Download CHAPTER 16. BEHAVIORAL PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT I

CHAPTER 16. BEHAVIORAL PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
I.
PURPOSE AND TEACHING OBJECTIVES
To present the various theories of learning giving special attention to cognitive, behavioristic,
and social cognitive approaches; to explain the principles of reinforcement and punishment; to
analyze organizational reward systems giving special attention to monetary and nonfinancial
rewards; and finally, to give the steps and results of behavioral management.
II.
TEACHING NOTES AND REVIEW OUTLINE
A. A perfect theory of learning would have to be able to explain all aspects of learning
(how, when and why), have universal application, and predict and control learning
situations.
NOTES:
B. Behavioristic theories of learning are widely recognized and researched. The
classical behaviorists, such as Pavlov and Watson, attribute learning to the
connection between stimulus and response (S-R). The operant behaviorists, such as
Skinner, are concerned more with the role that consequences play in learning, that is,
the response-stimulus connection (R-S).
NOTES:
C. Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment measured the amount of saliva secreted
by a dog under several conditions. Using meat powder (unconditioned stimulus),
Pavlov noticed a great amount of saliva (unconditioned response) when the meat was
presented to the dog. Pavlov next accompanied the meat with the ringing of a bell.
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After several trials the dog salivated (conditioned response) to the bell alone
(conditioned stimulus).
NOTES:
D. Operant conditioning is concerned with learning that occurs as a consequence of
behavior. The stimulus situation, unlike classical conditioning, serves as a cue to
emit a behavior. In operant conditioning, reinforcement is presented only after the
correct response is given. Behavior is a function of its consequences.
NOTES:
E. A pioneering cognitive theorist, Edward Tolman felt that learning consisted of
relationships between cognitive environmental cues and expectations. He said that
reinforcement is not a precondition for learning to take place. This could be thought
of as a stimulus-stimulus connection (S-S).
1. Early industrial training programs attempted to strengthen the relationship
between cognitive cues and worker expectations.
2. Tolman’s work is the forerunner of some of the notions of modern social learning
theory.
3. The major thrust of the cognitive theories is concerned with purposefulness of
human behavior.
4. Today, cognitive sciences focus more on the structures and processes of human
competence (e.g., memory and information processing) rather than on the
acquisition and transition processes of learning theory explanations.
NOTES:
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F. Social learning and social cognitive theory combine and integrate both
behavioristic and cognitive concepts and emphasizes the interaction of cognitions,
environment and the behavior itself. There is a triangular reciprocal interaction.
Social learning theory is a behavioral theory but it goes beyond classical and operant
conditioning. Social learning theory posits that learning can take place via modeling
and self-control processes.
1. Modeling involves observational learning.
2. Bandura demonstrates that modeling takes place in two steps:
a. The person observes how others act and acquires a mental picture of the act
and its consequences.
b. The person acts out the behavior and responses to the received consequences:
if they are positive, the act will tend to be repeated. If they are negative, the
act will tend to not be repeated.
3. Social cognitive theory extends learning and/or modifying behavior by giving
more attention to the self-regulatory processes. Social cognitive theory identifies
five capabilities that people use to initiate, regulate and sustain their own
behavior:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
symbolizing;
forethought;
vicarious/modeling learning;
self-regulation; and
self-reflection.
4. Self-efficacy is more fully discussed in Chapter 9. People who believe they can
perform well on a task (high self-efficacy) do better than those who think they
will fail (low self-efficacy). Efficacy is a state which can be trained and
developed. Research indicates a strong relationship between self-efficacy and
work-related performance.
NOTES:
G. Reinforcement may be the most important and widely recognized principle of
learning. Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that reinforcing consequences will
increase the strength and frequency of behavior, and undesirable consequences will
decrease the strength and frequency of behavior.
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1. Reinforcement can be distinguished from reward, since reinforcement is
operationally defined as anything that increases the strength of response and
tends to induce repetitions of the behavior that preceded the reinforcement. A
reward is simply something that the person who presents it deems to be desirable.
NOTES:
H. Reinforcement (both positive and negative) and punishment play a central role in the
learning process. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative, but both
strengthen the response and increase the probability of repetition; punishment
weakens behavior and decreases the frequency of occurrence.
1. Positive reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the presentation
of a desirable consequence.
2. Negative reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the withdrawal
of an undesirable consequence.
3. Punishment weakens and decreases subsequent behavior by either the
application of an undesirable consequence or the withdrawal of a desirable
consequence that is normally in the person’s environment before the undesirable
behavior occurs.
a. Punishment tends to have only a temporary impact and can cause many
undesirable side effects such as hate and revenge. To minimize problems
associated with punishment a few guidelines can be followed:
-Provide an acceptable alternative to the behavior that is being punished.
-Administer the punishment closely following the undesirable behavior.
-Remember that there is also an effect on the relevant others whom are
observing the punishment.
b. Managers should attempt to reinforce instead of punish when possible. The
use of reinforcement is usually more effective for increasing desirable
behavior than the use of punishment is for decreasing undesirable behavior
because reinforcement has more of a lasting impact and has no bad side
effects.
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4. Critiques of reinforcement theory: some researchers have suggested that
external consequences (rewards) have a negative impact on intrinsic motivation.
A recent meta-analysis, however, indicate that the design of programs, not the
underlying theory of reinforcement, cause problems.
NOTES:
I.
There are two major classes of rewards: monetary and nonfinancial.
1. Money is a complex potential reinforcer (as further discussed in Chapter 5).
Recent studies indicated that pay increases alone do little or nothing to increase
performance. However, in addition to its economic value, money has
tremendous symbolic meaning.
2. In order for money to be an effective reinforcer, it must be administered
contingently on the exhibition of critical performance behavior.
3. Nonfinancial rewards may or may not cost the organization. Social recognition
and attention, job design, and objective performance feedback categories of
nonfinancial rewards do not cost the organization anything and may be even
more powerful than the monetary and cost-based nonfinancial rewards. For
example, objective performance feedback, which is positive, immediate,
graphic and specific (PIGS), enhances individual performance. However, the
effectiveness of feedback may depend on the nature of the information and the
task, the source, and individual differences among the recipients of the feedback.
NOTES:
J.
Organizational behavior modification (O.B. Mod.) is a behavioral approach to the
management of human resources for performance improvement and can be portrayed
as a five-step problem solving model.
1. Step one involves the identification of critical behaviors. These behaviors are
those that make a significant impact on performance — the 5-10 percent of the
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behaviors that account for up to 70-80 percent of the performance. Critical
behaviors may be identified by a person(s) closest to the job, like the immediate
supervisor or the job holder. Another approach would be to conduct a systematic
behavioral audit which involves job analysis and uses specialists. For a behavior
to be identified as a critical behavior it must be able to be measured and it must
have a direct impact on performance.
2. The next step involves measuring the behaviors. A baseline frequency is
obtained by counting the number of times the behavior occurs under existing
conditions (the so-called baseline). Measurement also occurs after the
intervention as well to note changes occurring because of the intervention.
3. After identification and measurement of the behaviors, a functional analysis is
performed (A-B-C). A is the antecedent cue, B is the behavior, and C is the
contingent consequence. Both the antecedent cues that emit the behavior and the
consequences that maintain and reinforce the behavior must be identified before
an effective intervention can be designed. The functional analysis often reveals
that there are many competing contingencies for behavior. Thus, it is important
to identify only the contingent consequences (those that the identified and
measured behaviors depend upon).
4. The goal of the intervention strategy is to strengthen and accelerate functional
performance behaviors and/or weaken and decelerate dysfunctional behaviors.
There are two major strategies:
a. Positive reinforcement. This represents a form of positive control of
behavior; it is more effective and long lasting than negative control. This
involves the application of a positive consequence following functional
performance behavior.
b. Punishment/positive reinforcement. Punishment can be used to weaken
and decelerate dysfunctional behaviors. Importantly, however, punishment
should never be used alone but always be combined with positive
reinforcement. Reasons for this include the fact that punished behavior tends
to be only temporarily suppressed, that it may have a disastrous side effect,
and it is difficult for a supervisor to switch roles from punisher to positive
reinforcer.
5. The last step of O.B. Mod. or behavior management involves a systematic
evaluation of performance improvement. There are four levels of evaluation:
a. The reaction level refers to whether people administering and experiencing
the behavioral management approach like it. Positive reactions help ensure
organizational support, provide information for future programs, and provide
useful comparative data between units and across time.
b. The second level of evaluation is learning. This helps answer the question
of whether people using behavioral management know why they are using it.
c. The third level is aimed at behavioral change; that is, are the performancerelated behaviors actually changing?
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d. The fourth level is performance improvement which is the overriding
purpose of behavioral management. This step is important, since behavioral
change may not necessarily reflect performance improvement.
NOTES:
K. A number of studies have assessed the application of behavioral techniques on
improving performance in a variety of areas. A meta-analysis by Stajkovic and
Luthans reported in the summer 1997 issue of the Academy of Management Journal
found an average 17 percent increase in performance when using O. B. Mod. The
results are generally supportive in the following areas:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Employee productivity/performance improvement
Absenteeism and tardiness
Safety and accident prevention
Sales performance
NOTES:
L. Wrap-Up: Learning is a major psychological process that has been largely neglected
in organizational behavior. However, the effective administration of reinforcement
and punishment may be one of the most critical challenges facing modern human
resource management. O.B. Mod. or behavioral performance management
represents an applied, behavioral approach to human resource management rather
than just an internal, cognitively-based motivational approach. Behavioral
performance management is, however, only one approach to human resource
management. The research and real-world applications of behavioral performance
management have been very supportive of its effectiveness in increasing the quality
and quantity of employee performance.
NOTES:
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III.
HINTS FOR INTERNET EXERCISE: Applying Behavior Management Principles
to Athletic Performance
1.
What specific reinforcers drive the behavior and resulting performance of the athletes in
the sport you chose?
A review of the PGA site indicates top golfers receive financial rewards (prize money,
endorsements, etc), public recognition (celebrity and fame), and feedback from the game
itself (that feeling when the golfer knows he is playing well) and even after every shot.
2.
How might the reinforcers be different for college versus professional athletes?
College athletes can also be reinforced via the same methods as pro athletes (e.g.,
scholarships, popularity on campus, etc.) although the reinforcers that impact college
athletes may also be based on delayed gratification (e.g., hopes of turning pro in the
future to gain more direct financial rewards).
3.
How could a coach effectively use behavioral management? Give some specific
examples by sport.
A coach of any sport could use positive reinforcement to encourage attendance at
practice, proper execution of drills, and positive displays of leadership and teamwork.
IV.
STUDENT INVOLVEMENT EXERCISES
1. Assign the students (as individuals or groups) to discuss the following:
Learning Theory: Cognitive vs. Behavioristic
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Have them define, discuss and give practical examples and implications to HRM of
their assigned learning theory/concepts.
2. Have two teams formally debate the following:
Money vs. Social Recognition for Behavioral Performance Management
Have the teams present examples and get into a spirited debate with opening
statements and at least one rebuttal and then a closing statement. Pick the winner for
a small prize or bonus points.
3. Have the students apply the five step O.B. Mod. model. After reading and
understanding the chapter, have each student identify a behavior of someone (e.g., a
roommate, spouse, child, or preferably someone who works for them) that they
would like to change. Have them measure it (you may want to have them show
evidence of the charting), functionally analyze it, and try an intervention (preferably
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a simple feedback and/or social recognition strategy to accelerate a desirable
behavior). The evaluation could be written-up in a brief report and/or discussed in
class at a later date.
V.
HINTS FOR CASE DISCUSSION
Real Case: Rewarding Big Time for Failure
1.
What is your reaction to these severance packages? Can you justify them?
This is a personal reaction, but they seem to be very counter to what reinforcement theory
would suggest.
2.
How do these examples fit with reinforcement theory and behavioral management
discussed in this chapter?
The instances described in this case illustrate the use of positive reinforcement for an
undesired outcome, which will serve to strengthen the frequency of the undesired
outcome (i.e., the CEO who receives a huge severance check after performing poorly
may repeat the same pattern of poor behavior in his next position). In these instances,
pay is not contingent upon successful performance.
3.
Using the O.B. Mod. model as a point of reference, what would you propose to be a fair
contract for a CEO of a major corporation? Is this realistic at this level of management?
To use O.B. Mod., it would be necessary to identify critical CEO behaviors (e.g.,
developing strategic vision, inspiring others to achieve that vision) and provide
reinforcers to strengthen the frequencies of those desired critical behaviors. Tasks at the
CEO level are more complex, and more difficult to observe and measure. The underlying
theory of O.B. Mod. would still be valid, just more difficult to practically apply.
Organizational Behavior Case: Contrasting Styles
This case shows the impact that various learning processes and principles can have on leadership
or supervisory styles.
1.
Both of these supervisors have similar backgrounds. On the basis of learning theory, how
can you explain their opposite approaches to handling people?
Each supervisor has probably been reinforced for their different approaches to
management. One has seen the immediate affect of negative control through the use of
punishment and negative reinforcement while the other, Jane, has seen the desirable
consequences of her own behaviors under a positive, reward-centered work environment.
2.
What are some of the examples of punishment, positive reinforcement, and negative
reinforcement found in this case? If Jane is using a reinforcement approach, how do you
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explain this statement, “I don’t believe in that human relations stuff of being nice to
workers.”
Henry: Coming down hard on them whenever they make a mistake (punishment), giving
them heck (punishment).
Jane: Recognition and attention when workers do a good job (reinforcement), pointing
out mistakes and then subsequent reinforcement when they do things correctly
(punishment/positive reinforcement). Jane is using an intermittent schedule of
reinforcement based on the fact that she does not give attention to everyone all the time,
but tries to “get around to people” once in a while.
Jane can be correct in the quote: The human relations approach should not be equated
with a reinforcement approach. Contingent reinforcement for desirable behavior is quite
different from noncontingently being nice to people.
3.
How do you explain the performance, turnover, and quality results in these two sections
of the production department?
The higher turnover, etc. in Henry’s department is a function of the use of a negatively
controlled environment not a positive reinforcement centered environment as is the case
with Jane. Henry’s approach may get short-term productivity results but the human costs
(turnover) and quality will probably suffer.
Organizational Behavior Case: Volunteers Can’t Be Punished
This case is an example of the problems in volunteer organizations. Volunteers are different and
the organization cannot rely upon punishment-centered approaches. This case is true and is not
uncommon in volunteer organizations.
1.
What advice would you give Jenette? In terms of reinforcement theory, explain what is
happening here and what Jenette needs to do to get the meetings started on time.
Jenette should reinforce those who get to the meetings on time by starting the meeting on
time. Group members that did get to the meeting on time, initially, were punished when
they had to wait for other members. By starting the meeting on time, this problem could
be averted.
2.
What learning theories (operant, cognitive, and/or social) could be applied to Jenette’s
efforts to teach her volunteers the impact of new laws and changes in state and federal
policies and procedures?
This is designed as an open ended discussion question and each of the theories can be
used to teach her people.
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3.
How could someone like Jenette use modeling to train her staff to do a more effective
job?
Through the use of behavioral modeling, Jenette could set an example of effective
management for her work staff or she could follow the steps for a modeling training
strategy.
Organizational Behavior Case: Up the Piece Rate
This case is an example of the difficulties that sometimes occur when a supervisor uses O.B.
Mod. In this case, a successful O.B. Mod. program is threatened by upper level management
raising the incentive rates on workers that have increased their performance under an O.B. Mod.
program.
1.
Do you think Larry’s boss, the department head, attended the O.B. Mod. program?
Analyze the department head’s action in terms of O.B. Mod.
No, he/she obviously does not understand O.B. Mod. principles. The incentive change
will lead to a punishing situation for the employees for increasing performance.
Subsequent behaviors will be directed toward not increasing performance.
2.
What do you think Larry’s reaction will be now and in the future? How do you think
Larry’s people will react?
Both Larry and his people have not been reinforced for performance improvements. One
could probably expect to see a little performance improvement in the future.
3.
Given the 10 percent increase in standards, is there any way that Larry could still use the
O.B. Mod. approach with his people? With his boss? How?
Yes, he could bargain with his boss to share productivity increases. Larry could reinforce
his employees with nonmonetary reinforcements for performance improvements, maybe
with time off, etc. He could reinforce (with praise, feedback and attention) the behaviors
of his boss that he wants increased.
Organizational Behavior Case: A Tardiness Problem
This case attempts to apply O.B. Mod. to a specific problem area.
1.
Trace through the five steps in the O.B. Mod. model to show how it could be applied to
this tardiness problem. Make sure you are specific in identifying the critical performance
behaviors and the antecedents and consequences of the functional analysis.
Step One: Identify critical behavior; late start of job (operationally define as x number
of minutes late or actually working).
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Step Two: Measure frequency of late starts per day.
Step Three: Functional analysis; antecedents such as transportation problems, school,
children, etc.; consequences such as escape for a few moments from a dull and
boring job or socializing with friends, etc.
Step Four: Intervention strategy; attention and specific charted feedback for starting on
time (this is an example where there are multiple solutions).
Step Five: Evaluate; has the intervention led to a reduction in the number of late starts.
If tardiness has indeed been reduced, has it led to an increase in performance?
2.
Do you think the approach you have suggested in your answer will really work? Why or
why not?
This is a discussion question, no one correct answer.
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