesia.
Sensory memory
Sensory memory holds sensory information for less than one second
after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item and remember
what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or
memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive
control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations,
participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can
actually report. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory
memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963)[1] using the "partial
report paradigm". Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters,
arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects
were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which
of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments,
Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was
approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few
hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so
quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of
the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed. This
type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.
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Three types of sensory memories exist. Iconic memory is a fast
decaying store of visual information; a type of sensory memory that
briefly stores an image which has been perceived for a small
duration. Echoic memory is a fast decaying store of auditory information,
another type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds that have
been perceived for short durations.[2] Haptic memory is a type of
sensory memory that represents a database for touch stimuli.
Short-term memory
Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a
minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A.
Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments
showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of
his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2"). Modern estimates of the
capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5
items;[3] however, memory capacity can be increased through a process
called chunking.[4] For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone
number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area
code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-
digit chunk (7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is
far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this
is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups
of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to
display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers.
Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for
storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad
(1964)[5] found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections
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of letters that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion with
recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters
implies that the letters were encoded acoustically. Conrad's (1964)
study, however, deals with the encoding of written text; thus, while
memory of written language may rely on acoustic components,
generalizations to all forms of memory cannot be made.
Long-term memory
The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a
strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is not
retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much
larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration
(sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurably large. For
example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for
only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our
short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone
numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be
stored in long-term memory.
While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term
memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966)[6] discovered that,
after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a
collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great,
huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic
memory, "which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when'
and 'where'".[7] With episodic memory, individuals are able to recall
specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.
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Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal
communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially
dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. Long-term memory,
on the other hand, is maintained by more stable and permanent
changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain.
The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the
consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory,
although it does not seem to store information itself. Without the
hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term
memory, as learned from patient Henry Molaison after removal of both
his hippocampi,[8] and there will be a very short attention span.
Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a
period of three months or more after the initial learning.
Personality psychology
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology that
studies personality and its variation among individuals. Its areas of focus
include:

Construction of a coherent picture of the individual and their major
psychological processes

Investigation of individual psychological differences

Investigation of human nature and psychological similarities
between individuals
"Personality" is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics
possessed by a person that uniquely influences their
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environment, cognitions, emotions, motivations, and behavioral
science in various situations. The word "personality" originates from
the Latin persona, which means mask. In i making changes
the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used
as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but instead was a
convention employed to represent or typify that character.
Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social
adjustments, and behaviors consistently exhibited over time that strongly
influences one's expectations, self-perceptions, values, and attitudes. It
also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and
stress.[1][2] There is still no universal consensus on the definition of
"personality" in psychology. Gordon Allport(1937) described two major
ways to study personality: the nomothetic and the
idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be
applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-
actualization or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an
attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual.
The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology
with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include
dispositional (trait) perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological,
behaviorist, evolutionary and social learning perspective. However, many
researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with
a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. Research
in this area is empirically driven, such as dimensional models, based
on multivariate statistics, such as factor analysis, or emphasizes theory
development, such as that of the psychodynamic theory. There is also a
substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In
psychological education and training, the study of the nature of
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personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a
prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical psychology.
Intelligence
Intelligence has been defined in many different ways such as in terms of
one's capacity for logic, abstract thought, understanding, self-
awareness, communication, learning, emotional knowledge, memory,
planning, creativity and problem solving. It can also be more generally
described as the ability to perceive and/or retain knowledge or
information and apply it to itself or other instances of knowledge or
information creating referable understanding models of any size, density,
or complexity, due to any conscious or subconscious imposed will or
instruction to do so.
Intelligence is most widely studied in humans, but has also been
observed in non-human animals and in plants. Artificial intelligence is
the simulation of intelligence in machines.
Within the discipline of psychology, various approaches to human
intelligence have been adopted. The psychometric approach is
especially familiar to the general public, as well as being the most
researched and by far the most widely used in practical settings.[1]
Intelligence derives from the Latin verb intelligere, to comprehend or
perceive. A form of this verb, intellectus, became the medieval technical
term for understanding, and a translation for the Greek philosophical
term nous. This term was however strongly linked to the metaphysical
and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism, including
theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the Active
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Intellect (also known as the Active Intelligence). This entire approach to
the study of nature was strongly rejected by the early modern
philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and
David Hume, all of whom preferred the word "understanding" in their
English philosophical works.[2][3] Hobbes for example, in his Latin De
Corpore, used "intellect tus intelligit" (translated in the English version as
"the understanding understandeth") as a typical example of a logical
absurdity.[4] The term "intelligence" has therefore become less common
in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the
scholastic theories which it now implies) in more contemporary
psychology.
Definitions:
The definition of intelligence is controversial. Some groups of
psychologists have suggested the following definitions:
From "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" (1994), an editorial statement
by fifty-two researchers:
A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the
ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend
complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely
book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it
reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our
surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out"
what to do.[5]
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From "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" (1995), a report published
by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological
Association:
Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex
ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience,
to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by
taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial,
they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual
performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as
judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to
clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although
considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such
conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and
none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent
theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two
dozen, somewhat different, definitions.[6][7]
Besides those definitions, psychology and learning researchers also
have suggested definitions of intelligence such as:
Researcher
Quotation
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Judgment, otherwise called "good sense," "practical
Alfred Binet
David Wechsler
sense," "initiative," the faculty of adapting one's self
to circumstances ... auto-critique.[8]
The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to
act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal
effectively with his environment.[9]
"...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in
Lloyd Humphreys memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using
in new contexts information and conceptual skills."[10]
Cyril Burt
Innate general cognitive ability[11]
To my mind, a human intellectual competence must
entail a set of skills of problem solving — enabling
the individual to resolve genuine problems or
Howard Gardner
difficulties that he or she encounters and, when
appropriate, to create an effective product — and
must also entail the potential for finding or creating
problems — and thereby laying the groundwork for
the acquisition of new knowledge.[12]
Linda Gottfredson The ability to deal with cognitive complexity.[13]
Sternberg & Salter Goal-directed adaptive behavior.[14]
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The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability
describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of
Reuven Feuerstein human beings to change or modify the structure of
their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing
demands of a life situation."[15]
Charles Spearman
"...all branches of intellectual activity have in
common one fundamental function, whereas the
remaining or specific elements of the activity seem in
every case to be wholly different from that in all the
others."[16]
How Does Heredity and Environment
Influence Intelligence?
There are many claims, opinions, and arguments about where
intelligence comes from - is it from our genetic heritage, or is it a
consequence of the environment and our experiences? Below are some
research findings and compelling arguments about how our genes and
our society influence intelligence.
Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Research findings confirming that intelligence is a by-product of our
heredity revolves around finding specific genetic markers and
associating IQ levels of parents and siblings.
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Genetic markers on intelligence are believed to be found in
chromosomes 4, 6 and 22. The genetic marker in chromosome 6
appears in 1/3 of children with high IQ, and only 1/6 of children with
average IQs.
Identical twins appear to possess more similar IQ levels than fraternal
twins. Arthur Jensen in 1969 reviewed research studies about
intelligence and found that the IQ levels of identical twins are 32% more
similar than the IQ levels of fraternal twins. He also found that the IQ
levels of identical twins reared together are just 11% more similar than
the IQ levels of identical twins reared apart. Thus, Jensen concludes
that the environment plays very minimal role in developing intelligence.
Apart from looking at the intelligence of twins, parents' intelligence also
contributes to the genetic debate. Research shows that the IQ of
biological parents are more predictive of the child's IQ than the IQ of the
adoptive parents.
Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Environmental influences come in different packages - family, ethnicity,
socio-economic status, gender, and education.
The family has a critical role in elevating IQ scores. Communication
received during the first 3 years of life is the primary predictor of
Stanford-Binet IQ score at age 3. Moreover, simply moving or exposing
children to families with better environments increases their IQs by 12
points.
Ethnicity also plays an influential role. On average, African American
schoolchildren score 10-15 points lower on standardized tests than
White American schoolchildren. Also, only 15-25% of African American
schoolchildren scored higher than 50% of White American
schoolchildren. Additionally, African Americans are prone to stereotype
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threat. In one study, 50% of African American and White American
students at Stanford University were told that the verbal part of the
Graduate Record Examination (GRE) will be used to assess their
intellectual abilities, whereas the other 50% were told that the test will
be simply administered to establish its reliability and validity. Both
groups of White American students scored similarly on the two
scenarios. However, African Americans scored better on the second
scenario than the first. The first scenario triggered a stereotype threat.
The African American students were pressured on the first scenario, that
how they'd score in the test might confirm a negative stereotype about
their ethnicity. As a result of their anxiety, they performed worse than
they'd normally do.
The notion of intelligence also differs across cultures. Europeans place
emphasis on thinking and reasoning skills; Kenyans on participation in
family and community activities; Ugandas on planning and execution;
Iatmul tribe in Papua New Guinea on remembering the names of 10-
20,000 clan members; and tribes at the Caroline Islands in the Pacific
Ocean near eastern Philippines cherish the ability to navigate land and
sea by reading the stars.
Socio-economic status is also very important. Having the means and
the resources gives a sense of security and access to stimulating
environments. Within a certain ethnicity, those in the low SES scored
significantly lower than those in the middle and higher SES.
One's gender can also influence intelligence. On average, males and
females have similar IQ levels. However, males' scores are more
variable. Males specifically perform better in spatial and abstract
reasoning, while females tend to be better at finding synonyms.
Lastly, and perhaps the most important of all, is education. Intervention
day care increases IQ score by 17 points at age 3, and 5 points by age
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15. South African Indian children lost 5 IQ points per year of schooling
delayed due to the unavailability of teachers. The gap between African
and White Americans on standardized test scores is narrowing,
especially in college, most likely because of having similar educational
environments. In 1999, James Flynn also discovered that the human
race is becoming more and more intelligent (also called the Flynn
Effect). In the ancient times, only adult priests can read; nowadays, 7year old children must already know how to read.
How Do We Measure Intelligence?
The earliest recorded intelligence test was made by the Chinese
emperor Ta Yu in 22,000 BC. It was devised to examine government
officials, and was used as the basis for promoting or firing them. Today,
intelligence testing forms part of the scope of Psychometry, a branch of
Psychology specialized in psychological testing. Psychometrists create,
administer, and interpret tests and their results. Psychometrists typically
hold masters in Psychology, and underwent extensive courses on
testing. They work in educational, business, and clinical settings.
Intelligence testing began to take a concrete form when Sir Francis
Galton, an English psychologist considered to be the father of mental
tests, demonstrated in the late 19th century that individuals
systematically differ across then-known key components of intelligence
(sensory, perceptual, and motor processes). Although the tests he
designed resulted to very few significant findings, they nevertheless
brought forth important questions about intelligence - questions that
remain tantamount to the refinement of intelligence testing even to this
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day. These questions revolve around the methods of measurement,
components, and heritability of intelligence.
Popular Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests are classified in two ways - individual/group,
aptitude/achievement. Aptitude tests measure the potential development
of the testee, like a tool for predicting future performance. Achievement
tests, on the other hand, measure mastery of a specific domain, and
thus evaluate current performance. Abstract tests are mainly aptitude in
type, while quarterly examinations in schools are mainly achievement in
type. Intelligence tests also differ in how they are being administered,
whether by individual or by group. Individual tests consider the
interaction between the tester and the testee, and thus are more
customized and personal. On the other hand, groups tests are more
economical, saving time, money and effort. Because group tests are
more superficial than individual tests, they only serve supplemental basis
when it comes to special placements. For example, the legal
requirements for placing children in special education include group and
individual tests, and additional information outside the testing situation.
Intelligence tests today, however, are more complicated than these basic
classifications. They can be mainly aptitude type, mainly achievement
type, or both; and can be administered individually and/or by group.
Stanford-Binet Test.
This test is given to individuals even as young as 2 years old and up to
adulthood. The test consists of various items requiring verbal and
nonverbal response. For example, a 6-year old child may be asked to
define a list of words and also to trace a maze path. The test attempts
to measure cognitive processes, such as memory, imagery,
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comprehension and judgment. The test also emphasizes the importance
of considering age when administering and interpreting results. After
collecting results from a large number of testees through the years,
findings were found to approximate a normal distribution, or a bell curve,
in which most testees fall in the middle scores (84-116) and about 2%
scores greater than 132 and less than 68. The Stanford-Binet test
started in 1904 when Alfred Binet was asked to devise a method to
separate students who benefit from regular classroom instruction and
those who need to be placed in special schools. Through the help of his
student, Theophile Simon, Binet came up with 30 items and
administered the test to 50 nonretarded children aged 3 to 11 years old.
Based on the results of the test, Binet was able to identify the norm for
mental age. For example, 6-year old Simon scored 20, which is the
average score of 9-year old children; thus, his mental age is 9. In 1912,
William Stern formulated the notion of intelligence quotient (IQ) in which
he divided the mental age by the chronological age and multiplied it by
100. Based on this formula, he classified testees as "average", "above
average", and "below average". Lastly, in 1985, Lewis Terman revised
the original test in Stanford University, hence the name. His revisions
include detailing and classifying insructions, adding other content areas
(such as evaluating short-term memory, and verbal, quantitative and
abstract reasoning), applying the concept of IQ in intepreting results,
extensively calculating the norms, and identifying a general score for
intelligence.
Weschler Scales.
David Weschler developed different scales to measure intelligence. The
first scale was developed in 1939. Today, it is known as the Weschler
Adult Intelligence Scale - III (WAIS-III). Other scales he developed are
25
the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children - III (WISC-III), which is for
children and adolescents aged 6 to 16 years old, and the Weschler
Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), which is for
children aged 4 to 6.5 years old. All of Weschler's scales are divided
into 6 verbal subscales and 5 nonverbal subscales. Norms developed
from nonverbal subscales are astonishingly more representative than the
abstract content of the Stanford-Binet test. Weschler scores his scales
in two ways: there are specific IQ scores for all subscales and a general
IQ score for the entire scale. Scoring is therefore more rigorous and
possibly more accurate than the Stanford-Binet test.
Army Alpha Test and Army Beta Test (1917).
The Army tests are the first intelligence tests that were administered in a
group. The Army Alpha test is a written exam, whereas the Army Beta
test is a performance exam given orally or verbally to illiterate recruits.
Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT).
This test is taken by almost 1 million US high school seniors every year
to gain passage to colleges and universities. The SAT is mostly an
achievement test rather than an aptitude test, and is therefore oftentimes
not viewed as an intelligence test. But it can still be considered an
intelligence test because it measures and scores the same domain
abilities - verbal and mathematical proficiency; and it was similarly
developed to predict school success as with the Stanford-Binet test.
Although the SAT is administered in a group, the result of the test is
interpreted along with other individual measures, such as high school
grades, quality of the high school, recommendation letters, personal
interviews, and special activities or circumstances that benefited or
impeded the testee's intellectual ability (e.g., contests, projects, outside
26
involvements, etc.). Although the SAT is widely used as an index to
accept high school students in colleges and universities, there have
been many criticisms about it. First, research shows that simply
coaching students on a short-term basis can dramatically raise their
SAT scores by 15 points. Second, SAT scores appear to show that
males score better than females by 42 points on average. Further
review by the College Board shows that males tend to score 35 points
more on mathematical contents and 8 points more on verbal contents
than females. According to the Educational Testing Service, the SAT
aims to predict first year grades, but actual data shows that females
tend to outperform males during the first year. This could mean that the
SAT is not equally reliable for both male and female testees.
Criteria for Intelligence Tests
A good intelligence test must be valid, reliable and standard.
Validity
refers to how well the test accurately capture what it attempts to
measure. For intelligence tests, that is "intelligence". For example, a test
measuring language proficiency in itself cannot be considered an
intelligence test because not all people proficient in a certain language
are "intelligent", in a sense. Similarly, a test measuring mathematical
ability need not include instructions using cryptic English. Validity can be
established in two ways. First, there should be a representative sample
of items across the entire domain of intelligence (i.e., not just
mathematical abilities, but verbal skills as well). This is where Weschler
scales seem to fare better than the Stanford-Binet test. Second, the
results should match an external criterion. Common external criteria are
27
educational achievements, career success, and wealth; that is, intelligent
people are often achievers, whether in school, work, or finances.
Reliability
refers to the stability and consistency of scores the intelligence test
produces. For example, Peter took a random 50% sample of an
intelligence test on his first year, and answered 75% of the test items
correctly. Thereafter, Peter took the test year after year. Surprisingly,
the results were inconsistent. He correctly answered 90% of the items in
his second year, 40% of the items in his third year, and 60% in his first
year. Meanwhile, Annie took the intelligence test every month in her first
year, and the results seemed nonsense. Because the results vary
significantly every retake, then the test loses its ability to be predictive of
what it attempts to measure.
Standardization
refers to the uniformity of administering and scoring the test. An
intelligence test does not consist only of the test items; it includes the
process in which the test is given and interpreted. For example, if the
test requires an interview, all the interviewers should ask the same
questions in the same way. Ideal standardization is, of course,
impossible, but the test should attempt to eliminate certain factors that
can compromise the test's reliability.
Cultural Bias in Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests are traditionally biased with the dominant culture. Early
intelligence tests consistently showed that urban testees scored better
than rural testees, that middle-income test-takers fare better than lowincome test-takers, and that White Americans get higher scores than
28
African-Americans. For example, an early intelligence test asks children
what would be the best thing to do when one finds a 3-year old child
alone in the street. The correct answer then was to call the police. This
is where the minority's perception differ. Most rural children have
negative impressions about authority figures, including the police; most
low-income children know where to look for a security guard, but not a
policeman; and, the African-American culture allows children as young
as 3 years old to roam about and explore their environment alone, and
so most African-American children might not even understand what the
question is all about.
Intelligence tests today attempt to minimize cultural bias by
administering the test and adjusting the norms to and for a large and
more representative sample of the population. However, intelligence
tests continue to be biased toward the dominant group. There are some
test-makers who attempt to go beyond "norms" adjustment, and actually
modify or include test items from the minority group's domain expertise.
These attempts make up the culture-fair tests - intelligence tests
intended to be culturally unbiased. Two popular culture-fair tests are the
Raven Progressive Matrices and the System of Multicultural Pluralistic
Assessment (SOMPA). The Raven Progressive Matrices attempts to
eradicate language barrier and cultural factors inherent to the language
of the test by making the test simply nonverbal; however, results still
show that the educated consistently score better than the illiterate. So
far, the SOMPA is considered to be the most comprehensive of the
culture-fair tests today. The SOMPA measures both verbal and
nonverbal intelligence by utilizing WISC-III; it takes into consideration
the testee's social and economic background by conducting a 1-hour
interview with the parents; it factors in the testee's social adjustment in
29
school by administering questionnaires to parents; and, it also identifies
the testee's physical health by means of a medical examination.
Culture-fair tests today seem to reveal that intelligence tests do not
accurately capture the notion of intelligence; rather, they simply reflect
the priorities of the dominant culture.
The Misuse and Abuse of Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests attempt objectivity by ideally meeting certain criteria validity, reliability, and standardization; but, classifications,
categorizations, and placements borne out of the norms of the test
reinforce the same bias it attempted to eliminate in the first place.
Anyone who took an IQ test knows how bad it feels when you are
sandwiched between those who fared better and those who scored
worse. Imagine how the lowest scorer would feel. No matter how
interpreters attempt to objectify the meaning of the scores, we all have
our own subjective understanding of how we did compared to others.
And this have drastic repercussions. First, anyone who scores lower
feels down, is ridiculed, and even feels more down. Second, anyone
who scores higher feels elated, starts to ridicule others, and begins to
exaggerate one's self. Self-prophecy kicks in, and the test, instead of
being a form of measurement, becomes a variable that effects change to
the test-takers. The basic example goes like this: People who scored
low in the first test tend to be pessimistic and perform worse on the
second test, whereas people who scored high on the first test tend to be
optimistic and perform better on the second test.
30
What is Creativity?
Creativity is the ability to think in novel ways and to generate
unconventional ideas and solutions to problems.
Intelligence versus Creativity
Creative people are often intelligent, but intelligent people are not always
creative. According to Sternberg, intelligent people tend to produce a lot
of good results, but the results are not novel, interesting, or different;
intelligent people tend to please the mob, but not defy it; and, intelligent
people tend to generate only one answer to one problem, whereas
creative people produce many answers to a single problem.
The Creative Process
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi identifies five activities creative people engage
to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Preparation - gaining interest and curiosity, and immersing one's
self in a certain problem or issue;
Incubation - generating diverse ideas, and making unusual
connections among these ideas;
Insight - gaining a clear and concrete picture of how the ideas
relate to each other;
Evaluation - deciding the workability and value of an idea; and,
Elaboration - transforming the idea into action.
The creative process is not always linear. Sometimes, elaboration is
interrupted by incubation and insight sometimes appears during
31
incubation, evaluation and elaboration. Sometimes, it may take hours or
even years for insights to appear; and insights may be either deep, or
come in small series.
Characteristics of Creative People:
Perkins identifies 4 characteristics of creative people:
Flexible and Playful Thinking. Creative people like to challenge the
convention and give rise to paradox. They practice brainstorming to
come up with as many ideas as possible. They enjoy the company of
other creative people with whom they play off each other's ideas, and
then share their unconventional ideas without the threat of criticisms.
They also often utilize humor to avoid censorship and to generate
thoughts more quickly.
Intrinsic Motivation. Creative people generate novel ideas for no other
reason but the joy of creating. They enjoy their creativity. External
factors are in fact more damaging because they limit their creativity.
Willingness to Risk. Creative people never mind failure. Failure can be
translated to fear, and fear can impede curiosity. Creativity is all about
generating more ideas and possibilities, and creative people are fully
aware that more ideas means committing a good number of mistakes.
But unlike most goal-oriented people, creative people deliberately make
mistakes to come up with the best opportunities to learn. For example,
not all the 2,000 paintings made by Pablo Picasso are masterpieces.
Objectivity. Creative people are also fully aware of how they can get
out of hand with their own ideas, so they intentionally come up with
rather stringent rules to evaluate and criticize their work. They come up
with their own criteria of judging the value of their work, and they also
extensively consult other people's opinions. In fact, they hold the
32
opinions of people who think differently than them as more significant
than the ideas of people who agree with them.
Creative People

Mark Strand, former US poet laureate, describes his most
creative moments as those in which he loses the sense of time,
becoming too absorbed in the activity, which often involves
dismantling and remaking meanings. These creative moments are
fleeting. They come and go, and they tend to come randomly, so
he takes advantage of them by transforming every generated idea
into a verbal image that he can get back to when needed. Bill
Gates of Microsoft also brings with him a notebook in which he jots
down every valuable or interesting idea that comes to mind.

Nina Holton is a popular contemporary sculptor who shares that
creative sculptures are a combination of unique ideas and hard
work. She emphasizes "hard work" because determination and
persistence makes ideas into reality.

Jonas Salk, inventor of the polio vaccine, reveals that his best
ideas pop out whenever he suddenly wakes up from sleep.
Visualizing his ideas for a few minutes after such an event brings
about a concrete plan that he follows through. Salk believes that
people should nurture their creativity by conversing with openminded, curious, and positive people.
33
How Creative Are You?
This is just a basic measure on how you evaluate yourself as creative or
not. This is not meant to be a valid indicator of your creativity, but just a
simple way of knowing if there is a need to for you to engage in more
creative activities.
Instructions: Read each item carefully, and score yourself as (1) if it is
not like you at all, (2) if it is somewhat not like you, (3) if it is somewhat
like you, and (4) if it is very much like you.
1.
You are good at coming up with lots of new and unique ideas.
2.
You like to brainstorm ideas with other people when trying to
come up with solutions.
3.
You are self-motivated.
5.
You enjoy the companion of other creative people, and like to
4.
6.
You like to play off with your own ideas.
know how they think.
You like to surprise yourself with something everyday.
7.
You like to surprise other people.
9.
You like finding alternative solutions to problems.
8.
You want to wake up in the morning with a specific goal in mind.
10. You like spending time in places that stimulate your creativity.
34
Psychological Disorders and
Behavioral Problems
Below is an alphabetized list of psychological disorders. Click on a
disorder to view a description and information about psychological
treatment options. Or, if you prefer, you may search an alphabetized list
of all treatments.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Adults)

Bipolar Disorder

Borderline Personality Disorder

Child and Adolescent Disorders

Chronic or Persistent Pain

Depression

Eating Disorders and Obesity

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Insomnia

Mixed Anxiety

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Panic Disorder

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Schizophrenia and Other Severe Mental Illnesses

Social Phobia and Public Speaking Anxiety

Specific Phobias (e.g., animals, heights, blood, needles, dental)
Substance and Alcohol Use Disorders
35
Treating Psychological Disorders
Mental illness is a complex issue, and successful treatment
often incorporates multiple types of therapy . Many
psychological disorders have biological components best
treated with medication, cognitive components that respond
well to psychotherapy, or socioeconomic components that may
be addressed through social welfare support (e.g. specialized
housing or income assistance). Successful public mental health
intervention at the community level requires access to services
that address all facets of mental illness. This module presents
several examples of therapies used to treat mental illness.
Please note that the following list is not an exhaustive list of
treatments for psychological disorders, and is not intended to
serve as a substitute for medical advice from a mental health
professional.
Psychotherapy
There are many different types of psychotherapy , derived from
a variety of theories of psychological disorders, but all employ
some form of mental health counseling, in which the patient
works in a structured individual or group setting with a
psychotherapist .
36
One type of psychotherapy is cognitive behavioral therapy
(CBT), which is used to treat a wide variety of psychological
disorders. CBT incorporates aspects of cognitive therapy, which
focuses on how a person’s thoughts influence their mood and
behaviors, and behavioral therapy, which focuses on an
individual’s actions. By combining these two modes of therapy,
CBT aims to help patients identify and modify maladaptive
patterns of thinking and behavior.(1) By changing negative and
unproductive thinking, CBT can help patients cope with
challenging or stressful situations in positive and constructive
ways, which can alleviate psychological symptoms, help
patients manage their disorder and cope with daily stresses, or
prevent a relapse of symptoms. CBT can be used alone or in
conjunction with medication to treat a variety of psychological
disorders, such as depression, substance abuse disorders,
anxiety disorders, and schizophrenia.(2)
Pharmacotherapy(3)
A variety of psychiatric medications are used to eliminate or
decrease the severity of psychological disorder symptoms in
order to improve patient functioning and quality of life.
Antipsychotics such as risperidone (Risperdal), aripiprazole
(Abilify), and clozapine (Clozaril) are often used to treat
psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. To treat depression,
many psychiatrists prescribe antidepressants, which regulate
37
neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, dopamine, and
serotonin. The most commonly used antidepressants are
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as
fluoxetine (Prozac) and sertraline (Zoloft). Mood stabilizers are
frequently used to treat bipolar disorder, sometimes in
conjunction with antipsychotics and antidepressants. Commonly
used mood stabilizers are lithium and anticonvulsants, including
carbamazepine (Tegretol), lamotringe (Lamictal), and
oxcarbazepine (Trileptal). Numerous medications are used to
treat other psychological disorders, and patients must work with
their psychiatrists to find the medication regimen that best suits
their needs.
Assertive Community Treatment(4)
Assertive community treatment (ACT) is a model of mental
health services delivery that provides comprehensive,
individualized care at the community level. ACT programs aim
to provide mentally ill patients with treatment, rehabilitative, and
support services in order to improve their ability to live
independently . ACT services include medication delivery,
individual therapy, crisis and hospital services, substance
abuse therapy, rehabilitative services , supported housing and
transportation, and skill teaching to family members. ACT
programs are usually designed for individuals living with severe
mental illness who have trouble functioning independently in
38
society. As of 2011, ACT programs were available statewide in
six states, and nineteen states had implemented at least one
ACT pilot program.
Barriers to Mental Health Care
Due to the complex nature of psychological disorders,
successful treatment often requires regular access to mental
health care professionals and a variety of support services.
Unfortunately, mental health care services are often not
available or are under-utilized, particularly in developing
countries. In developed countries, the treatment gap (the %age
of individuals who need mental health care but do not receive
treatment) ranges from 44% to 70%; in developing countries,
the treatment gap can be as high as 90%.(1) Common barriers
to mental health care access include limited availability and
affordability of mental health care services, insufficient mental
health care policies, lack of education about mental illness, and
stigma.
Limited Availability of Medication and Health
Professionals
Unavailability of essential medicines is particularly prevalent in
developing countries, and severely restricts access to treatment
39
for psychological disorders. The World Health Organization
reports that nearly 20% of countries do not have at least one
common antidepressant, one antipsychotic, and one
antiepileptic medication available in primary care
settings.(2) This problem is compounded by a lack of mental
health care professionals in low- and middle-income countries;
low-income countries have a median of 0.05 psychiatrists and
0.16 psychiatric nurses per 100,000 people.(3) Even fewer
resources are available for children and adolescents; the WHO
reports that most low- and middle-income countries have only
one child psychiatrist for every one to four million people in
2005.(4) Community-based mental health care is also rare in
low-income countries; about 52% of low-income countries
offer community-based mental health care programs,
compared to about 97% of high-income countries.
Limited Affordability
In many low- and middle-income countries, the high cost of
psychiatric treatment, often due to high medication prices,
poses significant financial barriers to patient care.(6) In
addition, psychological disorders are not covered by insurance
policies in many countries, making mental health care
unaffordable for many people. The WHO also reports that 25%
40
of all countries do not provide disability benefits to patients with
mental disorders, and one-third of the world’s population lives
in countries that allocate less than 1% of their health budget to
mental health.(7) Furthermore, 31% of countries do not have a
specific public budget for mental health.(8)
Policy Limitations
The World Health Organization cites a global lack of
comprehensive mental health policies, which are crucial for
implementing and coordinating mental health care services, as
a key barrier to public access to mental health care. Nearly
one-third of all countries, and almost half of all African nations,
have no comprehensive mental health care policy or plan.
Among countries with mental health care policies in place,
approximately 40% have not been revised since 1990 and do
not address recent developments in mental health care.
Furthermore, 22% of countries do not have laws that offer legal
protection of the human and civil rights of people with mental
illnesses.(9) In many low- and middle-income countries, the
localization of mental health care resources in large cities has
also been cited as a key barrier to providing mental health care
to the entire population, and geographical decentralization has
been recommended to improve accessibility to mental health
care in non-urban communities.(10)
41
Lack of Education
In developing and developed countries, limited knowledge
about mental illness can prevent individuals from recognizing
mental illness and seeking treatment; poor understanding of
mental illness also impairs families’ abilities to provide
adequate care for mentally ill relatives.(11) In 1992, data from
the National Comorbidity Survey revealed that of the 6.2% of
respondents who had a serious mental illness in the 12 months
prior to the survey, fewer than 40% had received stable
treatment. The majority of individuals with an untreated severe
mental illness did not seek care because they believed they did
not have a condition that required treatment. Of responders
with a severe mental illness who did not receive care but
recognized that they needed treatment, 52% reported
situational barriers to care, 46% cited financial barriers, and
45% dropped out of care because they felt that treatment had
not been effective. Furthermore, 72% of respondents who did
not seek treatment chose to do so because they wanted to
“solve the problem on their own”.(12) These findings suggest
that lack of education about the nature of psychological
disorders and the need for consistent treatment is a significant
barrier to care.
42
Stigma
Multiple studies have found that stigma associated with mental
illness often prevents patients from seeking and adhering to
treatment, as patients may “attempt to distance themselves
from the labels that mark them for social exclusion”.
Cultural Perspectives on Mental Health
Stigma, Discrimination, and Mental Health
Mental illness stigma is defined as the “devaluing, disgracing,
and disfavoring by the general public of individuals with mental
illnesses”.(1) Stigma often leads to discrimination, or the
inequitable treatment of individuals and the denial of the “rights
and responsibilities that accompany full
citizenship”.(2) Stigmatization can cause individual
discrimination, which occurs when a stigmatized person is
directly denied a resource (e.g. access to housing or a job),
and structural discrimination, which describes disadvantages
stigmatized people experience at the economic, social, legal,
and institutional levels.(3) In addition, stigma can prevent
mentally ill individuals from seeking treatment, adhering to
treatment regimens, finding employment, and living successfully
in community settings. In 2001, the World Health Organization
43
(WHO) identified stigma and discrimination towards mentally ill
individuals as “the single most important barrier to overcome in
the community”, and the WHO’s Mental Health Global Action
Programme (mhGAP) cited advocacy against stigma and
discrimination as one of its four core strategies for improving
the state of global mental health.
What is Counseling Psychology
Counseling Psychology is a specialty within professional
psychology that maintains a focus on facilitating personal and
interpersonal functioning across the life span. The specialty
pays particular attention to emotional, social, vocational,
educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational
concerns.
The practice of Counseling Psychology encompasses a broad
range of culturally-sensitive practices that help people improve
their well-being, alleviate distress and maladjustment, resolve
crises, and increase their ability to function better in their lives.
With its attention to both to normal developmental issues and
problems associated with physical, emotional, and mental
disorders, the specialization holds a unique perspective in the
broader practice-based areas of psychology.
44
Counseling Psychologists serve persons of all ages and cultural
backgrounds in both individual and group settings. They also
consult regularly with organizations seeking to enhance their
effectiveness or the well-being of their members.
Interventions used by Counseling Psychologists may be either
brief or long-term; they are often problem-specific and goaldirected. These activities are guided by a philosophy that
values individual differences and diversity and a focus on
prevention, development, and adjustment across the life-span.
Counseling Psychologists adhere to the standards and ethics
established by the American Psychological Association.
What Is Psychosis?
Psychosis is a serious mental disorder characterized by
thinking and emotions that are so impaired, that they indicate
that the person experiencing them has lost contact with reality.
People who are psychotic have false thoughts (delusions)
and/or see or hear things that are not there (hallucinations).
These are referred to as “positive” symptoms; “negative”
symptoms like loss of motivation and social withdrawal can also
occur.
45
These experiences can be frightening and may cause people
who are suffering from psychosis to hurt themselves or others.
It is important to see a doctor right away if you or someone you
know is experiencing symptoms of psychosis.
Psychosis affects three out of every 100 people. It is most
likely to be diagnosed in young adults, but psychosis can
happen to anyone.
Part 2 of 12: Symptoms
Recognizing the Signs of Psychosis
Early stage psychosis:

difficulty concentrating

depressed mood

sleep changes—sleeping too much or not enough

anxiety

suspiciousness

withdrawal from family and friends

ongoing unusual thoughts and beliefs
46
Neurosis:
The term neurosis encompasses a variety of very common mental
health disorders. Neurosis is actually an outdated diagnosis that is no
longer used medically. The disorders that were once classified as a
neurosis are now more accurately categorized as neurotic disorders.
Disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic
disorder include post-traumatic stress disorder, somatization disorders,
anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, dissociation
disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder and adjustment disorder.
Disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder include a
wide variety of emotional and physical symptoms or
manifestations. Anxiety and fear are common symptoms to many
disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder. People
with disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder do not
have delusions or hallucination, which are symptoms of psychotic
disorders. However, disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic
disorder can negatively affect a person's ability to function effectively in
the activities of daily living, such as going to work and school, caring for
family, and taking care of basic needs. For more information on
symptoms, refer to symptoms of neurosis.
Making a diagnosis of disorders that are considered a neurosis
or neurotic disorder begins with taking a thorough medical history,
including symptoms, and completing a complete physical examination
47
and mental health exam. Tests may also be ordered to ensure that
symptoms are not related to other conditions, such
as hyperthyroidism or mitral valve prolapse, which both have symptoms
that can result in anxiety. An evaluation by a psychiatrist or other
licensed mental health provider is often necessary to aid in the diagnosis
and treatment of disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic
disorder.
It is possible that a diagnosis of disorders that are considered a neurosis
or neurotic disorder be missed or delayed because symptoms can be
vague, associated with other conditions, or because of the stigma
associated with mental illness. For more information on misdiagnosis,
refer to misdiagnosis of neurosis.
Treatment of neurosis varies depending on its severity of the condition,
and a person's medical and mental health history, age and lifestyle. For
more information on treatment, refer to treatment of neurosis. ...more »
Neurosis: Variety of mental disorders with self-awareness. More
detailed information about the symptoms, causes, and treatments of
Neurosis is available below.
Symptoms of Neurosis:
The severity and types of symptoms of disorders that are considered a
neurosis or neurotic disorder vary between the specific disorders and
from person to person.
48
Excessive anxiety and fear are common symptoms of and/or underlie
many disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder.
Other common symptoms include complaints of physical symptoms that
do not appear to have a medical cause. These may
include palpitations, rapid heart rate, hyperventilation, muscle
pain, abdominal pain, headache,numbness and tingling.
Symptoms of disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic
disorder generally are severe enough to result in difficulties with
interpersonal relationships. They can also result in such symptoms
as low self esteem, anger, irritability, obsessive thoughts, obsessive
behaviors, dependency and perfectionism.
Stress
What Is Stress?

What Are the Symptoms of Stress?

What Are the Consequences of Long-Term Stress?
Help Is Available for Stress


49
Stress affects us all. You may notice symptoms of stress when disciplining your
kids, during busy times at work, when managing your finances, or when coping with
a challenging relationship. Stress is everywhere. And while a little stress is OK --
some stress is actually beneficial -- too much stress can wear you down and make
you sick, both mentally and physically.
The first step to controlling stress is to know the symptoms of stress. But
recognizing stress symptoms may be harder than you think. Most of us are so used
to being stressed, we often don't know we are stressed until we are at the breaking
point.
What Is Stress?
Stress is the body's reaction to harmful situations -- whether they’re real or
perceived. When you feel threatened, a chemical reaction occurs in your body that
allows you to act in a way to prevent injury. This reaction is known as "fight-or-
flight,” or the stress response. During stress response, your heart begins to race,
breathing quickens, muscles tighten, and blood pressure rises. You’ve gotten ready
to act. It is how you protect yourself.
Stress means different things to different people. What causes stress in one person
may be of little concern to another. Some people are better able to handle stress
than others. And, not all stress is bad. In small doses, stress can help you
accomplish tasks and prevent you from getting hurt. For example, stress is what
gets you to slam on the breaks to avoid hitting the car in front of you. That's a good
thing.
Our bodies are designed to handle small doses of stress. But, we are not equipped
to handle long-term, chronic stress without ill consequences.
What Are the Symptoms of Stress?
Stress can affect all aspects of your life, including your emotions, behaviors, thinking
ability, and physical health. No part of the body is immune. But, because people
handle stress differently, symptoms of stress can vary. Symptoms can be vague and
may be the same as those caused by medical conditions. So it is important to
50
discuss them with your doctor. You may experience any of the following symptoms
of stress.
The following are some common signs of stress in different age groups.
Signs of stress in children and teens
Preschool and
toddlers
Anger

children

Being distrustful


Anxiety

Eating and
headaches or
sleeping problems,
stomachaches

including nightmares 
Fear of being 

alone
Irritability

Regressing to

fright

Trembling with
Distrust of the
world

Low self-esteem
Stomachaches
and headaches
Having trouble 

Panic attacks
Rebellion
Needing to
urinate frequently
Uncontrollable 
crying
Having no
Disillusionment

Feeling unloved
sleeping
infant behaviors



Anger
Complaining of
appetite


Preteens and teens
Elementary-age
Bed-wetting
Not caring
about school or
Withdrawal
friendship

Acting
withdrawn

Worrying about
the future
51
Relaxation Techniques That Zap Stress
Fast
By Jeannette Moninger
WebMD Feature
Reviewed by Michael W. Smith, MD
Relax. You deserve it, it's good for you, and it takes less time than you think.
You don't need a spa weekend or a retreat. Each of these stress-relieving tips can
get you from OMG to om in less than 15 minutes.
1. Meditate
A few minutes of practice per day can help ease anxiety. “Research suggests that
daily meditation may alter the brain’s neural pathways, making you more resilient to
stress,” says psychologist Robbie Maller Hartman, PhD, a Chicago health
and wellness coach.
It's simple. Sit up straight with both feet on the floor. Close your eyes. Focus your
attention on reciting -- out loud or silently -- a positive mantra such as “I feel at
peace” or “I love myself.” Place one hand on your belly to sync the mantra with your
breaths. Let any distracting thoughts float by like clouds.
2. Breathe Deeply
Take a 5-minute break and focus on your breathing. Sit up straight ,eyes closed,
with a hand on your belly. Slowly inhale through your nose, feeling the breath start
in your abdomen and work its way to the top of your head. Reverse the process as
you exhale through your mouth.
“Deep breathing counters the effects of stress by slowing the heart rate and
lowering blood pressure,” psychologist Judith Tut in, PhD, says. She's a certified life
coach in Rome, GA.
3. Be Present
Slow down.
52
“Take 5 minutes and focus on only one behavior with awareness,” Tut in says.
Notice how the air feels on your face when you’re walking and how your feet feel
hitting the ground. Enjoy the texture and taste of each bite of food.
When you spend time in the moment and focus on your senses, you should feel less
tense.
4. Reach Out
Your social network is one of your best tools for handling stress. Talk to others -preferably face to face, or at least on the phone. Share what's going on. You can
get a fresh perspective while keeping your connection strong.
5. Tune In to Your Body
Mentally scan your body to get a sense of how stress affects it each day. Lie on
your back, or sit with your feet on the floor. Start at your toes and work your way up
to your scalp, noticing how your body feels.
23 Scientifically-Backed Ways To
Reduce Stress Right Now
1. Try Progressive Relaxation All the way from fingers to toes-tense and then release each muscle group in the body (lower arm,
upper arm, chest, back and abdominals, etc.). Once the body is
relaxed, the mind will be soon to follow!
2. Try Some Light Yoga The combination of deep breathing
techniques and poses makes this activity work to reduce stress,
too.
53
3. Meditate The “mental silence” that goes along with meditation
may have positive effects on stress (especially work-related
stress).
4. Breathe Deep Taking a deep breath has been shown to lower
cortisol levels, which can help reduce stress and anxiety. Studies
suggest deep breathing can also cause a temporary drop in blood
pressure.
5. Spark Some Scents Studies suggest aromatherapy can be a
good way to relieve stress. Certain aromas (like lavender) have
been consistently shown to reduce stress levels.
6. Listen To Music Research points to multiple ways in which music
can help relieve stress, from triggering biochemical stress
reducers to assisting in treating stress associated with medical
procedures.
7. Laugh It Off Laughter can reduce the physical effects of
stress (like fatigue) on the body.
8. Drink Tea One study found that drinking black tea leads to lower
post-stress cortisol levels and greater feelings of relaxation.
9. Exercise That post-exercise endorphin rush is one way to
sharply cut stress.
10. Try Guided Visualization Visualizing a calm or peaceful
scene may help reduce stress and ease anxiety.
11. Join A Religious Community Surveys have shown a major
underlying reason people practice religion is for stress relief. One
study even found that college students who practiced a
religion were less stressed than their non-religious counterparts.
And other research suggests religious people are less likely to
experience stress-related mental illness.
54
12. Chew Gum Studies suggest the act of chewing gum can reduce
cortisol levels, helping to alleviate stress.
13. Get A Massage Getting a good ol’ rub down may do more than
alleviate physical pain. Studies suggest massage may also
be beneficial for fighting stress. It may also help improve body
image.
14. Try Self-Hypnosis Research suggests hypnosis can help reduce
anxiety. Plus, it’s a great self-mediated technique for stress-relief.
15. Talk About Sex, Baby Studies have shown sex can
actually decrease the physical symptoms of stress, like lowering
blood pressure.
16. Take A Nap Napping has been shown to reduce cortisol levels,
which aids in stress relief.
17. Hug It Out. Hugging may actually reduce blood pressure and
stress levels in adults.
18. Hang With Your Pet Or, as we’ve put it before, just get a
dog. Dog owners have been shown to be less stressed out -most likely thanks to having a buddy to cuddle.
19. Do An Art Project Art therapy can potentially reduce stressrelated behavior and symptoms.
20. Write It Out Keeping a journal may be one way to effectively
relieve stress-related symptoms due to its meditative and reflective
effects. A gratitude journal can really help us put things in
perspective, so pick a time every day to write down a few things
that make you happy.
21. Take A Walk A quiet, meditative stroll can do wonders for stress
relief, especially when we step outdoors. Try not to rush, and take
whatever pace feels most natural.
55
22. Kiss Someone! Research suggests kissing releases chemicals
that ease hormones associated with stress, like cortisol. Forming
positive relationships is also a key way to help reduce stress and
anxiety.
23. Don’t Write A List Of The Top 23 Ways To Reduce Stress!
learning
learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing,
existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may
involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is
possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time
tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory; it is
contextual. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is
shaped by what we already know. To that end, learning may be viewed
as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural
knowledge. Learning produces changes in the organism and the
changes produced are relatively permanent.[1]
Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development,
schooling, or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided
by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of educational
psychology, neuropsychology, learning theory, and pedagogy. Learning
may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in
many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such
56
as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals.[2][3]Learning may
occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an
aversive event can't be avoided nor escaped is called learned
helplessness.[4] There is evidence for human behavioral
learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as
32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is
sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very
early on in development.[5]
Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of
learning. Children experiment with the world, learn the rules, and learn
to interact through play. Lev Vygotskyagrees that play is pivotal for
children's development, since they make meaning of their environment
through play. 85 percent of brain development occurs during the first
five years of a child's life.[6]
57
Motivation
Definition
The following definitions of motivation were gleaned from a variety of
psychology textbooks and reflect the general consensus that motivation
is an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire,
or want) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction
(see Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981a).
internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it

direction;
desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior;
influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of


behavior.
Franken (2006) provides an additional component in his definition:
the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.

While still not widespread in terms of introductory psychology textbooks,
many researchers are now beginning to acknowledge that the factors
that energize behavior are likely different from the factors that provide
for its persistence.
Importance of motivation
Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the
performance of all learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will not
58
occur unless it is energized. The major question among psychologists,
in general, is whether motivation is a primary or secondary influence on
behavior. That is, are changes in behavior better explained by
principles of environmental/ecological influences, perception, memory,
cognitive development, emotion, explanatory style, or personality or are
concepts unique to motivation more pertinent.
For example, it is known that people respond to increasingly complex or
novel events (or stimuli) in the environment up to a point and then the
rate of responding decreases. This inverted-U-shaped curve of
behavior is well-known and widely acknowledged (e.g., Yerkes &
Dodson, 1908). However, the major issue is one of explaining this
phenomenon. Is this a conditioning (is the individual behaving because
of past classical or operant conditioning), another type of external
motivation such as social or ecological, an internal motivational process
(e.g., cognition, emotion, or self-regulation), or is there some better
explanation?
Explanations of influences/causes of arousal and direction may be
different from explanations of persistence
In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be
categorized as either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal
to the person). Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories can be
further subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental (i.e.,
cognitive/thinking, affective/emotional, conative/volitional) or
transpersonal/spiritual.
59
In current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward action
(i.e., they create a condition that is predisposed towards taking action or
making a change and moving in a certain direction; Franken, 2006).
Action or overt behavior may be initiated by either positive or negative
incentives or a combination of both. The following chart provides a brief
overview of the different sources of motivation (internal state) that have
been studied. While initiation of action can be traced to each of these
domains, it appears likely that initiation of behavior may be more related
to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs. pessimism; selfesteem; etc.) while persistence may be more related to conation
(volition) or goal-orientation.
Sources of Motivational Needs
behavioral/external
elicited by stimulus

associated/connected to innately
60
connected stimulus
obtain desired, pleasant

consequences (rewards) or
escape/avoid undesired, unpleasant
consequences
imitate positive models

acquire effective social competence
social

skills
be a part of a dyad, group, institution,

or community
increase/decrease stimulation

(arousal)
activate senses (taste, touch, smell,
biological

etc.
decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort,

etc.
maintain homeostasis, balance
maintain attention to something
cognitive


interesting or threatening
develop meaning or understanding

61
increase/decrease cognitive

disequilibrium; uncertainty
solve a problem or make a decision
figure something out


eliminate threat or risk

increase/decrease affective

dissonance
affective
increase feeling good

decrease feeling bad

increase security of or decrease

threats to self-esteem
maintain levels of optimism and

enthusiasm
meet individually developed/selected

goal
conative
obtain personal dream

develop or maintain self-efficacy
take control of one's life


eliminate threats to meeting goal,

62
obtaining dream
reduce others' control of one's life
spiritual
understand purpose of one's life
connect self to ultimate unknowns



Theories of motivation
Many of the theories of motivation address issues introduced previously
in these materials. The following provides a brief overview to any terms
or concepts that have not been previously discussed.
Behavioral
Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory
posits a primary factor in motivation. Classical conditioning states that
biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior
(Huitt & Hummel, 1997a). Operant learning states the primary factor
is consequences: the application of reinforcers provides incentives to
increase behavior; the application of punishers provides disincentives
that result in a decrease in behavior (Huitt & Hummel, 1997b).
Cognitive
There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to
the information processing approach to learning (Huitt, 2003b). These
63
approaches focus on the categories and labels people use to help
identify thoughts, emotions, dispositions, and behaviors.
One cognitive approach is attribution theory (Heider, 1958; Weiner,
1974). This theory proposes that every individual tries to explain
success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions."
These attributions are either internal or external and are either under
control or not under control. The following chart shows the four
attributions that result from a combination of internal or external locus of
control and whether or not control is possible.
What is Social Support?
Social support is the physical and emotional comfort given to us by our
family, friends, co-workers and others. It's knowing that we are part of a
community of people who love and care for us, and value and think well
of us. We all need people we can depend on during both the good
times and the bad. Maintaining a healthy social support network is hard
work and something that requires ongoing effort over time.
Forms of Social Support
Support can come in many different forms:
Emotional Support: This is what people most often think of when

they talk about social support. People are emotionally supportive
when they tell us that they care about us and think well of us. For
64
example, if you separated from your partner or lost your job, a
close friend might call every day for the first few weeks afterwards
just to see how you are doing and to let you know that he or she
cares.
Practical Help: People who care about us give us practical help

such as gifts of money or food, assistance with cooking, child
care, or help moving house. This kind of support helps us
complete the basic tasks of day-to-day life.
Sharing Points of View: Another way for people to help is to

offer their opinion about how they view a particular situation, or
how they would choose to handle it. In sharing points of view, we
can develop a better understanding of our situation and the best
way to handle it. For example, if you tell a friend about difficulties
you are having with your teenage son, she may offer a point of
view you hadn't considered, and this may help you to better
address the situation with your child.
Sharing Information: It can be very helpful when family, friends

or even experts give us factual information about a particular
stressful event. For example, a friend who recently married might
provide information about the cost of various components of their
wedding, or a cancer survivor might provide information about
what to expect from different types of cancer treatment.
65
Getting Your Support Needs Met
Many of the people who are a part of our lives can provide social
support. These can include our parents, spouse or partner, children,
siblings, other family members, friends, co-workers, neighbours, health
professionals and sometimes even strangers. We are unlikely to have all
of our support needs met by just one person. Also, different people may
be able to provide different types of support (e.g., our mother may be
great at helping with child care, and our best friend might give great
advice).
In general, the best support comes from the people we are closest to.
Research has shown that receiving support from people we have close
emotional ties to does more for our emotional and physical health than
support provided by people we are not particularly close to. For
example, having close friends listen and care for you during a stressful
time will likely do more for you than receiving the same support from
someone whom you don't know very well.
Social Support and Mental Illness
There is good evidence that social support plays an important role in
mental health or substance use problems. For example, people who are
clinically depressed report lower levels of social support than people
who are not currently depressed. Specifically, people coping with
depression tend to report fewer supportive friends, less contact with their
66
friends, less satisfaction with their friends and relatives, lower marital
satisfaction, and confide less in their partners. It is likely that lack of
social support and feelings of loneliness can make us more vulnerable
to the onset of mental health or substance use problems like
depression. However many of us will pull back from other people when
we are experiencing mental health or substance use problems. In this
way, mental health or substance use problems can lead to problems
with social support and aggravate our feelings of loneliness. For these
reasons, reconnecting with others in healthy, supportive ways is often an
important component of managing most mental health or substance use
problems.
Intimate relationships with a spouse or partner are particularly important
when it comes to well-being. For example, not having a close intimate
relationship (i.e., a spousal type relationship) puts us at risk for
depression. However, it isn't being unmarried (single, widowed, divorced,
etc.) that makes us vulnerable to depression, it's having a bad marriage!
This is particularly true for women. Unsupportive relationships with our
family (e.g., negative or overbearing attitudes and behaviours) have also
been related to the relapse of symptoms in both schizophrenia and
depression.
67